Human: Machine, Ape or Dolphin?
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
A R T I C L E
.29
Human: Machine, Ape or Dolphin?
Gary P. Hampson
Southern Cross University
Australia
Abstract
"Deep" metaphors can be seen to underlie "surface" reality. By becoming conscious of these, we are in a
better position to see what possible futures they point to. We are also able to choose alternative metaphors that
align more readily with our preferred futures. "Human as machine" and "human as ape" are metaphors that can
be seen to uphold the dominant Western worldview. It is proposed here that through embracing a different
metaphor – "human as dolphin" – a culturally transformative process would be facilitated.
1. Introduction working with the imagination;
visioning positive futures;
"We all need to become more creative and agile in taking the long view; and
our imaginations in order not to accept passively the so- addressing ethics and ethical development.
called inevitable trends of dehumanised futures." (Gidley This process can also be positioned within an
2000: 244) understanding of different levels of futures work, such
"Increasing interest in the role of imagination in the as those categorised by Richard Slaughter. In order of
creation of present and future realities relies to a high increasing depth, these are: pop futurism, problem-
degree on the use of metaphor." (Judge 2000) focused futures study, critical futures study, and episte-
Futures studies looks at "what potential futures mological futures study. (Slaughter 1999: 248) This cate-
may lie ahead – be they possible, plausible, probable or gorization parallels the four levels in Sohail Inayatullah's
preferable." (Voros 2003) Unlike other possibilities, Causal Layered Analysis method. The first three – in
preferable futures is intrinsically normative, requiring us order of increasing depth – are: the litany layer, the
to think of what we actually want. This is clearly a highly social layer and the structural layer. (Inayatullah 2000)
relevant approach given the extent of the global prob- "The fourth layer of analysis is at the level of metaphor
lematique. We need to take a step back, clearly see or myth. These are the deep stories, the collective
what is happening and understand why. In addition, we archetypes, the unconscious, of often emotive, dimen-
need to have a clear vision of where we want to go and sions of the problem or the paradox... This level pro-
how to get there. We need to do less "futures scanning" vides a gut/emotional level experience to the worldview
and more "futures building". (Bussey 2002) under inquiry." (Inayatullah 2000)
This active, emancipatory process embraces a This paper attempts to address this deepest level,
number of overlapping futures areas. These include: addressing the question: what might it mean to be
Journal of Futures Studies, May 2005, 9(4): 29 - 44Journal of Futures Studies
human? In line with both Slaughter's and what it means to be human. And that forces you
Inayatullah's understanding, it can be seen that to think of yourself as a machine!" (Turkle 1984)
underlying metaphors regarding the human There is therefore, necessarily, some conver-
being guide our (individual and collective) gence of object and descriptive term, which this
thoughts and behaviour – mostly unconsciously paper allows for.
– and that by uncovering these – and imagining One of the characteristics of metaphors is
alternative ones – we are in a better position to that they allow a certain ambiguity in interpreta-
decide what we really want and picture more tion. Tony Judge notes that metaphor was espe-
clearly our preferred futures. In this way, we can cially valued in past Chinese and Japanese civili-
assist in the much-needed process of civilisa- sations, "because of the way it enabled ambigui-
tional renewal. (Macy 1993) ty and complexity to be handled without the
Lakoff and Johnson, in their seminal work traps associated with over-definition." (Judge
on metaphors, concur: "Our ordinary conceptu- 2000) This ambiguity perhaps mirrors the ulti-
al system, in terms of which we both think and mate unknowableness of what it means to be
act, is fundamentally metaphorical in nature... human; it certainly reflects the unknowableness
But our conceptual system is not something we of the future – the increasing unknowableness,
are normally aware of." (Lakoff 2003: 3) the further we attempt to project forward.
Pertinently, they continue, "New metaphors (Voros 2004) Yet metaphors are not so vague as
have the power to create a new reality. This can to be useless. On the contrary, they can be seen
begin to happen when we start to comprehend to be beautifully balanced between the specific
our experience in terms of a metaphor, and it and the open. Metaphors are soft yet powerful,
becomes a deeper reality when we begin to act like water to a Taoist, reflecting the grand poet-
in terms of it. If a new metaphor enters the con- ry of life.
ceptual system that we base our actions on, it Every metaphor has a unique set of
will alter that conceptual system and the per- nuances, as the outline of their influence on
ceptions and actions that the system and both historical and current cultural trends pre-
actions that the system gives rise to. Much of sented here indicate. Nevertheless, some gener-
cultural change arises from the introduction of alisations can be made. Specifically, it is suggest-
new metaphorical concepts and the loss of old ed that no metaphors are inherently good or
ones." (my italics) (Lakoff 2003: 235) bad. Judgement depends upon context. All
Distinction must be drawn between metaphors can have positive value; it is their
metaphor and the object signified by the overuse which most likely causes problems. The
metaphorical term. Whilst there is mostly a sig- extent of the global problematique strongly
nificant overlap, the collective unconscious can indicates that this is currently the case: we are
breathe its own mythic life into the concept so suffering from koyaanisqatsi:1 a life out of bal-
that certain aspects are emphasised whilst oth- ance. In this paper, it is suggested that two of
ers are de-emphasised. For example, we might the dominant – and overused – metaphors
picture a creature like King Kong upon hearing guiding humanity at present is "human as
the word "ape", yet this fictional icon bears little machine" and "human as ape". As part of a nor-
relationship to the behaviour of an actual bio- mative methodology, these underlying
logical gorilla. metaphors can be seen on balance to con-
Distinction also needs to be made regard- tribute to the current global crises and so this
ing the "direction of relationship" between the paper focuses on their negative qualities. In
metaphoric object and its descriptive term: this contrast, an alternative guiding metaphor is
paper looks at "human as dolphin", for instance, proposed, one that can on balance form part of
not "dolphin as human". Notwithstanding this, the global solution – that of "human as dolphin".
whilst investigating artificial intelligence, Sherry This can be interpreted as not yet fulfilling its
Turkle points out, "Asking 'Can a machine think potential, and so, as an "underused" metaphor,
30 like a human' forces us to stop and consider its positive qualities are emphasised here. ThisHuman: Machine, Ape or Dolphin?
