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GAJAH
NUMBER 53
2021
Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group
GAJAH
Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group
Number 53 (2021)
The journal is intended as a medium of communication on issues that concern the management and
conservation of Asian elephants both in the wild and in captivity. It is a means by which everyone
concerned with the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), whether members of the Asian Elephant
Specialist Group or not, can communicate their research results, experiences, ideas and perceptions
freely, so that the conservation of Asian elephants can benefit. All articles published in Gajah reflect
the individual views of the authors and not necessarily that of the editorial board or the Asian Elephant
Specialist Group.
Editor
Dr. Jennifer Pastorini
Centre for Conservation and Research
26/7 C2 Road, Kodigahawewa
Julpallama, Tissamaharama
Sri Lanka
e-mail: jenny@aim.uzh.ch
Editorial Board
Dr. Prithiviraj Fernando Dr. Benoit Goossens
Centre for Conservation and Research Danau Girang Field Centre
26/7 C2 Road, Kodigahawewa c/o Sabah Wildlife Department
Julpallama Wisma MUIS, Block B 5th Floor
Tissamaharama 88100 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah
Sri Lanka Malaysia
e-mail: pruthu62@gmail.com e-mail: GoossensBR@cardiff.ac.uk
Dr. Varun R. Goswami Heidi Riddle
Conservation Initiatives Riddles Elephant & Wildlife Sanctuary
‘Indralaya’, Malki Point, La-Chaumiere P.O. Box 715
Shillong - 793 001 Greenbrier, Arkansas 72058
Meghalaya, India USA
e-mail: varunr.goswami@gmail.com e-mail: gajah@windstream.net
Dr. Shermin de Silva Dr. T. N. C. Vidya
Trunks & Leaves Inc. Evolutionary and Organismal Biology Unit
391 Walnut Stree, Unit 3 Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific
Newtonville, MA 02460 Research, Bengaluru - 560 064
USA India
e-mail: shermin@trunksnleaves.org e-mail: tncvidya@jncasr.ac.in
GAJAH
Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group
Number 53 (2021)
This publication was proudly funded by
Wildlife Reserves Singapore
Editorial Note
Gajah will be published as both a hard copy and an on-line
version accessible from the AsESG web site (https://www.asesg.
org/gajah.php). If you would like to be informed when a new
issue comes out, please provide your e-mail address. If you need
to have a hardcopy, please send a request with your name and
postal address by e-mail to .
Copyright Notice
Gajah is an open access journal distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unre-
stricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, pro-
vided the original author and source are credited.
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Cover
A herd of elephants crossing an oil palm plantation in Tawau, Sabah
Photo by Mazidi Ghani
(See article on page 30)
Layout and formatting by Dr. Jennifer Pastorini
Printed at P & G Printers, Colombo 10, Sri Lanka
Gajah 53 (2021) 1
Editorial
Jennifer Pastorini (Editor)
E-mail: jenny@aim.uzh.ch
Gajah 53 includes two peer-reviewed research For News and Briefs A.J.T. Johnsingh wrote
articles, one research paper, and three short about the life of the former AsESG Co-chair Ajay
communications dealing with Asian elephants. Desai, who sadly passed away last November.
Two articles are from India, and from Thailand, Johnsingh brings back memories of Ajay’s time
Sabah and Sri Lanka we have one article each. in the field and his untiring efforts to conserve
The sixth paper is about captive elephants in Asian elephants. Ravi Corea gives glimpses of
Europe. In the News and Briefs section there is a the life of the former AsESG Chairman Lyn de
book review, an obituary and a memorial. Alwis, honouring his important contributions
to elephant conservation. Paul Keil wrote a
In the Peer-Reviewed Research Articles, book review about Nicolas Lainé’s “Living
Alexander Greene writes about the development and Working with Giants: A Multispecies
and status of human-elephant culture, describing Ethnography of the Khamti and Elephants in
the rituals Karen people in Thailand perform Northeast India”. Gajah 53 also presents abstracts
with their captive elephants. Christian Schiff- from 59 recent scientific publications on Asian
mann describes in detail how to recognize elephants and there are briefs of 27 newspaper
musculoskeletal disorders in captive elephants. articles published across Asia.
There are many photos provided, which will help
elephant caretakers at any facility to look out for The Chair of the AsESG, Vivek Menon, gives us
the symptoms. an update on the happenings of the AsESG. He
explains the proceedings for the membership of
In their Research Article, Cheryl Imm and the AsESG for the next 4-year term and informs
co-authors present a case study on how to about the updated assessment of Asian elephants
successfully involve oil palm plantations in for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
elephant conservation. Better land-use planning
was found to be crucial to keep elephants in the The Editorial Board members worked hard to
landscape. make this Gajah possible. Thanks to the funding
from the Wildlife Reserves Singapore Group
In the Short Communications, Jyoti Bishya et we are able to also print and mail out hard copies
al. evaluate the status of elephants in the Nagaon of Gajah. I am grateful to the authors who
Forest Division in Assam. Elephant numbers have submitted their manuscripts to Gajah and kept
decreased drastically, mostly due to habitat loss. working on their manuscripts until they were
Tharindu Wijekoon and co-authors conducted a ready for publication. The help of four reviewers
trial with the GnRH vaccine to reduce the musth who reviewed manuscripts is greatly appreciated.
period in four captive elephants. The results
were promising with decreasing testosterone and Last but not least I would like to sincerely thank
cortisol levels in two bulls. Sarat Kumar et al. Jayantha Jayewardene, who has indicated that
report on how they tried to solve the problem of he will not be able to continue with his News
a wild elephant bull, who kept breaking into the Briefs, which has been a prominent and popular
zoo and twice injured a female zoo elephant. The feature of Gajah for over a decade.
bull was translocated 50 km but might have come
back to the vicinity of the zoo.
