HYBRID ENERGY TRANSFER LINE WITH LIQUID HYDROGEN AND SUPERCONDUCTING MGB 2 CABLE FIRST EXPERIMENTAL PROOF OF CONCEPT
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON APPLIED SUPERCONDUCTIVITY, VOL. 23, NO. 3, JUNE 2013 5400906
Hybrid Energy Transfer Line With Liquid Hydrogen
and Superconducting MgB2 Cable First
Experimental Proof of Concept
V. S. Vysotsky, Senior Member, IEEE, A. A. Nosov, S. S. Fetisov, G. G. Svalov, V. V. Kostyuk,
E. V. Blagov, I. V. Antyukhov, V. P. Firsov, B. I. Katorgin, and A. L. Rakhmanov
(Invited Paper)
Abstract The tr ansfer of massive amounts of both electr ical production. It may be applied to hydropower stations as well.
and chemical power over long distances will present a major Speaking on green energy, the world-wide deployment of new
challenge for the global ener gy enter pr ise in the future. Attr action forms of the electricity generation such as wind, geothermal or
of hydrogen is apparent as a chemical ener gy agent, possessing
among the highest ener gy density content of var ious common fuels, solar cannot occur without a renewed investment in the energy
whose combustive waste is simply water. It could be tr ansfer red transmission infrastructures. New connections should be built
via cr yogenic tubes being liquid at temper atures 18 26 K. The to link areas with vast potential to deliver the energy to the areas
usage of gr atis cold to cool a superconducting cable made of a that have demands for power. Different energy carriers could be
proper superconductor per mits to deliver extr a electr ical power used: oil, gas, and certainly electricity.
with the same line. In this paper, we descr ibe the exper imental
modeling of this concept via a combined MgB2 -cr yogenic dc super- The problem of the power transfer in the amounts of few
conducting cable refr iger ated by singlet phase liquid hydrogen. GWs and more is discussing for many years. One of the
We present the design, constr uction details, and test results of a initial discussions returns us back far to 1967 and consider
10-m prototype, focusing on choice of MgB2 cable and cr yostat low-Tc superconductors (LTS) [1]. A few LTS high power
technologies. We also discuss the oppor tunities and possibilities superconducting cables based on Nb3Sn has been developed
for future pr actical deployment of such hybr id ener gy deliver y
systems. [2] [4] and tested in the end of 70-ties early 80-ties. Anyway
the AC cables put into effect a delivery only for distance up to
Index Terms Ener gy tr ansmission, liquid hydrogen, MgB2 , 35 40 km from over rising of the reactive power.
superconducting cables.
Superconductivity is the choice for the electricity transmis-
sion by DC cables. Absence of any losses except for cooling
I. I NTRODUCTION
makes DC superconductivity very effective. It was also dis-
T HE ENERGY transmission from a production site to the
place of its consuming is as much important task as
just energy production itself. Very often the energy production
cussed for a long time starting from [1] and later, for example in
[5]. One of the most extensive reviews of the previous projects
of the AC and DC cable may be found in [6].
facilities are located faraway from densely populated areas. The discovery of high temperature superconducting (HTS)
It can apply to both nuclear and future thermonuclear energy materials has inspired new developments for energy trans-
mission by means of superconducting cables. It is generally
Manuscript received October 5, 2012; accepted January 3, 2013. Date of acknowledged that superconducting power cables are the most
publication January 9, 2013; date of current version January 30, 2013. This advanced HTS applications and they are practically near the
study was performed in the framework of the program Basic Principles of commercialization. Up to now the biggest HTS AC power cable
Development of Power Systems and Technologies, Including High Temperature
Superconductors supported by the Presidium of the Russian Academy of is 600 m in length and has rated power about 570 MWA [7].
