GUIDELINES FOR CAREER COUNSELLORS - B RE AK!
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GUIDELINES FOR
CAREER COUNSELLORS
on addressing gender equality and gender stereotypical career
choices in career counselling
These guidelines have
been prepared in cooperation
between Tallinn University
and Foundation Innove
Authors:
Virve Kinkar
Marju Põld
Meril Ümarik
Tiia Õun
Tallinn 2019
BREAK! – OVERCOMING GENDER STEREOTYPES IN EUROPE THROUGH CROSS-MEDIA LEARNING
Funded by the Rights Equality
And Citizenship programme of the
European Union 2014–2020
These guidelines are financed from the Rights, Equality and Citizenship Programme (2014-2020)
of the European Union. Tallinn University takes full responsibility for its contents and it does not
reflect the views of the European Commission in any way.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
2. Gender stereotypes – what are they and how does one help to break them? ........ 5
3. Gender stereotypical career choices, gender segregation and inequality
in the labour market and in society ........................................................................................................... 7
Why do we continue to have “male” and “female” professions? ............................................ 8
4. Changed labour market and career – what is it like and
how does one operate in it successfully as an individual? ....................................................... 10
5. Gender equality on the labour market .............................................................................................. 13
6. Career designing competencies – importance and development ................................. 15
7. Model of career management skills.................................................................................................... 19
8. Learning outcomes of career management skills ..................................................................... 21
9. Assessment of career management skills ...................................................................................... 25
Example of an integrated assessment task ........................................................................................ 26
10. How to address the topics pertaining to gender, gender inequality and gender
stereotypes in lessons? ..................................................................................................................................... 27
11. Practical tasks regarding the scenario of the series “Why Not?!”
and its alternative endings............................................................................................................................ 30
Recommendations for gender-aware career guidance: ............................................................ 33
Sources ....................................................................................................................................................................... 34
3
1. INTRODUCTION
We are all different. We are all unique. We are a part of the diversity in this world. Everyone has
a right to be themselves, a right to be special. Just like there are no trees or flowers that are
exactly the same, there are no two people who are identical. We look different, we have different
characters, different interests and strengths. Everyone is excellent at something and every person
is valuable! One of the meanings of life as a human among humans is to discover your own
uniqueness and implement it in the best possible way so that we can be happy and so that the
society will be satisfied with us.
Although we are different, we are still equal and equally important. The principle of equality and
creating equal opportunities to all are important criterions showing humanity and the quality of
the society. Equality does not mean making everyone the same or dividing resources equally – it is
a principle that a person is no more or less of a person than anyone else. One gender is not more
or less important than the other. Although it is easy to agree with this principle, it might be more
difficult to notice and challenge your own attitudes that may not follow the principle of equality
in different life situations. Equality, freedom and respect for human dignity are the rights we all
have, as well as living in a society of tolerance, dominated by valuing one another, consideration
and respect. Tolerance is the ability to tolerate and acknowledge the things that differ from the
conventional.
Making the world a better place begins with ourselves. In order to accept others, we must accept
and know ourselves. Self-assurance is paramount in becoming aware of our attitudes towards the
different and our stereotypical thinking. Attitude impacts our behaviour, thinking and emotions.
Developing and changing attitudes is a lengthy process. Young people spend most of their time at
school, which is why it is a perfect place to design attitudes based on equality and tolerance. Career
specialists also have an important role in influencing the views of young people because they deal
with the attitudes and values of their clients while providing career services.
These guidelines have been prepared within the framework of the project BREAK! – Overcoming
Gender Stereotypes in Europe through Cross-Media Learning (2017−2019) with an objective to
increase awareness of the nature of equal treatment and equal opportunities. As a part of the
cross-media project, a TV series “Why Not?!” was created, which could be used in the provision of
career services to introduce topics of gender equality and gender stereotypes.
The guidelines have been prepared for career counsellors with the aim to support addressing
the topic of gender stereotypes and equality both in school and in career centres in the course of
providing various career services. The guidelines provide a theoretical overview of the nature of
gender stereotypes, the changed labour market, and the theories on shaping one’s career based
on their personality. It also gives examples of how to approach the topic of gender equality as a
part of various thematic fields (e.g. discrimination on the labour market, pay gap, gender roles
in the family) as a part of various study classes and career learning activities. The sample tasks
suggested employ various teaching methods and means (e.g. debates, text analyses, videos, group
work) that could inspire counsellors to address the topic of gender and gender (in)equality through
different methods as a part of various topics and with various target groups.
The guidelines are structured as following: (1) The main gender-related stereotypes to address. (2)
Links to the clips of the TV series “Why Not?!” with comments on how to use them. (3) Sample tasks
that integrate the topics of gender, gender (in)equality and career choices with the lessons of social
studies, mathematics, (foreign) languages, music, art and history together with career studies.
4
2. GENDER STEREOTYPES – WHAT ARE
THEY AND HOW DOES ONE HELP TO
BREAK THEM?
Gender stereotypes are simplified and overly generalising, but nevertheless deeply rooted
beliefs and attitudes in society on the differences, characters, attributes, suitable roles,
professions, conduct, appearance, etc. of men and women (Eesti naisteühenduste…, 2012).