1
Gajah 53 (2021) 2-3
Notes from the Chair IUCN SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group
Vivek Menon
Chair’s e-mail: vivek@wti.org.in
Dear Members As we step into the new quadrennium (2021–
2024), we are reviewing the current membership
Hope this finds you well and that you and your of our group. Although I will formally write to you
family are safe from the current pandemic. 2020 after the upcoming World Conservation Congress
was a very difficult time for all of us. I hope with in September 2021, when the new quadrennium
vaccination started, 2021 brings in some respite will kick in, inter-alia the current members will
from the pandemic and we are able to resume continue to serve the group till we complete the
our work in full swing and are able to travel to review process so that the intervening period is
other range states. I hope our governments and not lost. I am happy that most of you (100 out of
people learn from this pandemic and the negative 111) responded to the self-assessment survey. It
repercussion of environmental damages on our has helped us to understand the diverse research
life and take appropriate actions and safeguards and conservation work being done by our
to protect our forest and wildlife. members across the Asian elephant range states
and the papers published. Thank you for also
The sudden demise of our friend, member and critically reviewing the AsESG Secretariat and
former AsESG Co-Chair Ajay Desai was a great the work of the Chair and the Program Manager.
shock for all of us and for the entire research and The outcome has been quite encouraging. Your
conservation fraternity. Ajay was an institution feedback will help us in further improving our
in himself and his dedication for elephants and work and effective functioning of the group.
sense of humour was unparalleled. It is tragic to
lose a loved one before their time and his loss For the coming quadrennium we have constituted
to the field of elephant conservation in Asia will a new Membership Advisory Committee (MAC)
be long felt. The greatest homage to Ajay would for screening new memberships. The committee
be to continue working for the conservation of consists of Mr. Salman Saaban (Convener),
elephants in Asia that was so close to his heart. Dr. Peter Leimgruber, Dr. T.N.C Vidya and
Dr. Jennifer Pastorini. In our group, we would
The Red List Coordinator and team were
successfully able to update the Red List
assessment of the Asian elephant. The information
was submitted in mid 2019, reviewed in 2020 and
published in early December 2020. This was also
possible because of the information generated
from the research and conservation work of
our members, other experts, organisations and
range country governments that has helped in
undertaking the assessment. On behalf of the
group, I would like to thank all the members who
have contributed in the assessment process and
Christy for taking the lead. You can download the
document at . Vivek Menon and Simon Hedges (left to right).
2
30
25
20
# Members
26%
15 Female
10
Male
5
0 74%
SA
Bh sh
am n
a
na
do ia
o a
al R
iL l
Th nka
Vi nd
m
er a
ng n
e
K
N r
Ja y
Sr epa
M y s ia
a
C uta
di
La es i
G rali
Si pa
or
an
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In Ind
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e
hi
la
U
bo
ap
ad
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ai
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Au
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Range States Other
Figure 2. Country and gender of the 111 members at the end of the last quadrennium (2020).
like to have gender parity (Fig. 2), balance reviewing the applications and we will soon be
amongst youth (Fig. 3) and experience (Fig. 4), able to decide on the names.
geographical balance (Fig. 2), more members
from the countries that currently have less than five For the new quadrennium we would also like to
(Bhutan, Nepal, Myanmar, Cambodia, Vietnam, formulate targets for the group. Based on your
Lao PDR and China) and more representation in feedback, the AsESG Secretariat has produced
skill sets that are poorly represented. I request tentative targets and a workplan and we will soon
you all to proactively look for potential members share this with the group for your comments and
and ask them to apply. They could submit the suggestions.
application to the Program Manager in the
designated application form endorsed by two I thank you all for sincerely contributing to the
sitting AsESG members. research and conservation of the species and
helping achieve the target of the group. I am
As informed earlier, I have also decided to depute looking forward to working with you again
two Deputy Chairs for the group as an essential this quadrennium. I would also like to thank
step for leadership succession. I am glad that a Gajah’ editorial board, our institutional partners
few of you have indicated your willingness to (Elephant Family and IFAW), range state officials
take the responsibility. The AsESG and SSC are and the SSC Chair office for all their support and
assistance. Stay safe and wishing you all good
40
health.
Female Vivek Menon
35
Male Chair IUCN SSC AsESG
30
Human-elephant conflict
Habitat & corridors
25 Ecology & population
# Members
Management (wild elephants)
20 Captive elephants
Education
Health & reproduction
15 Policy
Community/social sciences
10 Anit-poaching
Law & enforcement
Culture
5
Genetics
Evolution
0 Other
30-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 over 70 0 20 40 60 80
Age Class # Members
Figure 3. Age class of the 111 members. Figure 4. Area of expertise of 97 members.
3
Peer-Reviewed Research Article Gajah 53 (2021) 4-19
Speaking with an Upside-Down Tongue:
Reflections on Human-Elephant Multispecies Culture in Northern Thailand
Alexander M. Greene1,2
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université de Guyane, France
1
Centre for Biocultural Diversity, University of Kent, Canterbury, U.K.
2
Author’s e-mail: accidentalshrike@gmail.com
Abstract. In Karen villages in northern Thailand, humans often coexist with captive
wild Asian elephants, in what can be described as a multispecies culture. A variety of
ethnographic data is presented here as evidence of this culture, including an elephant origin
story, rituals performed throughout elephant lives, and associated beliefs and practices.
Together these rituals and beliefs mediate and define the human-elephant relationship. This
relationship exists not only on physical, intellectual and emotional levels, but also within
the spiritual worldview of Karen people. In this worldview, elephants are entangled in the
same complex relations with spirits, both within their bodies and within the landscape
in which they live, that influence Karen human lives. The shared life between humans,
elephants and spirits can be understood as a form of multispecies culture resulting from a
long process of cultural co-evolution.