Sciences. Nevertheless, in the future power transmission demands
V. S. Vysotsky, A. A. Nosov, S. S. Fetisov, and G. G. Svalov are with
Russian Scienti c R&D Cable Institute, 111024 Moscow, Russia (e-mail:
could be more than tenths of GW. The discussions about such
vysotsky@ieee.org). power grids renewed again with HTS discovery, see for exam-
V. V. Kostyuk is with Russian Academy of Science, 119991 Moscow, Russia. ple [6]. The similar issues were discussed during symposium
E. V. Blagov is with the Institute of Nanotechnology for Microelec-
tronics, Russian Academy of Sciences, 119991 Moscow, Russia (e-mail:
[8]. One of ideas that were in the wind for a long time is to
blagovev@mail.ru). use the liquid hydrogen both as a cryogen and as an extra fuel
I. V. Antyukhov, V. P. Firsov, and B. I. Katorgin are with Moscow to provide a very high ow of the energy. This led to the idea
Aviation Institute-Technical University, 125993 Moscow, Russia (e-mail:
rsovval@mail.ru). of a super-grid [9] that is more attractive as the necessity to
A. L. Rakhamnov is with Institute of Theoretical and Applied Electrodynam- use of hydrogen in the power energetics and for other purposes
ics of RAS, 125412 Moscow, Russia (e-mail: alrakhmanov@mail.ru). becomes a rather popular point of view.
Color versions of one or more of the gures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. We have to acknowledge that the concept of the dual delivery
Digital Object Identi er 10.1109/TASC.2013.2238574 of chemical and electrical power employing just MgB2 wire
1051-8223/$31.00 2013 IEEE
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5400906 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON APPLIED SUPERCONDUCTIVITY, VOL. 23, NO. 3, JUNE 2013
TABLE I
P ROPERTIES OF M OST C OMMON S UPERCONDUCTORS
cooled by liquid hydrogen through a single cable corridor was insert a cable inside a cryogenic line and connect to
rst mentioned by P.M. Grant as early as 2001 2002 [10], [11], cryogenic system and electric grid;
very shortly after MgB2 has been discovered in January 2001. deliver it to a test facility equipped with a liquid hydrogen
This concept has been termed as hydricity after hydrogen + supply;
electricity . Later in a lot of papers, both popular and peer- make tests.
reviewed, the problems of the hybrid energy delivery were Here we are presenting the detailed data on the supercon-
discussed using a hydricity concept [12] [19]. ducting wire and cable which were used, and the test results of
Combusting hydrogen as a fuel would be the optimal choice. the prototype of a hybrid energy transfer line. The details of the
It has highest fuel ef ciency among others 120 MJ/kg. It cryogenic system were presented earlier in [24]; the earliest test
could be transferred in a liquid state through a long cryogenic results presented in [25].
transferring line to place of consuming. We have to note that
liquid hydrogen is the best cryogen having the cooling capacity
II. C HOICE OF S UPERCONDUCTOR
446 kJ/kg against 20.3 kJ/kg for LHe and 199 kJ/kg for LN2 .
Thus, the idea to place into a transfer line with liquid hydrogen The most common superconductors that are used in applica-
a superconducting cable to transmit the electricity in parallel is tions and are available at the market are listed in the Table I.
quite natural. Besides references mentioned, this idea has been The liquid hydrogen has temperature 20 K at atmospheric
discussed in [20] [22] as well. pressure. Thus it is out of the question to use common LTS
The question is what kind of superconductor should be used superconductors. The choice should be done between supercon-
for the cable in a hydrogen energy transfer line. It was shown ductors that can work at LH2 . They are either HTS or MgB2 .
that an optimal choice could be recently discovered MgB2 with HTS of both generations (1G and 2G) are freely available at the
a critical temperature of 39 K [20]. market. But considering the price (see the Table I) and the good
To conclude, there are a lot of theoretical and simulation superconducting properties including the high stability at 20 K
works discussing possible hybrid energy transfer lines using [26], the MgB2 is the preferable choice for a system with liquid
liquid hydrogen both as a fuel and cryogen, and a supercon- hydrogen.