notwithstanding, the discussion of futures for La Mettrie in 1747, who, following on from
each metaphor starts with a counterbalance: Descartes' view of the organism as essentially
positive aspects of ape and machine metaphors being like any "man-made device", brought an
and potential negative ones of dolphin. organic component into the idea concept of
Associations are also made with the six future mechanism – allowing for the mechanistic
scenario archetypes elucidated by Wendy cause-and-effect of emotional states, for exam-
Schultz: Business as Usual, Environmental ple.(Vartanian 1960) Responding to the vogue
Sustainability, Ideological Exclusionism, of idealistic philosophy and romanticism, the
High Technology Transformation, Spiritual metaphor retreated, only to return with a
Transcendence, and Collapse. (Shultz 2003) vengeance in the nineteenth century with its
view on living things being seen as a function of
"reflexes", leading to behaviourism in the twen-
2. Machine 2 tieth, especially in biology and psychology.
"a large chunk of our philosophy – and (Vartanian 1960)
therefore our culture – is based on the man- The metaphor of "human as machine"
machine metaphor" (Keith 2001) 3 developed in tandem with the technology of
"It's a machines world / Don't tell me I ain't the time. Following on from printing press and
got no soul / When the machines take over / mechanical clocks metaphors, the industrial
It ain't no place for rock and roll" (Queen revolution started to metaphorically build up
1984) "steam". Our muscles were soon analogised to
It is perhaps no surprise that the metaphor pistons, our eyes seen as cameras, our ears,
of "human as machine" can be readily uncov- microphones. At a macro-economic level, we
ered. Western civilisation has been increasingly became cogs in a huge machine.
strengthening its ties to technology since the
Enlightenment, and especially since the indus- 2 (b) Present
trial revolution. Many wonders have come from The economic machine has become more
this. And much suffering, too. Taking an encompassing. We are "human resources"; we
overview, one can see that the development become statistics; we consume products; we
of technology has paralleled the development produce products; we are workers who can be
of the "rational ego" (Wilber 1995: 375) and, discarded if we are seen not to "function" effi-
as such, is symptomatic of cultural evolution. ciently. Status is ascribed to hierarchical posi-
However, simultaneously, Western civilisation tion. Similarly in mainstream educational "sys-
has become a "flatland" (Wilber 2000: 41) where tems": human children are too often seen as
our biological grounding and spiritual blank units to be fed information and processed
truths have been marginalised and denied. into adult human resources. The school bell
Furthermore, whilst much exterior progress rings, eliciting required Pavlovian responses to
has been made, interior progress has been enable children to receive prescribed informa-
given scant attention. (Wilber 2000: 86) tion. One standard (academic grades) fits all.
Notwithstanding the attempts of the android, Like a never-ending factory sieve, those with
Data, in Star Trek: The Next Generation to insubstantial grades fall through the net into the
become human – or of the android David in the underclasses; the rest roll towards the adult
film epic, Artificial Intelligence, to find spiritual economic machine.
transcendence – machines, unlike humans, do The latter half of the twentieth century
not have consciousness.4 also saw the spectacular rise of the metaphor of
the cerebral machine: the computer. The com-
2 (a) Past plexity of the computer has led to an even
The "man-machine" metaphor has been greater temptation to underpin our concep-
tions of humanity with these modern machines.
around at least since ancient Greek times.
However, its first consistent exposition was by The human brain, in particular, is seen as a 31Journal of Futures Studies
computer: "The metaphor of the brain as a com- tion to be made between humans and comput-
puter is now firmly fixed even in the popular ers", referring to the notion of the "singularity"
imagination. ...most scientists now regard the in human evolution. (Anderson 2003) Anderson
brain as an organ whose purpose is information then goes on to laterally draw on the mystical
processing." (Bhalla 2002)5 We describe speak- writings of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin to sup-
ing at meetings as engaging in "group process". port the idea of a cyborg-like "majestic union"
(Rubik 1991) Neural connections are our "hard- between all of nature, humanity, information
ware"; our minds – which are seen to perform systems and "mechanical constructions" – the
"the thinking of information" – our "software". advent of a "global super-organism". (Anderson
Wisdom is reduced to knowledge; knowledge 2003)
to information; information to data.6 We have A subtler – and powerful – use of the
unwittingly based our technology on the "human as machine" metaphor is achieved by
mechanics of the physioshere rather than the Herbert Gerjuoy. In keeping with the theme of
infinitely more complex biosphere. (Sahtouris this paper, Gerjuoy states, "How we picture the
2000) universe affects how we think about the uni-
Acutely critical of this "human as machine" verse, what questions we ask, what surprises
epistemology, Slaughter states, "New technolo- us, and what we do not notice", and then
gies such as virtual reality, the human genome declares that, "The computer is my principal
project, nanotechnology and so-called 'artificial metaphor for the universe." (Gerjuoy 2000) In so
intelligence' all raise as many problems as they doing, although humanity is seen as part of the
promise to solve. No-one is asking for them. universe and therefore part of the computer
...On the whole, Western societies – indeed, metaphor, the resultant vision is intelligently
many Western futurists – have yet to decisively imaginative. He envisions, for instance, that,
wean themselves away from anodyne, machine- "Life and culture will be seen as art forms" and
led views of futures that are clearly not viable in that, "The reality of other universes will be
the long term." (Slaughter 1999: 95) accepted." And whilst, "Humans will be increas-
ingly predictable" and "Human behaviour, men-
2 (c) Futures tal processes, and experience will be increasing-
2 (c) (i) Technological utopias ly controlled", "Environmentalists will focus on
Many of these futurists' visions can be seen 'wise control'" and "Shared pleasure and pain
to fall under Schultz's scenario archetype of will favour the further development of our
High Technology Transformation, projected sense of altruism." (Gerjuoy 2000)
endpoints of a technocracy's fetish. Michio Gerjuoy shows us that the machine
Kaku's "Visions", for instance, are of a technolog- metaphor need not necessarily preclude a sense
ical utopia. But in a critical analysis, Marcus of the spiritual or the humane. Yet for most
Anthony uncovers "the greatest unconscious technological utopias, little attention is given to
narrative" of the book, incisively observing the the question of who benefits. If this scenario
myth: "Technology will reign supreme and res- archetype is going to produce happiness for all,
cue us from the perils of the human condition. it must include the process by which this is
The spiritual will die (it was intangible and meant to happen, including a rigorous critique
immeasurable after all) and the machine will of similar proclamations in previous eras when
live." (Anthony 2003) Ultimate humanity as ulti- a process was cited yet in reality never worked.