Introduction (Singh 1963; Lobban & de Liedekerke 2000;
Clarence-Smith 2019). A branch of Ayurvedic
“The fourteenth-century lexicographer Mu- medicine, Gaja Ayurveda, was developed
hammad al-Damiri suggested that the elephant’s specifically for the care of elephants, who were
tongue is upside down and if only it could be an indispensable part of armies and the retinues
turned around this animal would be able to of kings (Somvanshi 2006). But the connection
speak… Until such time, however, human beings goes deeper still: the widespread archaeological
are left to recount the life story of this species, evidence of proboscidean hunting, bones used
even as we intrude upon the telling of the tale.” in construction, and the carving of elephant
(Stephen 2004) figurines in the upper Paleolithic indicates that
elephants and mammoths were not only a key
The human-Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) food source for ancient humans but likely played
connection is one of the most complex, dynamic a significant role in their cosmology (Lev &
and idiosyncratic relationships that have ever Barkai 2016; Barkai 2019).
evolved between human and more-than-human
beings. As Lorimer (2010) puts it, elephants are Today, this ancient relationship continues, despite
“too social and sagacious to be objects; too strange significant changes in the nature of humanity’s
to be human; too captive to be wild, but too wild material entanglement with elephants. Two
to be domesticated”. Asian elephants have been populations continue to exist: those who live free
entangled in human lifeways for more than 4,000 lives in the ‘wild’, and those who are raised and
years as captives and companions, participating live in a state of constant companionship with
directly in all the strands of knowledge and humans. Yet the elephant-human relationship
practice that collectively comprise human culture: perfectly encapsulates the changing winds of
religion, art, construction, commerce, and war. modern scholarship and the steadily unravelling
Wild and captive elephants were present in ancient dependency on a nature/culture duality. Captive
Egypt, Assyria, Persia, Central Asia and China, or companion elephants are not domesticated and
and at the dawn of the Aryan conquest of India never have been. Leery of breeding in captivity,
© 2021 The Author - Open Access
4
the elephants in human care often mate with conservationists directly inform the analysis
free-roaming elephants (Locke 2014; Lainé presented here. After an introduction to Karen
2018), producing offspring that are hybrids of the and elephant lifeways, I present an elephant ori-
postulated ‘wild’ and ‘captive’ elephant cultures. gin story, then proceed through an elephant’s life
Capturing free-roaming elephants is no longer cycle, discussing relevant practices and beliefs at
common, but the ‘wild’ populations that roam each stage. Finally, I argue that this material is
the lowland and mountain forests of Asia not evidence of a dynamic, coevolving multispecies
only thrive in human-altered landscapes but also culture that continues to shape the lives of humans
constantly interact with humans, often in conflict and elephants in Karen villages today.
and sometimes in peace (Fernando 2000; Lainé
2017a). To understand this complex entanglement The Karen
requires us to shed the nature/culture divide
and adopt a more flexible discursive space, A highland people of Thailand and Myanmar, the
one that recognizes the ‘ambivalent intimacies’ Karen have traditionally lived in small villages in
that weave together human and elephant lives mountainous areas cultivating rotating swiddens
(Münster 2016). of upland rice (Fukushima et al. 2007). Their
connection with elephants is long-standing, as
It is in this spirit of reaching for new modes of this colonial-era quote attests to: “In some of the
understanding that Locke (2013) has proposed backward jungle districts especially amongst the
a novel approach, ethnoelephantology, which Karen, elephants take a place somewhat akin to
is premised on the recognition of human the horse or ox, living with their owner on easy
and elephant sentience and coevolution and terms of intimacy and liking” (Giles 1929). In the
employs inter- and multidisciplinary tools. This period in which this was written, and continuing
study takes inspiration from the principles of today in some areas, one of the major practical
ethnoelephantology to explore the multispecies roles elephants played in daily life was in
culture of Asian elephants and the Karen, a agriculture. They were indispensable in bringing
highland people of Southeast Asia. As with rice from the fields back to the village during the
all attempts to arrive at an ‘anthropology harvest, and also assisted during planting and
beyond humanity’ (Ingold 2013) by conducting other times of strenuous labour (Schliesinger
‘multispecies ethnography’(Kirksey & Helmreich 2010).
2010), the challenge is clear: elephants cannot
tell their own story. Cursed, or blessed, with an The Karen are the largest ethnic minority group in
upside-down tongue, one half of the multispecies northern Thailand, but they are far more numerous
culture to be discussed remains mute, and so, as in neighbouring Myanmar, where Karen military
the quote that introduces this paper points out, groups control Kayin State in opposition of the
we must ‘intrude upon the telling of the tale.’ Myanmarese government. Decades of conflict in
Kayin State have internally displaced hundreds
To do so, I rely on a range of ethnographic of thousands of people, many of whom have
material: stories, beliefs and practices of Karen fled to refugee camps on the Thai side of the
people in relation to their elephant companions. border (Bartholomew et al. 2015). In the face
This material, which forms the backbone of of pressure from the governments of Thailand
my argument for the existence of an elephant- and Myanmar, many Karen have also responded
Karen multispecies culture, comes from four with forms of non-violent resistance (Isager &
Sgaw Karen communities in the highlands Ivarsson 2002), including grassroots activism and
of northern Thailand. I interpret this material millenarian religious movements (Gravers 2001).
from the perspective of an American researcher In Thailand, Karen groups have successfully
without a cultural connection to Asian elephants opposed the appropriation of their ancestral lands
or elephant husbandry; however, my experiences by Thai government bodies (Trakansuphakorn
in northern Thai elephant camps and friendships 2008). In Myanmar, a partnership between
with mahouts, elephant owners and elephant Karen communities, the Karen National Union
5
(KNU) and the Karen Environmental and Social healing practices, and beliefs that Karen people
Action Network (KESAN) has recently founded hold about elephants, themselves, and their
the Salween Peace Park as a means of both landscape.
de-escalating military tensions and promoting
sustainable livelihood development in the Karen Asian elephants
homeland (Kamiński et al. 2019).