Gender stereotypical views lead us in our everyday decisions, including telling us what kinds of
interests, attitudes, behavioural patterns or activities are suitable for men and women. Such views
are often so deeply rooted in our culture that certain concepts have become self-evident for us as
myths. Through our everyday communication and actions, we recreate misconceptions, myths
with no scientific background, some even contradicting research results and scientific findings.
Gender stereotypes are also simplifying and generalising in their nature. It is assumed that certain
qualities or interests characterise gender-based groups as a whole, without acknowledging
individual differences.
Strict division of jobs and activities between men and women, which may seem normal and
established by nature, restricts the educational, vocational and occupational options, recreates
the lower status of women in society, incl. their weaker positions on the labour market, lower
income and lesser chances of having a say in the making of important decisions in the society.
Stereotypical role expectations restrict personal development and freedom of choice. Gender
stereotypes not only determine what men and women are like, but they also dictate what they
should be like – men professionally successful, women focused on relationships. Stereotypical
expectations of the behaviour of men and women may force them into roles in which they
seemingly inherently meet these expectations (Papp, 2012).
EXAMPLES OF MYTHS AND STEREOTYPES:
• Men and women differ in their interests and abilities;
• Boys and girls learn in a different way;
• Women and men are good at different activities;
• Boys and girls have different inherent strengths;
• Women are made to take care of children and family, men are the breadwinners.
Research confirms that men are women are no different in their cognitive abilities; it is rather that
they have learnt to use their brain differently in the course of socialisation. Differences are more
distinct within groups than between boys and girls (Papp, 2012).
The fact that certain fields and areas appeal more to boys or girls is largely influenced by the
environment (home, school, friends) and upbringing. Home, kindergarten and school, but also
the media, guide us towards certain fields and behavioural patterns. The family, kindergarten and
school focus on developing different traits in boys and girls.
When society considers it masculine to be active, adventurous, dominant, rational, independent,
individualistic and tough, boys start developing their individualistic consciousness, masculine
extraversion, selfishness, public communication skills. When society considers it feminine to be
cautious, submissive, emotional, cooperative, weak and helpful, girls start developing their passive,
soft, modest, emotional, socially conscious, introverted, us-focused side (Papp, 2012).
The school environment also reinforces several stereotypes. Teachers and career specialists play
an important role here in acknowledging gender stereotypical views and practices, directing
attention to the issues and explaining the implications of different beliefs. While working with
young people, attention should be paid not to recreate stereotypical views with one’s actions
or treat boys and girls unequally. A career specialist has an opportunity and an obligation to
5
guide the young people to notice and give meaning to gender stereotypes, gender inequality
in everyday life and to weigh their future career options without the bounds of gender
stereotypical restrictions.
Children starting school today will have a job in the fields and professions we are unable to predict,
use technology and tools that have not yet been invented, solve problems that are not yet seen
or verbalised today. Rapid changes in political, economic and social systems, work and family life
and technology have forced all countries to face the task of sustainability. Schools have a role in
achieving this task. Children who come to school will not only learn how to read and write, study
maths, chemistry, physics and literature, but also learn about what it means to be a woman or
a man – what it means to be a human. Rapid socio-economic changes give rise to the need for
making the outdated gender roles more flexible so that men and women of the next generation
may adopt their roles on the labour market on equal grounds. This depends on both empirical and
acquired social behaviour models, role models at school and the ideologies and values embraced
there (Papp, 2012).
6
3. GENDER STEREOTYPICAL CAREER
CHOICES, GENDER SEGREGATION
AND INEQUALITY IN THE LABOUR
MARKET AND IN SOCIETY
Although the topic of gender equality has received a lot of attention in the last decades, in most
countries, gender stereotypical career choices are still an issue and one of the key factors of
inequality on the labour market. This includes both horizontal segregation in which men and
women gather in different professional fields (e.g. there are more women working in the fields
of education and healthcare and more men working in finance and engineering), and vertical
segregation that is reflected in the unequal placement of men and women on the career ladder
(there are more men than women on leadership positions). Gender segregation takes place at
different levels of education, including in the context of both vocational and higher education as well
as on the labour market.
Segregation starts already with choosing a profession, where especially fields of science, technology,
engineering and mathematics (STEM) and education, health and welfare (EHW) show significant
differences between the number of male and female students in Europe. In STEM fields there were
only 22% of female students and in EHW fields there were only 21% of male students during 2013-
2015. (European Institute …, 2017) Among the European Union Member States the rate of segregation
differs but remains and involves other fields as well. For example, widespread segregation is
evident in the choices of profession of male and female students of Estonian vocational education
establishments. In the year 2017/2018, for instance, women made up only 17.6% of the students in
the field of information and communication technology and only 9.6% of health care students were
male (Haridusilm, 2018).
Figure 1. Gender segregation in the EU in STEM, EHW and EMC Source: European Institute … (2017),
http://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-14624-2017-ADD-2/en/pdf
7
WHY IS GENDER SEGREGATION IN EDUCATIONAL AND LABOUR
MARKET DECISIONS A BAD THING?