mate machine. The affluence of The North did not significantly
Spirituality needn't be discarded in "trickle down" to The South: Africa is poorer
machine utopia, however. In "Augmentation, than it was thirty years ago – despite Microsoft.
symbiosis, transcendence: technology and the
future(s) of human identity", Walter T. Anderson 2 (c) (ii) Matrix of the inhuman
quotes Kurzweil as predicting that by the year Despite these futurists' visions, David Hicks
32 2099, "there will no longer be any clear distinc- reminds us that, "Popular images of the futureHuman: Machine, Ape or Dolphin?
in the West tend to be negative if not dystopian despite the fact that the most signifi-
in nature" (my italics). (Hicks 1998: 220) They are cant things are mostly the hardest to
the projected endpoints of our major fears, our measure.
nightmares shout out loud. Fragmentation – (Specialist) parts are
Dystopian futures saturate mainstream seen as more important than the
media. Themes thread through popular con- connections between or the overall
sciousness like a machine-woven tapestry. The picture.
theme of "metropolis", for instance, starts as a Determinism – Where our actions can
classic 1927 film of a dystopic vision of 2026, be completely determined if we could
then continues as a track on the 1978 proto- ascertain all the relevant factors; where
techno Kraftwerk album, The Man-Machine; there is no free will.
whilst the metropolis pictured in the 1999-2003 Doing rather than being – The metaphoric
"Matrix" trilogy – which in itself can be seen as machine is in constant motion. And so
"discussion about the human as machine" (Van are we. Workaholism in / consumerism
de Bijl 2004) through envisioning "a bleak world out. Instead of "human beings", we are
controlled by...machines". (Lazar 2004) – is even "human doings". States of conscious-
more profoundly disturbing. Dystopias are not ness other than "normal waking" are
only prevalent; the quality of their terror is seen negatively: sleep is a necessary
deepening. Children's media are not spared the evil, dreaming is a distraction from pro-
onslaught: witness the nihilism of so many ductivity, meditation is a waste of time,
video/computer games. Slaughter warns us that and the use of mind-altering drugs is
"so over-arching is ["the process of technology criminal.
penetrating the symbolic and actual life-space of Dissociation between mind (ego) and
young people"] that it could be regarded as the body occurs when the body is seen as a
greatest fait accompli of all time, overwhelming machine rather than as an organism
settled worlds of tradition, and, arguably, edg- intimately connected to the ego. If our
ing the planet toward catastrophe." (Slaughter biology "fails", then we look to get it
1999: 145) Indeed, an endpoint of "human as mended by the medical system – itself a
machine" is the future scenario archetype of product of the "human as machine"
Collapse. This spiralling down may be accompa- metaphor, where the patient is objecti-
nied by a rigidifying of social structure – a form fied as a body-machine, and "the physi-
of Ideological Exclusionism. But commonly, the cian is the master medical mechanic
drama of dystopias tend to revolve around the who cures disease and repairs dysfunc-
exaggeration of qualities already entrenched tion." (Simkins 1998) In a broader sense,
within the Business As Usual paradigm – in the disembodied ego, dissociated from
essence serving as a reinforcement of the fol- the body, has been instrumental in the
lowing dehumanising qualities too easily taken post-Enlightenment development of
for granted: science and technology (Wilber 1995:
Reductionism – to the lowest common 375) – and hence the rise of the
denominator, with no "vertical" dimen- machine metaphor itself.
sions of reality (Wilber 2000: 41)
Objectification – "Subjects" with inte- 3. Ape 7
rior awareness are reduced to "Despite the exterior gloss of our civiliza-
"objects" with none. tion, we are the same animals. Reading world
Behaviourism – Only external behav-
headlines, you could argue that we haven't
iours are seen as real or worthy of moved much beyond our time in the trees, eager-
attention. ly clubbing the other ape for its bananas."
Quantification – Only things which
(Patrick 2004)
can be measured are given attention 33Journal of Futures Studies
"Fox the fox / rat on the rat / you can ape and cleverness", whilst in Chinese mythology,
the ape / I know about that / ... Shock the monkey the Monkey Fairy, Sun hou-tzu, "accompanies a
to life!" (Gabriel 1978) pilgrim to collect the Buddhist scriptures from
Biologically speaking, humans are pri- India and after many trials achieves enlighten-
mates. So it is little wonder that we have – most ment." (Pieterse 1995) Similarly, in Japan,
probably since time immemorial – compared between 1200 and 1600, "representations of
ourselves to our nearest look-a-likes – the the monkey were in a mediating role between
(other) apes – and seen ourselves in their image humans and gods." (Asquith 1995) Historically
so much that, "Writers such as Rousseau (1755) and currently, the monkey can be seen by the
and Lord Monboddo (1774) asserted that man Japanese as symbolically cleansing "the human
and the higher apes (orang-utan or chimpanzee) by shouldering our bad attributes", whilst over-
were of the same species." (Asquith 1995) all, "the non-centrality of the simian in defining
Conversely, it is precisely these shared features humanness is evident" in Japanese culture, thus
that have forced others to make particularly providing a good example of a contrasting atti-
loud refutations of any similarities. And maybe, tude to the West. (Asquith 1995)
paradoxically, because of this apparent close- In Europe, "Since antiquity, traditional
ness, our metaphorical image of "the ape" dif- views of apes have generally been condescend-
fers quite markedly from the real thing. For ing and unflattering." (Asquith 1995)
instance, in a study looking at the similarities Nevertheless, the Greeks and Romans felt apes
and differences between a young chimpanzee to be close to us; Aristotle even exaggerated the
and a young human child brought up together human features of simian anatomy to draw out
in as similar a way as possible for nine months, the similarities. But with the advent of
it was discovered that the chimp had a signifi- Christianity, ape became enemy. In the
cantly greater tendency to "kiss for forgiveness". "Physiologus", the basic compendium of
(Kellogg 1967) Yet nowhere does this fact seem Christian zoology, apes were said to represent
to inform our metaphorical image of the ape. the devil. The monkey was a sinner, a figura
The potential richness of metaphor is also diaboli. (Corby 1995) A still negative but some-
undoubtedly related to the fact that "Monkeys what lighter metaphoric resonance also runs
and apes have a privileged relation to nature through European attitudes of this period – in
and culture" – at least for westerners – as "simi- seventeenth to nineteenth century Dutch art,
ans occupy the border zones between those for instance, apes represent folly and "inver-
potent mythic poles." (Haraway 1990) Donna sion": how things should not be done. (Corby
Haraway elaborates, "The commercial and sci- 1995) A positive attribute was found in the
entific traffic in monkeys and apes is a traffic in orang-utan during The Enlightenment, howev-
meanings, as well as in animal lives." (Haraway er: they symbolised nobility. But by the
1990) Victorian era, the metaphoric ape had become a
monster again. The ape was not "civilised us": it
3 (a) Past was the fearsome "other". It was with this back-
Unlike the machine metaphor which has drop that Darwin's "Origin of Species" was pub-
resided predominantly in the modern industrial lished. Intimate connections were made
world, the ape metaphor – like apes themselves between apes and the apish behaviour of early
– has been more widespread. Both similarities hominoids – "cavemen"; and between these and
and differences in resonances of cultural mean- "lower" (non-white) races, who were regarded
ing for the ape can be observed through time as white man's contemporary, savage ancestors,
and across the world. "In ancient Egypt, the adding new racist flavour towards blacks in par-
baboon was sacred and stood for the dawn, for ticular; all these were seen operating via the
beginnings." (Pieterse 1995) In Indian mytholo- desperate struggle of the "survival of the fittest".