A common ecological claim is that Asian
Karen people have often been perceived in elephants have a profound impact on the
Thailand as environmentally friendly due to their ecosystems they inhabit. Their voracious feeding
use of sustainable and ecologically responsible and herd movements create patches of disturbance
methods of rotational agriculture and forest within the forest, which play an important role in
management (Santasombat 2004). But in promoting plant succession. As they feed, travel
recent decades, Thai government policies and and defecate, they redistribute undigested seeds in
market forces have pushed many communities convenient packages of fertilizer, thus promoting
to adopt intensive corn agriculture, resulting in seed dispersal and nutrient cycling (Harich et al.
deforestation and environmental degradation 2016). Some of the Karen knowledge holders
(Buergin 2002). These changes are due to the interviewed during this study believe that as
cascading effects of growth in population and elephant populations decrease in Thailand, the
per capita income throughout Asia, which mountain forests are becoming denser and more
has increased meat consumption, leading to impenetrable, because elephants are no longer
expanded meat production and high demand for present to control the rampant growth of their
corn for animal feed (Machovina et al. 2015). favourite food, bamboo.
These regional forces are coupled with attempts
by the Thai government to pressure highland However, the full picture may be more complex:
peoples to abandon rotational farming, convert elephants are edge species, and benefit from
to Buddhism and generally assimilate within moderate human disturbance such as swidden
the nationalistic agenda of the state-building agriculture, selective logging and episodic fire
enterprise (Trakansuphakorn 2008). The ways (Fernando & Leimgruber 2011). Only when
in which Karen communities respond to these ecological succession is prevented, such as by
external forces are complex and varied: of the urbanization or the transition from shifting to
communities visited during this study, two had permanent agriculture, do elephant populations
transitioned much of their land to corn over recent disappear. As such, the ecological disturbance
decades, while one community had placed limits of elephants and traditional swidden cultivators
on corn agriculture, and another had banned it like the Karen are actually linked rather than
entirely. opposing forces. A ‘natural’ disturbance regime
in the highlands of Southeast Asia might be
The changes in the material relations between best characterized as the product of an ancient
Thai Karen communities and their environment landscape management relationship coevolved
have been echoed by other cultural changes. between humans and elephants.
Karen people traditionally practiced an animistic
religion involving the propitiation of deities, Another level on which elephant and human
landscape spirits and ancestors (Rajah 1984; lives are interwoven is the spiritual plane;
Yamamoto 1991; Paul 2018). Today however, elephants occupy an important spiritual role in
the majority of Karen communities have nearly all south and southeast Asian cultures. In
been converted to Buddhism, while a smaller Buddhism, elephants are closely linked with the
but significant number have been converted life of Buddha, from the dream of Queen Maya
to Christianity (Hayami 1996). However, that a white elephant came to her the night she
elements of the traditional cosmology have conceived the Buddha, to the subduing of Mara
been incorporated into these new religions and mounted on an elephant (Ramanathapillai 2009).
continue to shape many agricultural rituals, In the Jataka tales, Buddha was reincarnated
6as an elephant several times before his final, Methods
human birth (Wisumperuma 2012). In Thailand,
monks once rode elephants to the temple on the The material presented here is based on
way to their ordination ceremonies as a symbol fieldwork conducted at four Sgaw Karen villages
of having tamed the wild nature of their mind in northern Thailand in 2018–2019. The human
(Denes 2006). Today elephants can still be seen inhabitants of the villages, located in Chiang
built into the bases of stupas and protecting the Mai and Chiang Rai provinces, ranged from 30
four corners of the roof on Buddhist temples. to nearly 200 households per village, while the
number of elephant residents ranged from three
In Hinduism, the religious significance of to more than 50. Villages were selected based
elephants includes the traditions of Ganesh and on the historical and contemporary presence of
Erawan (Airavata in Sanskrit). Ganesh, the son human-elephant culture, as part of a research
of Shiva, has the body of a man and the head of project focused on how humans and elephants
an elephant. As both the god of knowledge and exchange and co-produce medicinal knowledge
the remover of obstacles, Ganesh is propitiated used in elephant veterinary care (Greene et
first at almost every Hindu ritual (Padhy al. 2020; Lainé 2020). Efforts were made to
2008). Even in Buddhist Thailand, Ganesh has select field sites, which varied in age, elevation,
prominent shrines in major cities and is venerated landscape setting and forest type.
in many Thai elephant camps (Harrington 2005).
Ganesh’s spiritual attributes are clearly linked Each of the four villages operates some form of
to the intellectual and physical capabilities elephant tourism, ranging from ‘elephant camps’
of elephants, which are sufficient to remove in two of the villages to a more experimental
nearly any obstacle in their path. In many ways method in two other villages based on the
the half-human, half-elephant figure of Ganesh principles of compassionate conservation. Many
encapsulates the multispecies human-elephant older mahouts in all four communities had
culture that has coevolved over millennia of previous experience working on human-elephant
interdependence. logging teams in Thailand, Laos or Myanmar.
More than 40 current and former mahouts,
Erawan, a divine white elephant with three elephant camp operators and elephant owners
heads, is the mount of Indra, the Hindu king of were interviewed, with a primary focus on
heaven and god of rain and fertility (Harrington veterinary medicine and elephant healthcare.
2005). Associations between elephants and Individual interviews were semi-structured,
fertility continue today. Thai couples will some- open-ended and conducted in Thai to English or
times take photographs standing beneath an Pakinyaw to English (the Sgaw Karen language)
elephant, whose fertility is believed to descend with the help of interpreters. Focus groups were
into them. The association between fertility, also held with groups of mahouts, often at the
kingship and sacred white elephants led many site of the elephant camp or program, in order
monarchies of Southeast Asia to develop strong to learn more general knowledge about elephant
traditions connected to white elephants. White practices. Detailed life histories of older mahouts
elephants occur naturally and are recognized by were recorded to provide in-depth data about
their lighter-coloured (although not completely the long-term elephant-human connection,
white) skin and hair, as well as other features and how this connection has changed within
(Bujarbarua 1979). In Thailand, all white recent generations. Participant observation at
elephants have traditionally belonged to the king, the elephant camp or program of each village
and as sacred symbols of divine kingship, have was critical to understand the daily rhythms of
been employed in ceremonies and rituals (Denes elephant-human coexistence.