We often come across an opinion that in reality, all professional choices are accessible for both
men and women and therefore, there is no “problem”. In reality, it can be seen that gender
stereotypical choices bring about multifaceted inequalities. First, it can be seen that the traditional
“male professions” and jobs estimate higher income on the labour market, while several “female
jobs” (teacher, caretaker, several occupations in the service sector) are characterised by lower
income. Therefore, traditional choices of profession go hand in hand with decreased economic
opportunities for women. Gender stereotypical choices of profession and occupation have been,
inter alia, considered the main explanation for the gender pay gap. In 2017. the gender pay gap in
the European Union was on average 16,2% and it significantly differs among the Member States
varying from 5,2% in Romania and 5,3% in Italy to 25,3% in Estonia (Eurostat, 2018). Secondly, gender
stereotypes pertaining to the choice of profession are equally restrictive for both genders. Non-
traditional choice of occupation may cause bullying or judgement by society, all the more so in the
case of men working in feminised fields (e.g. kindergarten teachers and care workers) (Fuller, et al.,
2005). Fear of becoming marginalised in society potentially restricts the options and employment
of the abilities and interests of many young people. Thirdly, in the current labour market situation
in which several STEM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) and information
technology fields suffer from labour shortages, significant labour market and social potential is left
unused due to gender stereotypical attitudes and non-traditional professional and occupational
choices that are not being made.
WHY DO WE CONTINUE TO HAVE “MALE” AND “FEMALE”
PROFESSIONS?
Gender-based choices of profession reflect several different mechanisms. On the one hand,
professional positions are determined by personal choices of each individual. At the same time,
these personal choices are related to and directed by the influences of the people important
to the individuals (parents and friends) and institutional restrictions (education and labour
market system) (Smyth & Steinmetz, 2015). There have been studies on how different education
and labour market systems relate to gender segregation in the choice of a profession and on
the labour market, while the role of the education system is perceived as selecting students in
different fields and impacting transitions on the labour market (Hillmert, 2015; Smyth & Steinmetz,
2015). “There have also been studies on professional expectations and the results indicate that
gender difference in expectations is relatively lower than the difference on the labour market,
suggesting that often, the initial professional expectations are adjusted in accordance with the
employer’s expectations” (Hillmert, 2015: 142−143). Therefore, gender segregation and its formation
and reinforcement mechanisms are complex. Although the education system can be viewed as
a “selective machine” ‘(Kerckhoff, 1995) it needs to be acknowledged that if part of the selection
takes place through having students and parents pick various study programmes and the other
selection is institutional, using teachers or organisational routines to direct students on the
academic or vocational path (Reisel, Hegna & Imdorf, 2015), in both cases, standards, views, and also
stereotypical attitudes have a role to play.
The education system is seen as a gender reinforcing institution. Although we all construe our
self-image actively and every day, we are influenced by standards prevailing in society that are
reinforced through everyday practices. Educational institutions play an important role here. The
education system is an important societal and cultural context in which identities and power
relations being created and re-created (Renold, 2006). Although initial socialisation takes place
at home, the education system is the second important institution that shapes gender roles and
professional and career prospects prevailing in the family and in society. Research has referred to
teachers as important actors and a hidden curriculum that directly or indirectly develops gender-
based differences and gender inequality. Already in kindergarten, boys and girls are often seen as
8
groups with different abilities and interests and thus, they are treated differently. This, in turn, has
an impact on the decisions and career choices of boys and girls throughout their lives.
Career and professional stereotypes may be deemed a central factor through which gender
segregation models are re-created. It has been found that one of the explanations as to why
gender segregation in career choices persists and is constantly being re-created is that it is not
seen as a problem in education, the labour market or society in general and its wider impact
as a creator of labour market inequalities are not acknowledged (Fuller, et al., 2005). Gender
stereotypical choices have significant impact on the students’ further careers and paths of
education. They have to make their first career decisions after 9th grade by choosing whether
to continue in a upper secondary school or in vocational education. Therefore, it is important to
already be aware of different possibilities already at that time. Students tend to make gender
stereotypical or traditional choices; this is problematic in all European countries. Interested parties
at different steps of the education system (education policy planning, school and class) have an
important role in influencing gender stereotypes with the help of curriculum, career counselling,
and study methods. Gender stereotypes may reveal themselves in study literature and in student-
teacher interaction. At the same time, the way teachers and students approach gender-related
topics in the classroom reflects the norms prevailing in society and, in turn, affects the learning
environment (European Institute for Gender Equality, 2016).
All people should have learning opportunities that are tailored to their needs and capabilities
throughout their whole lifespan, in order for them to maximise opportunities for dignified self-
actualisation within society, in their work as well as in their family life. At the pre-school and basic
education levels, boys and girls develop learning skills, motivation and a vision of their abilities
and capabilities. Therefore, in this period it is important to avoid the comparison of genders and to
support development that is free of outdated gender roles and stereotypes. Equal opportunities
in the educational process mean that girls and boys learn on the basis of the same curriculum
and the same subjects in pre-school, primary school and basic school, receive similar experiences
and the children deal with the same demands and expectations free of stereotypes. Educational
institutions are using teaching methods and materials free of gender stereotypes and not
supporting outdated gender roles. In creating equal opportunities, individual differences of the
learning styles of students are taken into account, trying to avoid a comparison between and a
different valuation of boys and girls. As a result of this learning process, boys and girls experience
equal treatment, mental and physical safety, good relationships within and between gender
groups, equal requirements, expectations, attention, monitoring and similar criteria of assessment
(Sugu ja soolisus..., 2015).