ducting power cable to deliver extra electrical energy [8] [23]. Only two companies are selling MgB2 wires right now:
Nevertheless no any experimental works have been performed Hyper Tech Research Inc. in Columbus, Ohio, USA [27] and
so far to proof this concept. In our work we took the challenge to Columbus Superconductor (CS) SpA in Genoa, Italy [28].
perform the experimental study of hybrid energy transmission. The rst company offers MgB2 wires that should be heat
The major goals of our work were: treated after the making a device. Assuredly they are good
To learn how to work with LH2 ; for any winding and magnets, but de nitely are not suitable
To get the rst experimental data about hybrid energy for the long cables. It is dif cult to imagine heat treatment of
transport systems with LH2 and superconductivity. long cable with 100 200 m length that could be bending and
unbending after heat treatment. On the other hand, the CS offers
To succeed in these goals we had to: long length wires that can be used without heat treatment. The
choose the proper superconductor: that is surely MgB2 ; shape of the wires is varying from round and quadratic wires to
check characteristics of MgB2, its manufacturability and different at tapes [28].
how to work with it; Recently we developed the technology for HTS power cables
design and make a superconducting cable with it; made of at HTS tapes [29]. That is why for this project we
develop and manufacture a liquid hydrogen cryogenic also decided to use at tape to employ the same cabling and
line; insulation technology as for HTS power cables.
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VYSOTSKY et al.: HYBRID ENERGY TRANSFER LINE W/ LIQUID HYDROGEN AND SUPERCONDUCTING MgB2 CABLE 5400906
Fig. 1. Dependence of critical current on magnetic eld at different tempera-
tures for the at MgB2 wire used in our experiment [28]. Cross-section of the
wire is shown.
The selected tape and its critical current dependence on eld
and temperature obtained from [28] are shown in Fig. 1. The
Fig. 2. MgB2 cable design: (a) sketch of cross-section with sizes shown;
cross section of the wire is: 3.64 mm 0.65 mm; MgB2 cross (b) 3D view of cable; (c) cross-section of a cable; and (d) photo of the cable
section 12% of total area; cross section of copper 15% of model.
total area. The minimum diameter of bending with no degrada-
tion of critical current speci ed by CS is 110 mm.
As there were no speci c data about critical currents at
20 K in self eld for the wire selected we used some extrapo-
lation of data from CS shown in Fig. 1, that returned expected I c
(20 K) 520 540 A. This value was used for the preliminary
design of the cable. Later we performed measuring of I c(T )
for this wire and found that there is some scattering of I c along
wires and evaluated the in uence of scattering on the current of
a cable [29]. Anyway the preliminary estimation returned fair
result for the cable current evaluation.
Fig. 3. Cable production illustrations: (a) pay off wires from a cabling
machine and (b) cable on a take up drum.
III. C ABLE D ESIGN AND P RODUCTION
ness of 1 mm allowed the cable to operate in principle at
The design of a prototype of a superconducting MgB2 cable voltages more than 20 kV. In Fig. 2 are shown: the sketch of
consists of three elements: a former, current carrying layers cross section of the cable with all sizes (Fig. 2(a)), 3D view
and insulation (Fig. 2(a)). The former is a central element that of the cable (Fig. 2(b)); cross-section (Fig. 2(c)) and photo of
performed the supporting function. It consists of: the MgB2 cable model (Fig. 2(d)). The cable had a length about
the main supporting stainless steel spiral that formed a 10 m. At one end both current layers were connected by
12 mm diameter internal channel for the ow of liquid jumpers to provide the returning current. Thus, the total length
hydrogen; of the current carrying element considering the two layers
twisted winding of copper wires with a total cross section assembly was 20 m. We expected that the critical current of
suf cient to ensure reliable protection of the supercon- the cable could be 2.5 3 kA at temperature 20 K.