2006). Many provinces in Thailand continue to
hold annual fertility ceremonies centred around The beliefs, rituals and practices reported here
the participation of elephants in parades and emerged as supplemental information during
feasts. early interviews and focus groups. Later this
7emergent material became an additional focus of in-law plucked out the tongue of the elephant and
the research, and early findings were corroborated put it back in upside down. From this day on, the
and expanded upon by additional knowledge elephant could no longer speak.
holders. To provide context, a literature review
was conducted on elephant-human cultural This story (Fig. 1) provides context for the
practices with an initial focus on the Karen. When widespread equation of elephants with people in
almost no comparative material was located, the Karen rituals. Originally human, elephants lost
scope was broadened to Southeast Asia, then their human body and descended to the level
throughout the Asian elephant range, and finally of animal habitation due to an uncontrollable,
to encompass Africa and the African elephant inordinate curiosity. Anyone who has spent time
(Loxodonta africana) as well. Although there is a with elephants knows that they are particularly
vast literature touching on many different aspects curious beings, intent on exploring their
of the elephant-human relationship, very little surroundings. Unlike in the classical Greek story
material was located that focuses in detail on of Pandora’s Box, in this tale the negative effects
the daily rituals and beliefs of human-elephant of curiosity become internalized, affecting only
coexistence presented here. the being who transgressed the taboo and their
descendants rather than the world at large.
Results and discussion
The story also provides a justification for elephant
Origins participation in physical labour, explaining that
the elephant, seeking to maintain their connection
The following elephant origin story was told to their human family, voluntarily offered their
in only one of the four study sites; knowledge services to the agricultural workforce of the
holders in the other communities claimed not to village. It is also made clear, however, that
know the origin story of elephants. As such, it is people have taken advantage of this generous gift
reported here only with the understanding that it and made the elephant work much harder than
may not be representative or in wide circulation: they intended or expected. In the end, it is the
elephant’s own human father who cements their
Once, a long time ago, a man got married and status as something less than human by removing
moved in with his wife’s family. His father-in-law their last human attribute, the ability to speak.
said to him, “When you stay in this house while
I am away, please do not open this box,” and he
showed him which box he should not open. When
his father-in-law went out, the man thought to
himself, “What is in that box?” Overcome by
curiosity, he opened the box, and a white fly flew
out and flew up into his nose. He sneezed and
sneezed and as he did, his nose got longer and
longer. It got so long that he could not stay in the
house anymore, so he moved down to the ground
floor, beneath the house, where the buffalos and
pigs live. Then one day the elephant said to his
father-in-law, “Make me a saddle so I can help
you carry the rice from the fields.” So the father-
in-law made a saddle and the elephant helped
carry the harvested rice, heavy logs and many
other things. But the father-in-law made the
elephant work very hard, much harder than he
expected, and one day the elephant said, “Why Figure 1. Artist’s interpretation of the Karen
are you making me work so hard?” So the father- elephant origin story, by Gloria Treseder.
8What is clear throughout the story, however, is One of the original Nuer… was called Loh.
the presence of elephant sentience and agency. Loh’s wife gave birth to a monstrous girl-child
The elephant is a principal actor in their own with long teeth. She was named Nyalou. Her
story rather than a passive recipient that is appetite was enormous and increased with the
acted upon from the outside. In expressing the growth of her body, so that when she was still
elephant’s human origin as well as the tragedy quite young, the food of man was insufficient to
of their fall, this tale readily encapsulates the satisfy her hunger. Every day she would go into
complex interdependencies, and also the power the forest and fill her belly with grass and the
imbalance, intrinsic to human-elephant culture branches of trees, with roots and heglig nuts, and
today. every day she grew larger and larger. At last she
swelled to such proportions that she could no
The Karen are not the only people to believe that longer squeeze herself through the door of her
the elephant was originally human. Although in home. She called her people together and said to
Hindu traditions the elephant manifests directly, them, “The time has come for me to leave you.
rather than first through a human form (Edgerton I must go to the forest and live there, for there
1931), several origin tales about the African only can I find sufficient food to feed me.” Then
elephant are remarkably similar to the Karen she took her sleeping skins and attached them to
account. A Maasai elephant origin story goes: her ears and straightway they became part of her
body. “ I am now different to you, “ she said,
“Once upon a time there was a girl to be married. “and my descendants will live in the forest apart
She was warned by her parents not to turn back as from mankind. Men will want to kill me because
she walked to her husband’s house. On the day of of my huge teeth and because my flesh is fat and
her wedding she set out to travel to her husband’s sweet. You also my people will want to kill me
house and on the way, she looked behind her and and you may do so with impunity only if you obey
all of her decorative jewellery disappeared. She my words: you shall never throw the first spear,
continued walking and again looked behind her and when I am dead you shall cut flesh from off
and she turned into an elephant, with her veil as my back and eat it raw.” She went off to the forest
the trunk” (Kioko et al. 2015). with her child, and has remained there ever since
(Howell 1945).