Both teachers and career counsellors could become either preservers of traditional gender
roles and gender inequality mechanisms, or, on the contrary, drivers of change. Therefore, the
key aspects are prior knowledge, relevant education, but also often personal beliefs, attitudes
and behaviour of people working with youngsters. Equality and justice must be ensured to each
child in the provision of career services. The specific situation can be taken as a basis for following
the principles of reducing gender inequality. It is important to agree on the clear principles and
objectives we wish to achieve (Papp, 2000).
9
4. CHANGED LABOUR MARKET AND
CAREER – WHAT IS IT LIKE AND
HOW DOES ONE OPERATE IN IT
SUCCESSFULLY AS AN INDIVIDUAL?
The world is changing constantly and rapidly. There have been some demographic changes and
uncertainties on the labour market have increased. The business models have been changing,
the labour market has become global and there have been changes in employment relations,
the nature of professions, job requirements, structure and functioning of organisations. The
information society dictates a fast pace of life and brings constant development of the means of
communication. Science and technology make strides forward, different life roles have intertwined
and changed. These changes have very significant implications for labour market outcomes and
various other aspects of the working lives of European citizens (Eurofound, 2019). An increasing
number of people work part-time, on the basis of fixed term employment contracts, as a freelancer,
in project-based arrangements, etc. People have several occupations during their lifetime. All of
this has changed the concept of career and the nature of career planning and management. The
new concept of career is characterised as having no borders (Arthur & Rosseau, 1996), constantly
changing (Hall, 1996), construed (Benko & Weisberg, 2007), designed (Savickas, 2005), crafted
(Poehnell & Amundson, 2002), kaleidoscopic and as a portfolio of different activities (Handy, 1998).
Young people especially are facing the great question – how to plan and guide their studies and
work life in these changing conditions in a way that would employ their resources in the best
possible way while also providing personal satisfaction. For the sustainable development of society
it is important that people find an application that suits their qualifications and abilities, and are
able to react to changes in the labour market, if necessary (Government Office, 2014). A knowledge-
based economy with higher added value creates an environment that motivates people to take
responsibility and initiative to exploit their potential in the best possible way. As an economy with
higher added value gains ground, people’s motivation to implement their skills and knowledge
increases, in turn, functioning as a driving force for economic development.
Nowadays, it is presumed that each person leads their own career, that is, takes responsibility
for their life. A career is a person’s lifelong educational and professional development in
concordance with all of the roles in their life (Innove Foundation, 2012). Therefore, by managing,
planning and developing their careers, people also manage and plan the personal aspects of their
lives at the same time. Career choice is no longer a one-time decision. People make several and
repeated career choices in their lives, so they need to be flexible and prepared for life-long learning
and repeated informed career decisions.
A career is developed as a result of a series of decisions that people make throughout their lives –
it is a personal journey that, although influenced by environmental factors, is still mainly created
by the person themselves. In creating one’s life, individual’s personal interests, values, skills,
knowledge, resources, abilities, wishes, and also attitudes play an important role. It is important,
not to have stereotypical beliefs and attitudes. Gender stereotypes hide individuality and
restrict choices. Making choices while being influenced by stereotypical thinking may have
a significant impact on the person’s choices and satisfaction in their professional life, and
on a broader scale, hinder the effective use of human resources. Since the world around us is
changing rapidly and getting more complicated, conscious career planning, development and
management is becoming increasingly topical. The ability to design one’s own career is paramount
for managing in the labour market (King, 2004).
Career designing is a personal learning and development process that runs throughout life.
In this process, people create both their lives and themselves, focusing more on their own
10identity than personality, more on the ability to adapt than preparedness, more on intention than
decisiveness, more on creating one’s own stories and experiences than the outcomes. Mastery
in career designing means combining skills and creativity and creating cultural and contextual
compatibility. The compatibility of the person and the job is important, as well as finding the
meaning of the job based on the person’s personal experience in a holistic perspective (Savickas,
1993). The new labour market has brought along changes like self-determination based on
skills and achievements rather than work, learning how to market oneself in the labour market
competition, and global thinking (Herr, 1997).
People’s career decisions are influenced by a myriad of variables: economy, labour market, friends,
parents, media, culture, teachers, career specialists, health, interests, resources, politics, etc. and
also random events have great impact. Career-related problems also tend to be complex and
multi-factored, which is why a single career decision encompasses several topics and is influenced
by a number of various factors. Thus, we need to analyse the entire system, not individual parts.
Today’s world is unpredictable. Changes take place rapidly and constantly and foreseeing the
future events in the labour market and the economy is also complicated. A decision that seemed
right yesterday may not be the best tomorrow. Failures and mistakes are normal. These dynamic
changes are what hide opportunities and creative solutions. It is important to be active, proactive,
open and curious, adaptable and flexible (Bright & Pryor, 2011).
Since plans are hard to follow in this fast-changing world, there is increasingly more talk of
career management, designing and planning. Life design focuses on contextual possibilities,
dynamic processes, non-linear progression and a personal journey and direction of development
that emphasises actions that bring solutions, creating one’s own identity, human flexibility,
professional competitiveness, emotional intelligence, creativity, taking responsibility and lifelong
learning. The future is built on the accomplishments of the past, taking into account the personal
priorities and development wishes. The concept of identity in the theory of life designing involves
the way people think of themselves in relation to different social roles. Identity is more changeable
than personality and its development is a life-long process (Savickas, 2005).