gy, "Hanuman the monkey god is the minister But Darwin's controversial revelation also
34 of Lord Rama" and "is known for his devotion threatened to blur the important distinctionHuman: Machine, Ape or Dolphin?
between apes and humans: the other threat- that have since emerged.
ened to become the self. Throughout the
twentieth century, it could be argued that the 3 (c) Futures
other did indeed become the self, and the 3 (c) (i) Positive potentials
human was finally declared – with popular Ideally, we could recognise (albeit minor)
approval – "The Naked Ape". (Morris 1967) transformative possibilities in the "human as
ape" metaphor. After all, we share much genetic
3 (b) Present information: so could we not think of ourselves
So it appears Darwin won the argument: as older siblings to the ape and welcome the
"The Devil under form of Baboon is our grandfa- experience of stepping into the required
ther!" (Darwin 1995) Humans are just apes, responsibility? The Great Ape Project support-
albeit unusual ones. Animals with animal behav- ing Rights Of Apes legislation is an important
iours, animal motivations. As Desmond Morris step in this direction. (www.greatapeproject.
observes, "The fundamental patterns of behav- org)
iour laid down in our early days as hunting apes Referring to aforementioned ancient
still shine through all our affairs, no matter how meanings, the ape or monkey can represent
lofty they may be." (Morris 1967) Morris also devotion, sacred beginnings and mediation
informs us that "the naked ape is the sexiest pri- between humans and gods. Equally inspiring
mate alive", and that we have the same aggres- are the depths of human truths in the represen-
sive instinct and behaviour of (other) apes. In tation of Adam and Eve as ape-man and ape-
"Naked Ape or Homo Sapiens", John Lewis and woman in Alex Grey's painting, Adam and Eve.
Bernard Towers critique Morris and the subse- (Grey 2001) The potential of the ape metaphor
quent attitudes taken up in the media: "We are can be seen, too, in the visceral performance art
encouraged unceasingly to think ourselves of Argentinean De La Guarda who take the élan
excused, so far as anything reprehensible is con- vital of the human ape to new heights of
cerned, on the grounds that we are only acting artistry. The qualities of friendship can also be
'according to our nature' which is bestial. Our evoked – by Tarzan's sidekick, Cheetah, for
'nature' is defined by reducing man to a play- instance. A profoundly ambiguous resonance
thing of whatever violent elements may be seen accompanies the ape as the Jungian archetype
in some areas of the evolutionary process." of the "monkey see, monkey do" Trickster. But
(Lewis 1969) "Our survival depends on aggres- perhaps most significantly, and as exemplified
sion and hence the propensity is ineradicable." by Jane Goodall's Gombe chimpanzees, (Asquith
Indeed, Neo-Darwinism is currently all the rage! 1995) the ape metaphor can be seen underlying
"Survival of the fittest" symbolically implies that the romantic idealism of "the noble savage". In
selfishness is always rewarded over altruism, this way, "human as ape" can be seen to under-
whilst altruism is interpreted as disguised self- pin those future scenarios of Environmental
ishness. Sustainability that derive from the outlook of
"Human as ape" evolutionary theory had green fundamentalists, notably from the pre-
further repercussions: psychoanalysis. "Freud agrarian-inspired "deep eco-masculinists" whose
thought of himself as a Darwinian." (Wright ideal metaphor might well be the orang-utan, a
1996: 315) He "was convinced that an impulsive Malaysian term meaning "wild man of the
ancestral apeman still roamed the depths of the woods". (Barnard 1995)
human psyche in a quite literal sense." (Corby
1995) Humans were seen as fundamentally 3 (c) (ii) Planet of the Naked Apes
driven only by their "lower", ape-like urges, and But these are relatively marginal
that humanity is merely suppressing these metaphoric resonances: our dominant myths
urges lest there should be chaos. This psycho- and stories about the future are, as mentioned
logical reductionism continues to underpin before, dystopian. Like the machine, the ape
many forms of psychiatry and psychotherapy can be seen to underpin consequences of 35Journal of Futures Studies
Business As Usual scenarios. But whereas the Islamic world, this attitude – via reli-
machine can be seen to elaborate on the cold gious fundamentalism – is gaining
isolation of the disembodied ego's instrumental strength. Projected forward, this
rationality ("ascend and exclude the lower" – trend can be seen to underpin vari-
Wilber's "Ego" characterisation) the ape under- ous Ideological Exclusivism scenar-
lies the counter side of the West's civilisational ios.
pathology ("descend and exclude the higher" – Clever but not wise –8 Here, the
Wilber's "Eco" characterisation): regression from lower animal's qualities are observed
the noosphere to the biosphere, from the high- but not harshly judged. "One inter-
er to the lower – with consequent rejection of pretation of monkeys in Hindu tales
rational thought, denial of free will and disre- is that they represent faculties... of
gard for ethics. (Wilber 1995: 447) The taken- the 'lower mind'." (Asquith 1995) In
for-granted qualities that underlie regressive Buddhism, "monkey mind" also refers
aspects of Business As Usual include: to the never-ending Business As
The lower animal – Focus is exclusively Usual chattering mind of our every-
given to our "lower" selves – our day thoughts, compared with the
"instincts" and "drives" – ignoring, deny- calm mind of "successful" meditation.
ing or re-interpreting higher, ethical or Sub-human – Those humans seen as
spiritual aspirations and motivations. apes are regarded as sub-human.