Here we find the same basic frame: the elephant
was human, married into another human family, In this story the elephant is born within the
transgressed by breaking a taboo and as a result, existing Nuer family. Nonetheless she is
lost their human body. A significant difference is ‘monstrous’ – marked as an outsider by her long
that the elephant is female instead of male, but teeth and her insatiable appetite. There is no
this is less a result of gender than of the different transgression; rather Nyalou’s separation from
social structures of the peoples in question: her birth family is seen as an inevitable result
the Maasai are patrilocal, while the Karen are of her individual nature. However, just as in the
matrilocal. So what is important is that in both Karen origin story, the elephant Nyalou is the
stories the elephant is human, but an outsider in active agent. It is she who purposefully gives up
some way, who enters into the already-existing her bodily association with humanity by marking
human family, which can perhaps be understood herself with huge ears (African elephant ears are
as the archetypal family of the Karen/Maasai. larger and more prominent than those of Asian
However the elephant in both cases breaks the elephants). And it is she who offers herself to the
social pact between the outsider and the insider people, just as in the Karen story, although here
(which is delineated and reinforced by taboos) the utility she offers is meat and ivory rather than
and as a consequence, loses their human form. labour.
One additional origin story, this one from the Nuer In all three stories, the separation of the elephant
people of Sudan, reinforces these observations: from their human kin is effected through the loss
of a human body. In none of the stories, however,
9is there any implication that the elephant has lost person’s (or elephant’s) full vitality and power
their human mind. In fact, in the Nuer and Karen (Rajadhon 1962).
stories the elephant’s continuing to speak after
losing their human semblance clearly implies During the ritual, offerings are made, prayers are
that they continue to think like a person. This sung, and chicken or pig sacrifices were once
observation is key, because it explains why in performed (although this has been discontinued
all three cultures, a degree of personhood is still in many, particularly Buddhist communities)
ascribed to elephants today. Nuer people, for to entice the kla back to the body. White cotton
instance, consider the killing of an elephant to threads are tied around the wrists of the people (or
be identical to the killing of a human, and the the tusks or ears of elephants) to bind the souls
killer must undergo the same ritual purification back into the body. This ritual is essential to the
to safeguard themselves from ill effects social fabric of Karen communities (and many
(Howell 1945). Among the Karen, elephants are other peoples of Thailand and Laos (Rajadhon
symbolically equated to people through a variety 1962; Chai 2006)), so it is particularly indicative
of rituals performed at their birth, throughout that it is also performed for elephants. No other
their lives, and at their death. The exact status animal receives this kind of welcome at its birth.
of elephants remains ambiguous, as all of these In celebrating a version of the giju for elephants,
stories indicate. Are they human? No longer. the elephants are tacitly being acknowledged as
Are they people? Possibly. Are they like other members of the community.
animals? No. In considering human-elephant
culture, it is important to recognize this ambiguity It is common to save the umbilical cord of a
as well as the possibility that rather than dealing newborn elephant, which is dried and used in
with a multispecies culture constituted between a ritualistic manner to promote fertility. When
humans and animals, we may in fact be dealing a woman is pregnant, if her mother or mother-
with a culture constituted from two different in-law possesses some of this dried elephant
kinds of people (Lev & Barkai 2016). umbilical cord, she can secretly prepare a dish
of food with it and feed it to her daughter/
Birth daughter-in-law in such a way that the pregnant
woman is unaware of what she is eating. If this
One way elephant personhood is acknowledged is accomplished, the birth will be easy and safe,
is when an elephant is born, through a ceremony and the child will be healthy and strong. In this
held on the same day of the birth. The ceremony practice the association between elephants and
is a variation of the giju ritual, which is the fertility, as well as the function of Ganesh as the
Karen form of a widespread soul-calling rite remover of obstacles, are combined. It also shows
performed throughout northern Thailand and how intimate the link is between humans and
Laos (soukhuan in Lanna Thai; baci in Lao). The elephants, as part of the mother/baby elephant’s
giju is premised on the Karen belief that a human body literally comes to constitute the mother/
body is composed of numerous kla, or souls baby human’s body.
(Paul 2018), associated with different body parts
(37 is commonly reported, although the number The umbilical cord is of particular significance to
varies). Some of these kla, not the highest one Karen people. When a child is born, the umbilical
residing in the head, but those associated with cord was traditionally cut with a ritual bamboo
lower body parts, can leave the body at will and knife specifically made for this purpose. Then it
travel in other realms. In particular they may was placed in a bamboo container and hung in a
leave the body during times of sickness, shock or large, healthy tree, usually one which bears fruit or
excitement, or stay behind when a person takes a has beautiful flowers (Maniratanavongsiri 1999;
long journey. The giju ritual is performed during Paul 2018). Through this act, a deep connection
all kinds of liminal states such as sickness, birth, between the tree and individual was created.
after long journeys, etc. in order to call the Karen people believe that when a person’s kla
missing souls back to the body, thus returning the become lost, particularly when they are still a
10baby or very young, the kla will return to this the traditional animistic spiritual leader. This
tree due to the link with the umbilical cord. So demonstrates once again that the elephant-human
whenever a child took ill, the parents would go multispecies culture is dynamic and persistent in
to that child’s tree and pray for the kla to return the face of significant cultural transformations.
to their body (Omori et al. 1999). Because of the
importance of these pga dei pau, or umbilical Training
cord trees, it was forbidden to cut, peel the bark
or harm them in any way (Maniratanavongsiri Baby elephants are left in the care of their mother
1999; Paul 2018). for at least the first three years of their life. They
follow their mother everywhere, often in close
In light of this belief, the use of the elephant’s bodily contact, as they begin to supplement milk
umbilical cord is far from random. The link with forage and slowly learn the ways of their
established between the newborn elephant and world. Karen people take care not to hinder this
the unborn human child can be compared to the process of natural rearing; their interactions
protective relationship between a newborn child with baby elephants in these first years are
and their tree. By ritually feeding the elephant’s restricted to playful exchanges and expressing
umbilical cord to an unborn child’s mother, a link affection physically, verbally and through the
is created that places the elephant firmly within gift of treats like bananas and sugarcane. When
the human family, and protected by its members. elephants are between 3–5 years old, they begin
Indeed, elephants are considered members of the to develop greater independence; in free-roaming
family in Karen villages (Schliesinger 2010). It is populations, young males will eventually leave
particularly interesting that although the hanging the maternal herd entirely. It is at this point that
of umbilical cords in pga dei pau is no longer the process of elephant training occurs.