ducting current carrying layer in case of short circuit The cable has been manufactured with the standard cabling
fault; equipment in JSC VNIIKP and with the technology devel-
copper tapes winding providing a smooth outer surface oped for HTS power cable production [29]. Some illustrations
of the former for assembling the superconducting MgB2 from the cable manufacturing process are shown in Fig. 3.
tapes which are the main current carrying layer. After production the cable has been delivered to the Moscow
The superconducting current carrying path consists of two Aviation Institute to be installed into a cryostat.
serially connected layers; each of them consists of ve MgB2
tapes helically wound on the former. The number of tapes has
IV. H YBRID E NERGY T RANSMISSION L INE
been selected to ensure the maximum current not more than
3 kA inasmuch as DC power supplies limited us by this current. The Hybrid Energy Transmission Line (HETL) has been
The insulation consists of 20 layers of a polyimide (Kapton) described in details in [24], [25]. It consists of a long hydrogen
tape with the thickness of 50 m. The total insulation thick- cryostat with 12 m length, a system for liquid hydrogen
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5400906 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON APPLIED SUPERCONDUCTIVITY, VOL. 23, NO. 3, JUNE 2013
Fig. 4. Sketch of the HETL experimental test facility: (1) former; (2) current carrying superconductors; (3) outer tube of cryostat; (4) current leads; (5) inner
tube of the cryostat; (6) polyimide insulation; (7) layered super-insulation; (8) current jumpers; (9) liquid hydrogen storage tank; (10) lling, pressure busting and
drainage systems; (11) level meter and temperature sensors; (12) liquid hydrogen 12 m transfer line; (13) bayonet connectors ? = 32 mm; (14) drainage 4 m
exible line ? = 32 mm; (15) jet nozzle ? = 4 mm; (16) drainage exible line ? = 32 mm; L 12 m, is the total length of the cryostat with current leads, the
length of the cable is 10 m.
Fig. 5. Current leads for the superconducting cable of the HETL: (1) current
pathway; (2) insulating polyimide tube with outer bandages; (3) load bear-
ing support; (4) connectors to join cable; (5) getter; (6) measuring probes;
(7) connections of exible copper bunches and superconductors; (8) mount-
ing part. Fig. 6. General view of the HETL installed at the test facility: (1) current
leads; (2) cryostat; (3) inlet part; and (4) mounting frame.
supplying and an experiment control unit to control parameters
of pressure, ow and temperature. polyimide insulating tubes with an outer banding and
The cryostat for the liquid hydrogen transfer at 20 30 K welded edges made from stainless steel anges (2);
simultaneously ensures cryostating of the MgB2 cable for the a load bearing support to provide the rigidity of the
transfer of the electricity and the ow of LH2 as a fuel. insulating tube (3);
The cryostat (Fig. 4) consist of an outer shell (3) with connectors of current pathways (4) with exible copper
diameter D 4 = 80 mm, a vacuum thermal insulation (7) and bunches and superconductors (7);
an inner cryostat shell (5) with diameter D 3 = 40 mm. There joints to the cable from power supplies.
were 6 sections of the cryostat to provide the safe work in case At the inlet and outlet of the HETL two sets of measuring
of vacuum loss in one of sections. probes have been installed to measure pressure and temperature
The current leads (terminations) are shown in Fig. 5. The of the liquid hydrogen ow.
current lead consists of: The HETL was mounted on the rigid frame with 10.2 m
a vessel formed by inner and outer shells with diameters length and 0.8 m width. The cantilevers of the frame provided
270 mm and 370 mm correspondingly; vertical stability of current leads that have 1.26 m height. The
exible copper current pathways with 600 mm2 cross- total height of the HETL was 2.48 m. General view of the HETL
section (1); installed at the test facility is shown in Fig. 6.
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VYSOTSKY et al.: HYBRID ENERGY TRANSFER LINE W/ LIQUID HYDROGEN AND SUPERCONDUCTING MgB2 CABLE 5400906
Fig. 7. General view of the control monitor during tests.