These lower aspects are popularly iden- "Comparisons between black Africans
tified as sex and violence – as portrayed and apes [derogatory of both] date
in The Naked Ape. One may also cite from long before the Enlightenment
Freud's sexual libidino theory and his debates on the missing link." (Pieterse
belief that men are instinctively aggres- 1995) In seventeenth century Holland,
sive. (Freud 1989) In this regard, there was "no clear distinction between
Business As Usual can also be seen to monstrous beings of antiquity, the
specifically refer to the competitive medieval Wild Man, homo sylvestris or
aspect of business – the jostling for sta- Waldmensch, apes, and indigenous peo-
tus, with its underlying aggression. The ples." (Pieterse 1995) An analogous situ-
novel, Lord of the Flies, well entrenched ation was evident in Islamic cultures.
in the Anglo-Saxon imagination, takes For instance, the 1001 Nights story
the idea further, suggesting that once "illustrates, in the crudest way possible,
civilized restraints are withdrawn, chil- the secret fears associated with this
dren – and by inference, adults – would cluster of 'undesirables', monkey, Negro
revert to savage ruthlessness. But per- and woman. Unbridled sexuality, inex-
haps most iconically, the essence of the haustible sexual prowess, immorality,
lower animal is best illustrated by the treacherousness." (Kruk 1995) The racist
monstrous ape, King Kong, the brutal remnants of this metaphoric symbolism
rapist. Variations on attitudes towards are still with us and can again fuel
the lower animal include: Ideological Exclusivism scenarios.
The Devil – where the lower animal is Particularly symbolic here is the televi-
interpreted as sinful, reprehensible, sion series and film, Planet of the Apes,
punishable. Dominant in Europe in where – in the next millennium – the
the Middle Ages, threads of this atti- normal roles of humans and apes are
tude are still working their way out reversed so that apes are the ruling
of the collective unconscious in liber- species while humans are "treated like
al societies, whilst in other regions – animals".
notably, the USA and swathes of the
36Human: Machine, Ape or Dolphin?
4. Dolphin9 "They see right into us, and the love is palpable.
Like Apollo's credo at the oracle of Delphi, these
"The cetaceans hold an important lesson creatures urge us: 'Know Thy Self'." (Taylor 2003:
for us. The lesson is not about whales and xxxviii) As Ziauddin Sardar has unwittingly but
dolphins, but about ourselves." (Sagan veraciously articulated: "There is more to the
2000) Other than meets the eye." (Sardar 2000)
"Remember the shaman when he used to
say: Man is the dream of the dolphin." 4 (a) Past
(Enigma 1993) The oldest myth connecting humans to
That dolphin might be a metaphor for cetaceans very possibly comes from the indige-
human is certainly unconventional; that "man is nous Mirning people of southern Australia.
the dream of the dolphin" even more so. (Burgoyne 2000) Known as the Whale People,
Moreover, who is the shaman? And why should they tell the tale of Jiderra, an enormous white
one listen to him? Ashis Nandy answers, (Nandy whale who came to our planet from the star
2000) "At a time when mass culture and the Sirius and who shines with the colours of the
media dominate the world, the shaman tries to rainbow.10
transcend manifest reality and the strait jacket The Dogon people of Saharan Mali also
of 'common sense'. This expression of defiance see themselves embedded within a complex
uses a language of transcendence or utopi- cetacean mythology which they have main-
anism." Mass culture outcasts certain beings as tained since their probable migration from the
Other. The shaman seeks to embrace the Other, Mediterranean thousands of years ago.
to bring the Other into the Self, showing the Curiously, they also tell of whales who came to
rest of us we have connections beyond the visi- Earth from Sirius. (Taylor 2003: 46)
ble, the obvious, the accessible, and that we can Countless stories of dolphins rescuing peo-
learn important truths from such embrace. Our ple have inspired humanity certainly since
thoughts and actions will be challenged, and Arion, son of the king of Lesbos, was immor-
our broadening perspective will change us – talised as the Ancient Greek icon of The Boy on
just as due consideration of our possible futures a Dolphin; whilst in India, according to Hindu
can challenge and change our present behav- scriptures, the first incarnation of Vishnu, the
iour. Saviour and Preserver of life, was in the form of
The dolphin can easily be seen as the a dolphin. (Taylor 2003: 28) Early Christians also
Other. It lives in the sea, for a start. It looks used the image of a dolphin to symbolize Jesus.
more like a shark than a primate. But appear- (Taylor 2003: 94) The Enlightenment, however,
ances can be deceptive. "13 of 22 dolphin chro- ironically meant the dark ages for cetaceans and
mosomes are exactly the same as human chro- the metaphoric dolphin when the West started
mosomes." (Kumar 2003) to (literally) light up the night with lamps using
So, the Other is among us. Just as we need oil from whales. Whaling became prevalent in
to embrace the future that we have othered the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries when
through lack of foresight, and to embrace cul- dolphins were also killed for food, oil and skins.
tures that we have othered through lack of But it was the mechanised modern whaling era
compassion, so we need to embrace our closest which caused the most devastation. (Samuels
noospheric relatives, the cetaceans, that we 2000) The metaphor was meat.
have othered through lack of understanding or
humility. Many of those who have looked upon 4 (b) Present
a nearby dolphin are shocked to experience the
Notwithstanding the fact that "Dolphins
returned gaze of an (albeit somewhat alien)
are still killed by the thousands in the Eastern
self-aware, intelligent being displaying a
Tropical Pacific in the pursuit of tuna", (Taylor
returned similar interest in them. From his
experience with dolphins, Scott Taylor remarks,
2003) the situation for these and other 37Journal of Futures Studies
cetaceans has changed drastically since the of being human. This might escalate into a rigid,
cetacean scientist, John Lilly, announced to the anti-technology stance. Another possibility is
world in 1961 that dolphins have minds and that dolphins would be seen to symbolise shal-
language, and television images of Greenpeace's low hedonism, living for the moment with no
inflatable dinghy – taking on the Goliath-sized foresight or consideration for the future: a
Russian whaling fleet – flooded the public imag- Dionysian dystopia.