practiced in many villages, the use of the elephant
umbilical cord is still widespread. This could be Elephant training is perhaps the most contentious
an indication that the deep link between elephants issue between traditional elephant peoples and
and Sgaw Karen people is even stronger and outsiders such as international tourists who have
more resilient than the embeddedness of Karen limited knowledge about elephant traditions.
people within their traditional sacred landscape. Numerous allegations of cruelty and abuse during
elephant training have been levelled at elephant-
The last practice relating to baby elephants is keeping cultures, particularly by animal-rights
the naming ceremony. Traditionally, an elder or groups like PETA (Laohachaiboon 2010).
spiritual leader would choose three beautiful, Alternately, others claim that these charges are
powerful or auspicious names and write each inflated, inaccurate, or sometimes even falsified.
name on a separate piece of sugarcane. After Undoubtedly, there are many different techniques
placing the three pieces on the ground in a row, for training young elephants, ranging from
the baby elephant would be led up to the line unnecessarily cruel to painstakingly gentle. Here
of sugarcanes. The name written on whichever I discuss contemporary Karen elephant training
piece the baby first picked up would become methods in the communities where we worked,
their name. This ritual is remarkable in that it while acknowledging that it is difficult to obtain
instantiates the elephant’s agency by allowing detailed information about this issue from many
them to participate in the process of attaining knowledge holders. The heated international
status and individuality within the community, debate around elephant training has made many
even to a greater extent than that allowed to human mahouts fearful of allegations of cruelty and thus
children (who do not choose their own names). wary of sharing information freely.
This naming ritual continues to be practiced in
two of the villages, and its use has responded Among the Karen, elephant training is the most
dynamically to changing circumstances. In one critical period in the entire life of the elephant,
village, which is now Christian, the local pastor as it will define the relationship between that
is the one who chooses the names rather than individual and its human caretakers. As such,
11it is undertaken with extreme care. Only a few an emotional bond with the mahouts who have
individuals with a specific spiritual capacity are trained them.
considered authorized to initiate the training
process, and this capacity is often inherited along Working with humans
family lines (Schliesinger 2010; Lainé 2017a). In
one village there was only a single community As the elephant origin story indicates, shared
member with this capacity, and although he no work is at the core of the relationship between
longer dwelled in his natal village, he would Karen people and elephants. For centuries,
travel back to perform the necessary rituals when before industrialization largely minimized
any of the community’s elephants were ready to their utility, elephants were indispensable for
be trained. certain tasks, particularly the transportation of
extremely heavy objects like hardwood logs.
The basic process involves separating the baby Lainé (2017b) has argued that among the Khamti
elephant from its mother. To facilitate this, a people of northeast India, shared work between
wooden corral is constructed in the forest. The elephants and humans is what creates, sustains
person overseeing the process constructs a small and in fact constitutes the complex of emotional,
altar beside the corral and makes offerings and psychological, physical and economic bonds that
prayers to the elephant’s guardian spirits, the tie the two species together. His observations
local landscape spirits and the ancestor spirits of human-elephant labour teams indicate that
of those involved to assist the training process. elephants participate directly in the work, under-
Then the young elephant is placed in the corral standing their tasks and showing initiative and
and the mother is led away. sometimes ingenuity in accomplishing them. The
situation is very much the same for the traditional
In the absence of their mother, the young connection between Karen people and elephants.
elephant is now able to begin forming emotional In Thailand today, the tides of culture and policy
bonds with the humans who will care for them have turned against this form of interspecies
throughout their life. This is a difficult process, work, and elephants rarely take part in any kind
fraught with stress and anxiety for both the of useful practical labour. However, human-
elephant and the humans. It may be several days elephant labour is still common in Myanmar,
before the young elephant develops enough trust parts of Laos and other areas.
to accept food from human hands. During this
period the mahouts and the elephant trainer stay Historically, the main work done by elephants
close to the elephant continuously, to familiarize involved agricultural labour and occasional
the elephant with them and allow trust to begin selective logging for the construction of new
to grow. In Lainé’s (2016) analysis of the training houses in the village (Schliesinger 2010). This
ritual among the Khamti, he found that they use work was fairly limited and episodic, and during
chants and songs during this process, such as other times the elephants might remain in the
“Stop! Leave your jungle heart and adopt man village or be released into the forest. However,
heart. Learn the words from man, listen to them.” this changed during the colonial era, when
European nations initiated extensive logging
Indeed, learning to respond to the human voice is operations throughout their Asian colonial states.
critical to the training process. Once the elephants Thailand is one of only a handful of countries in
allow themselves to be fed and begin to trust their the world that avoided colonization, although it
human caretakers, they are released from the came under intensive pressure from the U.K. to
corral and taught the basic elephant commands, the west (from its colony Burma) and France to
such as ‘stop’, ‘go’, ‘sit’, ‘stand’, ‘left’, ‘right’, the east (from its colony Indochina).
etc. The young elephant is slowly integrated back
into the rest of the human-elephant community One of the ways Thailand avoided being colonized
after having undergone this difficult rite of was through a clever diplomatic process of
passage (Locke 2016) and begun the forging of offering, in a series of generous treaties with
12colonial powers, exactly the resources that those elephant teams would normally leave their
powers wished to extract (Pupphavesa 2002). home village for 3–6 months each year during
This resulted in the near wholesale logging of the dry and winter seasons. They would often
Thailand’s teak and hardwood forests, which travel great distances to other parts of Thailand,
was implemented throughout the 19th and 20th or to Laos or Myanmar, to find employment.