In the rapidly changing professional world it is important to increase one’s competitiveness, incl.
developing their transferrable skills (for instance, organisational skills, problem-solving skills,
analytical skills) that can be implemented in various fields and for the performance of different
tasks (Fugate, et al., 2004).
Professional competitiveness consists of three dimensions that make up a synergistic combination
- career awareness or career identity, adaptability and social and human capital. Career awareness
involves being aware of work-related aspects (labour market, fields, organisations, professions,
work methods), individual differences (attitudes, knowledge, skills, capabilities, interests) and also
one’s strengths, values, goals, fears and beliefs. Career awareness is the key that enables one to
bring more clarity in the process of career management while building competitiveness (Ibid.).
To increase your career awareness, the following question needs to be asked: Who am I? The
answer should contain strengths, experiences, knowledge, skills (incl. specific professional skills,
transferable skills, social and adaptation skills), abilities, but also wishes, dreams, objectives,
values, beliefs, personal traits and interests, and also different roles in life, gender, age and all of
the accompanying attitudes and fears (Schein, 1996).
Adaptability or the ability to handle the requirements of the external and internal environment
involves, in turn, the ability to analyse the surrounding environment (including the ability to
find, analyse, and use relevant information) and see possibilities in situations, change and direct
oneself and one’s behaviour, thinking, will and emotions. Optimism, initiative, willingness to
learn, openness, self-control and efficiency are the six personality traits that should be thoroughly
focused on to achieve better adaptability (Ibid.). However, people have different attributes for
effective adapting and here, a big role is played by the person’s attitudes, beliefs and perception
that determine the way the person acts (Dam, 2004). Person’s ability to compete and adapt can
easily be hindered by stereotypical thinking.
11The internal perceived wish for control also has a great impact on career management (King,
2004). People with internal locus of control according to the perceived locus of control theory
perceive their confidence and strength to change the external events and are convinced that
success depends primarily on their own efforts. People with external locus of control, however,
sense that they are mainly influenced by external conditions. The locus of control is developed
based on a person’s social experience, but can be impacted towards internal locus of control by
increasing self-confidence and self-esteem (Rotter, 1966). People with internal locus of control feel
more content both with work and life than those who have external locus of control (Spector, 1986).
A person’s psychological capital: high level of optimism, sense of hope, perceived capability
and flexibility are important influencers of career decisions, professional success and general
satisfaction with life (Luthans, et al., 2007). Sense of hope helps to bring self-efficiency into actions,
maintains persistence and consistency and helps the adaptation processes (Niles, et al., 2010).
The process of career designing and development is often viewed as a sequence of logical, guided,
planned and successive activities in which a person is moving towards clearly identified goals.
Such an approach is definitely relevant, but it is increasingly complicated to set clear goals and
make plans in today’s rapidly changing world. Due to this, new paradigms have emerged, focusing
on innovation, flexibility, creativity, proactiveness and adaptation. The need for flexibility means
that there is a necessity for adapting to the changing labour market and social environment, be
prepared to implement one’s (transferrable) skills in a new way. Nevertheless, theorists of new
paradigms recognise that setting goals and striving towards them has not lost its relevance in the
changing world, but goals are not viewed as a single definite objective and people have several
goals in their career – both linearly and in parallel. At that, the experiences of people are constructs
that reflect the meaning they have given them themselves. Human understanding of oneself
is socially construed and the meanings are created from the cognitions from the interaction
between the person and the environment. People create their own reality, they are in constant
communication with the environment and seek stability through changes. A person’s life is a
whole that does not just consist of work life, but also includes hobbies, family, and different roles.
In addition to great professional achievements, satisfaction with work and life as a whole is equally
important. It is important to have a meaningful personal goal that helps to find and keep the right
course. A human is like a system that creates, renews and organises itself (Põld, 2017).
Personal values are important influencers of career choices, but a single role often fails to enable
achieving all the values. They are constructed cognitively, affectively, and behaviourally and are
largely based on self-esteem and the way a person sees other people. Values have an impact on
targeting and taking action. Values (including cultural, work-related and life values) and value-
based priorities are central to career choices (Brown, 2002). It is important to have a personal value-
based and meaningful goal when creating one’s career. This can be a value-driven pay job, but also
unpaid work at home, including caring for loved ones (by both women and men). Although society
often expects a woman to stay at home with young children and take care of the home, it has
become increasingly more common for men to stay at home. Since everyone has numerous roles
in life, it is important to find a suitable balance between these roles. In addition to the importance
of balance between the roles, it is important to know that different roles have different meaning
and significance for people (Hansen, 1997).
125. GENDER EQUALITY ON THE LABOUR
MARKET
High employment and low unemployment rate is one of the macro-economic goals. Increase
in competitiveness and employment is ensured by active participation of the entire human
resource, both men and women. Effective involvement of the entire human resource is also
relevant from the point of view of sustainability of the society and human development (Gender
Equality and Equal Treatment Commissioner’s Office, 2014). Equal participation of men and women
on the labour market could significantly increase the economic potential of the European Union.
According to OECD predictions, the complete unity of the male and female participation rate
would mean a 12.4% increase in the GDP per person by the year 2030 (European Parliament, 2013).