ination in 1975, arousing collective environmen- 4 (c) (ii) Human transformation
tal consciousness. Today, attitudes towards dol- On balance though, the dolphin metaphor
phins seem to fall into the two distinct and can act as a catalyst enabling scenarios of
somewhat antipathetic camps of scientific Spritual Transcendence, thus moving us beyond
behaviourism – which denounces Lilly's pioneer- our aforementioned civilisational pathologies. It
ing work – and the New Age; a situation, it can be pictured, for instance, beneath Marcus
would appear, in need of integration. Take the Bussey's "critical spirituality", (Samuels 2000)
following, for example: Gavan Daws, in dis- David Loye's "evolution of higher mind", (Loye
cussing correlations with biological intelligence, 1990) and many of Charles Birch's "Values for
indicates that it is neither brain size nor the the 21st Century".12 (Birch 2000) Indeed, "human
ratio of brain size to body size which matters, as dolphin" can inspire a myriad of interweaving
but instead, the absolute and relative-to-body transformative qualities, values and visions, as
size of – and quality of – neocortex. (Daws indicated below. Dolphins are popularly seen to
1982) In this regard, the only animals which are represent many positive human qualities.
in the same league as humans – or, indeed, Possible truths in such dolphin mythology may
which might surpass humans – are various well be able to lead us to depths of human wis-
cetacean species. This is a staggering fact, dom through the use of metaphor and imagina-
which one might think should herald as much tion.
collective wonder, respectful interest and take- Dolphins are well known, for instance, as
up of dolphin as a transformational metaphor as playful creatures. Couldn't most of us do with
the discovery of "intelligent aliens" from another taking our thoughts a little less seriously at
planet. Yet instead, the issue has been margin- times? Could we not venture into the play-
alised by a scientific community whose behav- ground (and playsea) of reality with a lighter
iourist fundamentalism entrenches the unethi- spirit? Being able to freely play requires another
cal myth of human supremacy through a seem- delphic quality: creativity. In an experiment in
ingly irrational refusal to engage a whistle of Sea Life Park, Hawaii, a trainer let a dolphin
imagination, a leap of vision out of stagnant know that no "repeats of known tricks or
waters. Whilst, conversely, a sloppy sentimen- actions would elicit a fish reward" but only
talism can bedevil New Age accounts: it is unique actions. The dolphin subsequently var-
behaviourally true that dolphins have been ied its actions, antics, movements, sounds,
known to kill each other. This fact, however, games seemingly endlessly for the entire
should not stop the advocacy of the dolphin as experiment. (Taylor 2003: 196) Would we not
a transformational metaphor, but rather be benefit from prioritizing the encouragement of
transcended and included as a paradoxical such spontaneous creativity? Edward de Bono
poignancy that dolphins may be even more valorizes Water logic. (De Bono 1992) Perhaps
human than we yet imagine! 11 dolphins are already using it, going with the
flow of the metaphoric Poetry of Being.
4 (c) Futures Warren Ziegler's "Spiritual Foundations for
4 (c) (i) Dionysus the dystopian dolphin Envisioning the Future" (Ziegler 2000) include
It is possible that the dolphin metaphor "Deep Listening", "Deep Questioning", "Deep
might be used unhelpfully. For instance, a possi- Learning" and "Deep Imaging". So – as the
ble "dolphin fundamentalism" might not Pope's Sumerian Fish-God mitre13 perhaps
38 acknowledge the unique possibilities and joys reminds us: maybe we need to open ourselvesHuman: Machine, Ape or Dolphin?
to the wisdom of those who come from "the tainly proved a successful strategy for Dudley
deep" (Taylor 2003: 95) Also, as cetaceans live in Lynch and Paul Kordis in their popular corpo-
a three-dimensional habitable space thousands rate workbook separating the savvy cetacean
of times larger than our own, maybe they are in from the "carp" and "shark". (Lynch 1990) As for
a good position to help us transcend Wilber's intelligence, Douglas Adams reminds us, "...man
"flatland"! had always assumed that he was more intelli-
The urgent need to integrate not only the gent than dolphins because he had achieved so
body of our fragmented society but our own much – the wheel, New York, wars and so on –
being may be assisted by attending the remark- whilst all the dolphins had ever done was muck
able bodymind integration that dolphins seem about in the water having a good time. But con-
to exhibit. Unlike the average human, there versely, the dolphins had always believed that
seems to be a powerful and intimate correspon- they were far more intelligent than man – for
dence between dolphin mind and body, per- precisely the same reason." (Adams 1997)
haps analogous to Wilber's "centaur" archetype. Metaphoric resonance at the interpersonal
(Wilber 1980) It can also be seen to correspond level may be just as inspirational as at the
to the spiritual union between human body and intrapersonal. Dolphins' ethical behaviour
mind that is a major desired outcome of yoga. towards humans in distress or the practice of
Indeed, in "Homo Delphinus: The Dolphin with- co-operative fishing (Taylor 2003: 23) suggests a
in Man", (Mayol 2000) Jacques Mayol14 makes concern for species other than one's own15 –
explicit connections between the yogic breath- surely an important quality to cultivate in these
ing practice of apnoea and the dolphin's ability times of ecological destruction. Indeed, envi-
to hold its breath underwater. A further analogy ronmental sustainability itself may be seen as a
would be our evolution towards "homo tantri- delphic quality: cetaceans have been on this
cus" if we took Marcus Bussey's advice and used planet for tens of millions of years. If we com-
"tantra as an episteme for future generations". bine this quality with the signifier of an embod-
(Bussey 1998) If that became a reality then we ied spirituality – as many visionary writers pro-
would live more within "the ecstatic joy of life" pose – then we might wish to embrace environ-
as dolphins seem to do: Bobbie Sandoz informs mental sustainability within a Spiritual
us that dolphins are "dedicated to happiness", Transcendence scenario to avoid the trap of
(Sandoz 1999) a formulation cited by Edward de green fundamentalism. As Duane Elgin reminds
Bono in The Happiness Purpose (De Bono 1977) us, "If we do no more than work for a sustain-
as being the best foundation for a new religion able future, then we are in danger of creating a
or "meta-system". Their passion is certainly sug- world in which living is little more than 'only not
gested by an extraordinary experiment involv- dying'." (Elgin 2000) Sustainability is necessary
ing humans musically improvising with wild but not sufficient. Implicitly evoking the dolphin
Orcas, the largest species of dolphin. The metaphor, Lester Milbrath continues, "A sustain-
cetaceans were attracted primarily not to "com- able society would encourage self-realisation as
positional virtuosity" but were instead "highly the key to a fulfilling life.... Keep a sense of
attuned to [human] soloists and ensembles who humour: sing, dance, affirm love and be joyous
play with soulfulness." (my italics) (Nollman in your oneness with the Earth." (Milbrath 2000)
1999: 210) A scenario of dolphin-inspired rejoicing; realiz-
We may well be inspired by such authen- ing itself. Available now.