centuries by human-elephant logging teams. During these periods the elephant-human teams
The Karen, known for their elephant skills and were completely dependent on each other,
knowledge, were recruited en masse to participate immersed in a world of constant multispecies
in the logging industry, not only in Thailand but companionship and labour. It is likely through
also in Myanmar (Bryant 1997; Schliesinger the interdependence engendered by the logging
2010). This extractive process continued until world that the intensity of Karen-elephant
nearly every corner of Thailand had been logged, multispecies culture was most deeply articulated
at which point the Thai government implemented and affirmed (Fig. 2).
a ban on commercial logging in 1989 (Godfrey &
Kongmuang 2009). Upon the end of the logging season and the
return to the village, elephants would be let loose
Without the opportunity to work in logging, into the surrounding forests, where their mahouts
nearly the entire population of village elephants would check on them once or several times a
in Thailand has been slowly transitioned into a week (Schliesinger 2010). As during other times
new economic activity: elephant tourism. This of transition during an elephant’s life, it was
history is clearly evident in the Karen villages typical to hold a ceremony during this seasonal
visited during this study. Among the younger release. After the elephant walked into the forest,
generation of Karen mahouts, aged 40 or a small bowl with offerings of salt, chilli and rice
younger, the only way of working with elephants would be placed on the footprint of the departing
that they know is through elephant tourism. Each elephant, and prayers would be offered that the
of the four villages has initiated different forms, elephant would stay safe and away from people,
two starting traditional ‘elephant camps’, while neither hurting them nor disturbing their homes
the other two have partnered with foreign NGOs or crops. This ritual shows that despite the
to develop alternative elephant tourism models. intensity of forced labour in the logging industry
and the imbalance of power between humans and
The older generation of Karen mahouts, in elephants needed to sustain that labour, elephants
their 50s–80s, universally participated in the were still recognized as maintaining a degree
logging industry, and this is the primary means of agency. They were respected as beings able
by which their elephant knowledge and skills to disrupt the lives of humans outside of the
were developed. In the logging era, human- carefully curated boundaries of the multispecies
relationship, and were not only given space
within which to manifest their own lives, but
trusted in the belief that they would use that
space responsibly.
In today’s world, where forests are fast
disappearing in the Thai highlands and violent
human-elephant conflict is all too common in
other parts of Asia, this practice seems remarkable.
Although it has largely been discontinued due to
the changing nature of elephant-human politics
and culture, it is still standard to bring elephants
to the forest at night, usually restrained by a
Figure 2. A Karen mahout resting beside his 20–30 m chain. This chain is long enough to
elephant. allow them sufficient forage during the night,
13and although elephants can break a chain of this attack humans as well as other elephants. Musth
length in anger or fear, they are unlikely to do so elephants are not safe to be around under any
under ordinary circumstances. In only one study circumstances, and in all the various forms of
village is there still sufficient forest (the same human-elephant coexistence – villages, logging,
village that has banned corn agriculture) to allow elephant camps – they are always separated from
elephants to be left unchained and unattended for people until the musth period has passed.
days at a time.
The respect that Karen people feel toward
The giju ceremony performed at the birth of an elephants and the care they take in working
elephant is also held for elephants throughout with them is partly in response to the ever-
their lives (Lainé 2017a). During the logging era present danger of living and working in intimate
this would usually be done at the end of the dry contact with such powerful beings. Traditionally,
season when the elephant-human teams would a variety of spiritual objects were believed to
return home from the logging camps. Some confer protection from elephants on their human
villages celebrate this ritual on a family basis, with owners. A special kind of stone is said to grant
each family holding an elephant giju annually protection from musth elephants as well as
or every 2–3 years. Other communities hold an other dangerous animals. Similarly, some Karen
annual festival, which combines community- people believe that if they put one female and one
wide celebrations with family elephant gijus. male of a certain kind of a farm snail (klu tho)
Traditionally, a pig would be raised specifically in their pocket, this will both protect the bearer
to be sacrificed during the ritual, although in from elephants and lend him a certain degree of
some communities this is being discontinued due authority, making the elephant obey his directions
to the influence of Buddhist teachings of non- more readily. It was also recounted that in the
harm. Food, rice wine, flowers, candles, certain past, there were some people who possessed
plants and other objects are arranged in elaborate powerful khatha (Pali mantras or spells) that
banana-leaf structures in a ritual altar. The giju could be said over a piece of limestone and then
leader, usually the family head, offers these fed to an elephant to exert power over them.
objects to the spirits and makes prayers which
apologize to the kla of the elephants for forcing On the other hand, the power of elephants is
them to work, thanks them for working and asks also leveraged by Karen people to provide
the spirits to help more elephants to be born. protection from strong or malevolent ghosts
Cotton threads are tied around the elephants’ and spirits. Elephants themselves also possess
ears and the wrists of the human participants, khatha, and they have stronger khatha than
and then the elephants and people are fed. This the few other highly respected animals that are
ritual, which is not performed for any other known to possess them. Tusks are particularly
animal, recognizes and re-enacts the unique bond valued for protection, so they are often saved
between humans and elephants. after an elephant passes away. Rings can be
carved out of the tusk and worn for protection,
Protection or a miniature tusk can be carved out of the ivory
and worn around the neck for the same purpose.
The release ritual is only one element of a If malevolent spirits have possessed someone
complex set of practices and beliefs Karen and made them sick or crazy, tusks can be used
people have developed in order to ensure their as a tool in exorcism by pointing them at the
protection within the elephant-human relation- person’s body in a threatening manner while
ship. With their enormous size and strength, demanding that the spirit abandon the possessed
elephants can easily squash a human companion (a practice also reported to me previously by
with an unexpected movement or in a burst Akha knowledge holders). If hairs fall from the
of anger. During musth, an annual period of tuft at the end of an elephant’s tail (they must not
elevated testosterone levels, adult male elephants be plucked) and these are collected, they can be
become notoriously savage and violent and can woven into a ring, which is worn on the finger
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