On an individual level, economic independence and earning a living is the main precondition that
enables both men and women to maintain control over their lives and make decisions based on
choices. Economic independence is one of the gender equality goals in the EU.
Gender inequality in the labour market is one part of economic inequality, related to educational,
health and social inequality between men and women. Promotion of gender equality in the labour
market contributes to equality and balance in other areas, and vice versa – reduction of gender
inequality in education, public life, in decision-making, etc. supports equality in the labour market.
GENDER INEQUALITY IN THE LABOUR MARKET IS INFLUENCED BY MYTHS, STEREOTYPES,
ATTITUDES, SOCIAL NORMS AND CONVENTIONS COMMON IN SOCIETY, BUT ALSO:
• economic factors (level of development of the society, globalisation, technological innovation,
structure of the industry, labour market segregation, etc.);
• institutional factors (anti-discrimination laws, tax system, minimum wage system,
manufacturing relationships, trade unions, educational system, etc.);
• personal abilities, skills and opportunities of employers and employees.
From the aspect of the protection of fundamental rights of people, it is important to follow
the principle that people are treated fairly in the labour market and equal opportunities are
created both for the accessibility of work and for developing one’s competence and potential
in professional life. Direct or indirect discrimination on the grounds of sex is first and foremost
prohibited in professional life (Gender Equality and Equal Treatment Commissioner’s Office, 2014).
The principle of equality of men and women, their equal treatment and equal opportunities
are one of the cornerstones of human rights. The concept of gender equality marks the level of
development of a society that ensures equal rights, obligations, opportunities and responsibilities
of men and women in every aspect of social life. This means equal opportunities of both genders
to make choices, be economically independent, develop themselves and be treated fairly and
equally. Gender equality in the labour market means equal access of men and women to all jobs,
equal pay for equal jobs, equal opportunities to develop one’s career and skills, equal possibilities
of reconciling professional and family life, equally safe working conditions and a work environment
free of gender-based or sexual harassment. Fields and professions cannot be labelled as men’s or
women’s jobs.
Gender equality means that men and women have equal rights and obligations in everyday life,
including equal opportunities of getting a job that would ensure their economic independence;
opportunities to dedicate themselves to home and children; participate in political, professional
and other social activities. Equality is not sameness – equal rights and opportunities do not mean
that men and women are identical, but that the differences of the genders do not place them in an
unfavourable position in society or cause them to be treated unequally (Papp, 2000).
On the level of businesses and organisations, gender equality in the work environment means
that the work done by men and women in the company is equally valued, incl. paying the same
13salary for equal work. Employee rights and social protection are ensured at workplaces, there is an
active social dialogue and no one is being discriminated against. This means that the place and
status of an individual both in an organisation and in the labour market depends on their talent,
capabilities and acquired skills, not their gender, nationality or other traits (Gender Equality and
Equal Treatment Commissioner’s Office, 2014).
The gender pay gap is one of the indicators of whether a society is facing gender inequality issues
and how severe these problems are.
THERE ARE VARIOUS EXAMPLES OF UNEQUAL TREATMENT IN THE LABOUR MARKET. FOR
EXAMPLE:
• upon competition, a male teacher is preferred;
• a male professor gets paid more than a female professor;
• a job ad states that only people of a certain age are wanted;
• a kindergarten fires a teacher for being a Jehovah’s Witness;
• an employer refuses to take measures that would enable disabled people to perform work
tasks or receive training;
• bonuses are paid to people that get along with the boss, not based on their contribution;
• remuneration is paid according to the employee’s person and gender, not on their skills;
• men are promoted more easily because they are deemed to be more ambitious and resilient to stress;
• a father is not allowed to take parental leave;
• workplace harassment, excessive controlling and asserting power due to sexuality and gender;
• it is presumed that women are better at jobs involving care and nurturing, serving and
helping others like education, medicine, social work, culture. Men are better at jobs regarding
management, governance, production, technology, production and construction;
• attitude that women look after the home and family, men are the breadwinners;
• opinion that men and women are fundamentally different in their abilities and capabilities.
Most often, discrimination is caused by prejudice and attitudes that prevent one from seeing
the actual person – their values, skills, abilities, etc. Discrimination, traditional views of gender
roles and prejudice may prevent people from learning a profession or doing a job they enjoy the
most. They may also influence the employer/recruiter to prefer a candidate based on their gender,
nationality, age, or any other personal characteristic upon recruitment, promotion, or another
similar situation.
Following the principles of gender equality and equal treatment is definitely beneficial:
effectiveness of staffing increases and the employees are more satisfied with their job and work
environment. Dedication to the organisation increases, staff turnover rates reduce, there are fewer
conflicts, less work stress and labour disputes. Staff consisting of diverse people may enrich the
business with different skills, experiences, ideas and viewpoints and may help the company reach
new markets and new clients. Implementing a diverse strategy gives employers access to a
larger pool of talents and helps to find qualified labour.
146. CAREER DESIGNING
COMPETENCIES – IMPORTANCE AND
DEVELOPMENT
Designing a career is creating a meaningful and satisfactory life for oneself by acting flexibly
based on one’s specific development needs and possibilities.
In this guideline, the concepts of career management and career development are used in parallel
and at times, as synonyms. The world’s academic literature prefers the concepts career management
and career design. Thus, the concept used in the guideline is career management skills. In essence, it
means the same as career management skills – CMS in English academic literature.