V. T EST R ESULTS
Fig. 8. Typical V I characteristics of MgB2 cable at different temperatures.
The experiments with the prototype of the hybrid power
transmission line with forced ow of liquid hydrogen were
carried out in November 2011. They were performed at the
special facility intended for testing oxygen-hydrogen liquid
propellant rocket engines with liquid hydrogen production plant
of the KB Khimavtomatika (Voronezh City). The detailed
results of the cryogenic tests are presented in [24].
The total cooling time was 380 s. To cool the system
2.3 kg of LH2 was used. The evaluated heat losses were below
10 2 W/m, the current lead losses at 2600 A were 300 W.
The variations of temperature during measurements were from
20 K to 26 K, pressure was from 0.12 MPa to 0.5 MPa.
For electrical measurements the three parallel power supplies
Agilent 6680 A were used. Current has been measured by
a standard 7500 A 75 mV shunt. The output signal from
the shunt and voltages from the voltage taps of the cable Fig. 9. Measured dependence of critical current on temperature of MgB2
were measured by a multichannel digital analyzing oscilloscope cable.
Yokogawa DL 850. The operation of current sources and os-
cilloscope was remotely controlled via special communication In Fig. 9 is shown the sum of currents of ve wires from
lines. extrapolation to zero eld data in Fig. 1. The evaluation of
The current carrying characteristics of the MgB2 cable were critical current by averaging its non-uniformity along a wire
recorded at the liquid hydrogen temperatures within 20 26 K, from [30] for ve wires is presented also. One can see the good
with the pressure (as mentioned above) in the interval from 0.12 coincidence of all data that con rm good state of the cable after
to 0.5 MPa, and the mass ow rates in the range from 18 g/s to the industrial manufacturing process.
250 g/s. The pressure drop at 250 g/s did not exceed 28 kPa. The
variation of a temperature along a cable was from 0.2 to 0.8 K
VI. D ISCUSSION AND F UTURE P LANS
depending on the hydrogen ow rate. The conditions of cooling
mean that the liquid phase of subcooled LH2 under pressure With LH2 ow 250 g/s achieved in our cryostat, the energy
was without bubbles. The view of the main control monitor transfer line would deliver 31 MW of chemical power. Su-
during experiments is shown in Fig. 7. perconducting cable at 2.5 kA and 20 kV prospective voltages
The critical current I c(T ) at a given temperature T was would be able to deliver extra 50 MW, so 80 MW in total with
de ned as the current for which the electric eld between only 5 MgB2 tapes.
the voltage taps amounted to 1 V/cm. The temperature, the As it is seen in Fig. 2 it is easy to add at least ten tapes more to
pressure, and the ow rate of liquid hydrogen in the line were our current carrying layers that will increase the transport cur-
monitored simultaneously with the measurement of voltage on rent threefold and corresponding electrical power to 150 MW
the internal and external current layers of the cable. and the total power to 180 MW. The cross section of our
Fig. 8 shows typical experimental plots of voltagesV on energy line is about 50 cm2 only. Therefore the prototype of
the current carrying layers against current I (voltage-current the tested hybrid energy transfer line has potential to deliver a
characteristic). The measurements of critical current were per- power more than 100 150 MW with power ow density more
formed at low voltages up to 3 V. The values of critical than p 3 106 W/cm2 .
currents determined from these plots amounted to 2640 A at The rst thread of the North Stream (gas pipeline
T = 20:4 K and 2020 A at T = 25:7 K. Fig. 9 shows the cor- from Russia to Europe via Baltic sea) has to deliver 27:5
responding dependence of the critical current on temperature. 109 m3 =year of natural gas. This means 870 m3 =s and
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5400906 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON APPLIED SUPERCONDUCTIVITY, VOL. 23, NO. 3, JUNE 2013
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