ticity of feeling. Authenticity of thinking may
also be facilitated by imagining the depth of
vision that dolphins' x-ray-like sonar enables: the
5. Conclusion
direct witnessing of emotional nuances and "The present is like a great hall with many
states of mind; feeling another's biochemistry. doors. We collectively choose which door to
(Taylor 2003: 272) Dolphins symbolizing the go through." (Gerjuoy 2000)
characteristic of self-reflective thinking has cer- "Discovering a compelling vision of our 39Journal of Futures Studies
evolutionary journey is vital." (Elgin 2000) it is boys and men who are most involved
It is important that futures studies places with technology. For example, "Hicks and
due emphasis on facilitating the process of Holden's UK research found that 40% of boys
uncovering our present world-myths and were attracted to a future dominated by
metaphors to help us to more deeply imagine technology compared to only 19% of girls.
and elucidate our preferred futures. As Hutchinson also found that boys' images of
the 'preferred future' fell largely into images
"Metaphors touch 'the heart instead of reading of 'passive hope' where technology was the
the head"', (Inayatullah 2000) so it is hoped that 'magical helper'." (Gidley 2005)
this paper has touched the heart of this matter: 3. Occasional quotes from members of the
relevance for humanity in these urgent times. internet public can be seen to indicate vari-
Do I not fashion this article according to ous generally held views.
the specified format and logical reasoning of a 4. Yet even if they were to – as Elisabet
rational machine? Am I not using primate fin- Sahtouris (2000) suggests in regard to the
gers to type these words? Does a transforma- consciousness of the internet – this would
tive delphic spirit not flow through me as I still not affect our separate requirement and
write? All metaphors may have utility. Which do responsibility to regard and respect all
we choose? What contextual vision do we beings, whether organic or not.
5. "Information processing" can be seen to be a
hold? We can view our home as a "Planet of the function of the "information age", which in
Apes" 16 and we can see us increasingly embed- turn can be seen as an extension of the
ded within "The Matrix" of the machine: "industrial age", both being based on
humans caught between the prevailing machines.
metaphors of dumb ape and clever machine, 6. A more applicable scientific model might well
trapped by the weight of the past. But, as be "brain as orchestra": "The process of
Inayatullah points out, it is important to recog- thought is a symphony produced by the
nise we are also pulled by our images of the brain as a whole." (Lerner 1999)
future. What do we wish for? 17 As an increas- 7. As with the machine metaphor, the ape
ing number of foresight practitioners are point- metaphor conflates most strongly with the
ing out, what we want are more positive visions male gender. It is men, not women, who are
seen as apes. Male King Kong is an ape; he
of the future: the human, the humane, the cre- dominates, ravages and rapes female "non-
ative and self-transforming; an integral story of apes".
the continuing psycho-social evolution of 8. The meaning of the Japanese proverb: the
humanity, the adventures of consciousness. We monkey is a human minus three pieces of
need visions inspired by the dolphin. hair. (Ohnuki-Tierney 1995)
9. It might be said that the dolphin represents
feminine qualities. This would contrast with
Correspondence the former two metaphors, and – taking the
Gary P. Hampson long view – would be in line with the grow-
Southern Cross University (Lismore, New South ing tidal wave of the feminine in the public
Wales, Australia) domain. Certainly those delphic qualities
gary.ph@ozemail.com.au regarding the intrinsic wellbeing of individu-
als can be seen in this light. However, both
genders are drawn to dolphins; and "he" is
Notes projected onto them as much as "she".
Furthermore, creativity and spiritual transfor-
1. A Hopi word, popularised by the film, mation are profoundly gender-non-specific.
Koyaanisqatsi. So perhaps dolphins can be seen to best rep-
2. One may discern that the machine metaphor resent the androgynous principle (embracing
has predominant resonance with males. the best of both femininity and masculinity)
Futures studies indicate that it is boys and and therefore also point the way for a radical
40 men who envision technological utopias, as healing between the human genders.Human: Machine, Ape or Dolphin?
R. Corby and B. Theunissen (ed).
10. On cliff tops scattered with thousands of Evaluative Proceedings of the Symposium
dolphin-shaped stones carved by ancestors "Ape, Man, Apeman: Changing Views
of the current Mirning who lived tens of since 1600; Leiden, The Netherlands,
thousands of years ago, The Whale People 28 June - 1 July 1993." Leiden, The
sing to the southern right whales accompa- Netherlands: Department of Prehistory,
nying their song with click-sticks. (Taylor Leiden University.
2003: 20) Barnard, A. 1995. "Monboddo's Orang Outang
11. In light of this social fragmentation of under- and the Definition of Man" in R. Corby
standing, information concerning the and B. Theunissen (ed.) Evaluative
potential richness of cetacean qualities may Proceedings of the Symposium "Ape,
best be gleaned from both scientific and Man, Apeman: Changing Views since
non-scientific sources, and all may be con- 1600; Leiden, The Netherlands, 28 June -
sciously held within the depths of human 1 July 1993." Leiden, The Netherlands:
dolphin mythology. As there has been little Department of Prehistory, Leiden
use yet of the dolphin as a human University.
metaphor, the following section is necessar- Bhalla, U. S. 2002. "Book Review: Theoretical
ily exploratory. Neuroscience: Computational and
12. Notably: Peace, Justice and Ecological Mathematical Modelling of Neural
Sustainability; Justice for Non-humans; The Systems. Peter Dayan and L.F. Abbott."
Need for a Deeper Ethic. Current Science 10(82).
13. Ceremonial hat. Birch, C. 2000. "Values for the 21st Century." in
14. Who inspired and was portrayed in the film, R. Slaughter (ed.) The Knowledge Base of
The Big Blue. Futures Studies. 3 ed. Indooroopilly,
15. And, in turn, suggests the potential fruitful- Queensland, Australia: Foresight
ness of an exploration of correspondences International.
between levels of moral development in Burgoyne, I. Y. K. 2000. The Mirning: We are the
humans (Kohlberg 1984; Miller 1999) and Whales. Broome, Western Australia,
those in cetaceans. Australia: Magabala Books.