Conscious designing of one’s career requires certain competencies that are necessary to ensure
development into a self-managing professional (Van der Heijde & Van der Heijden, 2006). Career
management skills are a set of several competencies, skills and attitudes that help individuals
and groups gather, analyse, synthesise and organise personal, educational and professional
information, and also make decisions and organise transfers (European Lifelong Guidance Policy
Network, 2012). Career management skills are important and necessary to handle the transitions
that characterise today’s educational world and labour market. Based on the constructivist
paradigm, a career is no longer a permanent decision but rather a continuous life-long process of
constructing and developing in an ever-changing environment that requires constant transitions
and career management skills (Savickas, 2012).
International policy documents (e.g. resolution of the Council of the European Union) and research
refer to the necessity of teaching career management skills to individuals to help them find their
way in the complex education landscapes and labour markets of the 21st century. This concept
gives importance to the learning outcomes of career services, that is, a person’s ability to
determine their interests and strengths, relate to educational paths and professional world,
gather relevant information, make structured educational and professional decisions and to
carry them out (European Parliament, 2017).
Research confirms that the systematic development of career management skills has an impact
on the educational, economic, employment-related and social outcomes (Akkermans, 2013).
Research has shown that increasing career management skills boosts the studying motivation
of young people and brings more calculated career choices, including decisions on continuing
one’s education (Meijers, et al., 2011). Great career management skills support professional
transitions of the individual, increase their flexibility on the labour market and support them
in adjusting to changes (Akkermans, 2013). Studies have also shown that career management
skills are closely related to self-efficiency, perceived professional performance and perceived
competitiveness, thus supporting the growth of perceived professional success. They also indicated
that career interventions like career studies and counselling contribute to increased career design
competencies and self-efficiency (Akkermans, Brenninkmeijer, Huibers & Blonk, 2012). With
good career designing skills also comes higher job satisfaction and a greater contribution to the
organisation (Fleisher, et al., 2014).
It is important and possible to support people in developing and shaping their career
management skills. Developing such skills in young people about to enter the labour market is
especially relevant. Entering professional life in the complex and changing 21st century takes
more effort, deeper knowledge of oneself and greater confidence than ever before. Career
guidance, information and career studies play a crucial role in developing career management
skills – the aim of career services is to contribute to increasing the skills and knowledge of people
so that they are able to manage their career effectively (McMahon & Tatham, 2008). Career
development interventions are various measures and activities that empower people in developing
15their career to ensure success, and describe and explain the cause-and-effect logic that is used to
move towards the goal in general (Spokane, 1991).
Foundation Innove has created a career designing competence model that takes the central
role as a tool in supporting young people in improving their career designing skills in Estonia.
Career management skills are general competencies that each individual uses to design their
career throughout life. These skills help to gather, analyse, synthesise and organise personal,
educational and vocational information and to make decisions, organise transfers and consciously
plan a career. Purposeful development of career designing competencies creates the prerequisites
for preparedness to manage one’s life by making self-conscious and responsible choices
(Foundation Innove, 2016).
These competencies (knowledge, skills, values, attitudes) do not only focus on choices and the
decision-making process during transfers (e.g. from one level of education to another, selection of
a speciality or position, etc.). They also help individuals give meaning to their own roles in a wider
context as members of society, family, various cultural groups and to take responsibility for their
own development and fortune. Awareness of one’s own strength, positive self-esteem, knowledge
of the aspects influencing one´s choices (including stereotypes), and relevant information on
learning and work opportunities are just a few of the career management skills that significantly
help people extend their options and live a satisfying, meaningful life.
Every person can develop competencies by and for themselves. This is an ongoing process that
can be directed and supported by appropriate intervention. One of the ways of intervention could
be providing activities that create conditions for implementing or developing certain skills (e.g.
participating in hobby groups or the work of student associations, visiting companies). Within
curricula, career design skills are mostly supported by mediating career services – career studies,
guidance and information.
Development of career management skills starts in early childhood through the influences of
the people surrounding the child. For instance, attitudes towards other people, studying, work
and workers all start from home. In practising hobbies and participating in volunteer activities,
several practical skills are developed; spending time with friends develops communication and
cooperation skills. Acquiring and developing the knowledge, values and practical skills introduced
in school curricula takes place as a result of joint efforts of the school’s teaching and education
process, cooperation between home and school, and the direct living environment of the student.
Career management skills can be incorporated into various subjects and extracurricular activities,
in optional career classes or by using various combined approaches. Integrating career studies with
various subjects provides advantages from an integral and holistic point of view. However, it may
be easier to organise intensification of the knowledge, skills and values necessary for designing
a career as a part of a respective subject by providing training to teachers or in cooperation with
extra-school career guides. Lessons on career studies do not replace systematic career studies that
involve all school levels.
For example, in the national curricula for basic schools and upper secondary schools of Estonia,
the topic of career development and improving career management skills is highly prioritised.
It could even be said that the objective of a school as an educational institution largely overlaps
the objectives of career studies: both place a lot of emphasis on developing preparedness
to handle various roles in one’s life, continue studies on the next educational level and the
informed development of one’s career.
In the setting of goals in the national curriculum for basic schools in Estonia, one of the roles of
school that is stated is contributing to raising the youth to become creative, diverse personalities
who are able to self-actualise in a fully-fledged manner in different roles: in the family, at work and
in public life (National curriculum for basic schools, 2011). In the setting of goals in the national
curriculum for upper secondary schools in Estonia, one of the functions of the school is to prepare
a youth who is aware of his or her goals and able to achieve them, who is able to cope in various
16fields of life, including personal life, labour market and as a responsible and socially mature citizen
(National curriculum for upper secondary schools, 2011).
Career studies are theoretical and practical studies that focus on developing the career
management skills of students. These competencies are awareness of self, one’s abilities
and possibilities, knowledge of professions, learning possibilities and the world of work, and
attitudes that foster entering into the modern world of work, making independent career
decisions and being prepared for life-long learning (Foundation Innove, 2016).
Information received, knowledge and skills acquired and the values developed in career studies
help students find answers to the three important questions regarding designing their career:
Who am I?, Where am I going? Where do I want to go?, How do I get there? (planning and action –
what I am already doing and what else I need to do).
Career designing is a process in which a student seeks answers to the questions important to
them. In finding or receiving answers to these questions and acting upon them, the student
uses certain skills and relies on their values. For instance, the questions could be: What are my
strengths? What is important to me in life? What does the labour world look like today and
tomorrow? What are my studying and working options? What do I dream about? What affects my
choices? What do I need to do to achieve my goals? A career specialist can help young people find
the answers to these questions.
Career studies help students tie their experiences into a whole and give meaning to their
experiences, knowledge received in different subject classes, and through that, create new
personal meanings. This increases the motivation to learn and a willingness to take responsibility
for the conscious designing of their life.
“A student develops an adequate self-image throughout the learning process. With the help of
career studies, however, they develop an understanding of how to use self-analysis in making
career decisions. Acknowledging one’s interests, dispositions and values is a sign of overall
maturity. The aim of career studies is to direct students towards using these skills and knowledge
of themselves to plan their future career.” (Foundation Innove, 2014, p. 6).
In the curricula of general education schools in Estonia, the recurrent topic is “Lifelong learning
and career development”, accompanied by individual and group career guidance, and mediation
of information. Teaching the recurrent topic “Lifelong learning and career development” is aimed
at shaping a student into a person who is willing to learn throughout their life, play different roles
in the changing learning, life and working environment, and to shape their life through informed
decisions, incl. make reasonable career choices (National curriculum for basic schools, 2011).
Specific emphases according to school levels are described in the national curricula.
Career management skills in vocational education are constantly developed and it is compulsory
in all levels under the general skills module.
The recurrent topic is compulsory in all Estonian schools according to the curricula. Schools can
choose how to achieve the learning outcomes presented in the curriculum: whether to integrate
career design topics and activities with subject classes, student’s creative and research work or
events taking place at school, etc. In addition to comprehensive career studies that involve the
entire learning process, schools can teach specific career skills as an optional subject.
The recurrent topic “Life-long learning and career planning” is integrated into all subject syllabuses
both in learning outcomes and the contents of studies.
All subjects develop learning, cooperation and analytical skills, introduce the professions and
further education possibilities in the subject field, and integrate career and subject topics based
on the specifics of the subject class through various topics or learning activities (e.g. information
searches, compilation and formalisation of documents, discussions).
17Both comprehensive career studies and the optional subjects emphasise the students’ career
management skills. Both can effectively contribute to ensuring that
• the student associates the knowledge received in different classes with their plans for the
future and carrying them out;
• teachers integrate the subjects in a purposeful and result orientated way for students.
For instance, in social subjects, basic school students in Estonia learn to understand the causes
and consequences of the changes taking place in the society, incl. to understand how they affect
their career possibilities and options.
Mathematics classes develop the ability to think in an abstract and logical way. A realistic
assessment of one’s abilities is one of the most important future career planning activities.
In physical education, students are encouraged to stay healthy and take care of increasing their
working ability in the constantly changing learning, living and working environment. It shapes an
understanding of how a person’s physical health affects their future work life.
187. MODEL OF CAREER MANAGEMENT
SKILLS
Foundation Innove has developed a model on career management skills and has described the
framework within which the model is implemented.
The model is a structured set of the fields of competence, competencies, attitudes and values, as
well as learning outcomes that enable both the person themselves, career specialists and various
related parties to monitor the development of the necessary competencies and thus consciously
and purposefully work on developing these competencies (Foundation Innove, 2016b).
THE FOUR THEMATIC REMITS OF THE MODEL ARE AS FOLLOWS (FIGURE 1):
1. Developing self-assurance
The students analyse their values, interests, knowledge and skills, character traits, experiences,
strengths, etc. to connect them with realistic learning and working opportunities. The students are
motivated to develop themselves and responsible for developing themselves.
2. Analysis of options
The student is able to understand the connections between education and labour market and can
find, analyse, and purposefully use relevant information pertaining to their education and work
and personal life choices.
3. Planning
Students understand the various aspects they need to consider in planning their career, determine
the relevant alternative possibilities based on their situation, phrase the objectives and make
informed decisions.
4. Acting
Students start to carry out activities for achieving goals related to various roles in life, establishing and
maintaining positive and functioning relationships, commencing and maintaining education or a job.
Figure 1. Model of career management skills (Innove, 2016a).
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