16.Although, we should perhaps heed Bussey, M. 1998. "Tantra as Episteme: A
Heathcote Williams inaugurative comment Pedagogy of the Future." Futures 30(7):
in his epic poem, Whale Nation: "From 705-716.
space, the planet is blue. / From space, the ______. 2002. "From Change to Progress:
planet is the territory / Not of humans, but Critical Spirituality and the Futures of
of the whale." (Williams 1988) Futures Studies." Futures 34(3-4): 303-
17. Before we answer rashly, we might choose 315.
to heed Stephen Sondheim's cautioning: Corby, R. and B. Theunissen. 1995. "Ape, Man,
"Careful the wish you make...Wishes come Apeman: Changing Views since 1600." in
true, Not free." (Sondheim 1989) R. Corby and B. Theunissen (ed.)
Evaluative Proceedings of the Symposium
"Ape, Man, Apeman: Changing Views
References since 1600; Leiden, The Netherlands, 28
Adams, D. 1997. The Hitchhiker's Guide to the June - 1 July 1993." Leiden, The
Galaxy. New York: Ballantine Books. Netherlands: Department of Prehistory,
Anderson, W. T. 2003. "Augmentation, Leiden University.
Symbiosis, Transcendence: Technology Darwin, C. 1995. Origin Of Species. London, UK:
and the Future(s) of Human Identity." Gramercy.
Futures 35(5): 535-546. Daws, G. 1982. Night of the Dolphins. Waurn
Anthony, M. 2003. "Visions Without Depth: Ponds, Victoria, Australia: Deakin
Michio Kaku's Future." Journal of Futures University, Open Campus Program,
Studies 7(4): 55-66. School of Humanities.
Asquith, P. J. 1995. "Of Monkeys and Men: De Bono, E. 1977. The Happiness Purpose.
Cultural Views in Japan and the West." in Harmondsworth, Middlesex, UK; New 41Journal of Futures Studies
York; Ringwood, Victoria, Australia; of Futures Studies. 2 Indooroopilly,
Markham, Ontario, Canada; Auckland, Queensland, Australia: Foresight Intern-
New Zealand: Penguin. ational.
______. 1992. I am Right - You are Wrong: Judge, A. J. N. 2000. "Developing a Metaphorical
From This to the New Renaissance: From Language for the Future." in R. Slaughter
Rock Logic to Water Logic. New York, (ed.) The Knowledge Base of Futures
USA: Penguin. Studies. 1. Indooroopilly, Queensland,
Elgin, D. 2000. "The Challenge of Planetary Australia: Foresight International.
Civilisation." in R. Slaughter (ed.) The Keith. 2001. "AI: Cinematic Turning Point", The
Knowledge Base of Futures Studies. 3 Attic, accessed 15 April 2004. http://
Indooroopilly. Queensland, Australia: mycheeselovetuesdays.net/theattic/archiv
Foresight International. es/000128.html
Enigma. 1993. "The Dream of the Dolphin" Kellogg, L. A. 1967. The Ape and the Child: A
(Curly M.C.) The Cross of Changes. Virgin Study of Environmental Influence Upon
Schallplatten Records. Early Behaviour. New York and London:
Freud, S., et al. 1989. Civilization and Its Hafner.
Discontents. New York: W W Norton and _______. 1984. The Philosophy of Moral
Company. Development: Moral Stages and the Idea
Gabriel, P. 1978. "Shock The Monkey" (Gabriel) of Justice. London, UK: HarperCollins.
Peter Gabriel (4). Virgin Charisma Kruk, R. 1995. "Traditional Islamic Views of Apes
Records. and Monkeys." in R. Corby and B.
Gerjuoy, H. 2000. "The Most Significant Events Theunissen (ed.) Evaluative Proceedings
of the Next Thousand Years." in R. of the Symposium "Ape, Man, Apeman:
Slaughter (ed.) The Knowledge Base of Changing Views since 1600; Leiden, The
Futures Studies. 3 Indooroopilly, Netherlands, 28 June - 1 July 1993."
Queensland, Australia: Foresight Leiden, The Netherlands: Department of
International. Prehistory, Leiden University.
Gidley, J. 2000. "Unveiling the Human Face of Kumar, S. 2003. "Humans Genes Closer To
University Futures." in S. Inayatullah and Dolphins Than Any Land Animals."
J. Gidley (ed.) The University in Discovery Channel Online News report,
Transformation: Global Perspectives on Sounding Circle, Raymond Powers,
the Futures of the University. Westport, accessed 15 April 2004, http://sounding-
Connecticut, USA and London, UK: circle.com/newslog2.php/__d195/_show
Bergin and Garvey. _article/_a000195-000172.htm
Gidley, J. and G. Hampson. 2005. "The Evolution Lakoff, G. and M. Johnson. 2003. Metaphors We
of Futures in School Education." in R. Live By. Chicago, Illinois, USA: University
Slaughter. (ed.) The Knowledge Base of of Chicago Press.
Future Studies. Indooroopilly, Queensland, Lazar, A. 2004. "Film Matrix Reloaded: the
Australia: Foresight International. Choice to Be Deceived." Futures 36(5):
Grey, A. 2001. "Adam and Eve." in Transfigur- 617-621.
ations. Rochester, Vermont, USA: Inner Lerner, E. J. 1999. "The Music of the Brain." 21st
Traditions International. C 4.2: "Medicine and the Media."
Haraway, D. 1990. Primate Visions : Gender, Lewis, J. and B. Towers. 1969. Naked Ape or
Race, and Nature in The World of Modern Homo Sapiens? London: Garnstone
Science. New York, USA: Routledge. Press.
Hicks, D. 1998. "Identifying Sources of Hope in Loye, D. 1990. "Moral Sensitivity and the
Post-modern Times." in D. Hicks and R. Evolution of Higher Mind." World Futures
Slaughter (ed.) Futures Education: World 30: 41-52.
Yearbook of Education 1998. London, UK: Lynch, D. and P. Kordis. 1990. Strategy of the
Kogan Page. Dolphin: Scoring a Win in a Chaotic
Inayatullah, S. 2000. "Causal Layered Analysis: World. New York: Ballantine Books.
Post-structuralism as Method." in Macy, J. R. 1993. World As Lover, World As Self.
42 R. Slaughter (ed.) The Knowledge Base London: Rider.You can also read
