From Martial Arts to Gangsters: Exploring the Transition of the Hong Kong Action Genre
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The Illinois Undergraduate Journal of History • March, 2022 • Vol. 1 No. 1
From Martial Arts to Gangsters: Exploring the
Transition of the Hong Kong Action Genre
NICO DIVIZIO
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
nicoad2@illinois.edu
I. INTRODUCTION Whether it be news stories, film, or
satire, politics is ubiquitous throughout.
Throughout its existence, one of The introduction of a new authority
the most iconic and integral genres in would not be welcomed, so the films
Hong Kong cinema is that of action. The were geared to disrespect authority and
styles of these films have been to show the darker sides of Hong Kong;
portrayed through two primary with these new shifts in control, the
mediums: the flashy martial arts action mood of the cinema would follow,
movies of the 1960s-1970s, and the gritty taking the action genre from
gangster movies that were massively lighthearted and full of stunts to dark,
popular in the 1990s-2000s. Coming brooding, and full of tense, brutal
onto the scene in the mid-1980s, films violence. Throughout this essay, the
like Johnny Mak's Long Arm of the Law impact of real-life events, political
(1984) and Stephen Shin's Brotherhood attitudes, and cultural shifts in Hong
(1986) were some of the first of the crime Kong and their influence on the creation
genre in Hong Kong.1 Once these films of the gangster films of the 80’s and 90’s
did come onto the scene, they gradually will be examined.
gained popularity; in the 2000’s, these
films piqued in popularity, and Johnnie II. RESEARCH
To was the quintessential director of the
genre. Examining this trend, it is curious Within the action genre of Hong Kong,
where and why this shift in genre from the subgenre of martial arts films reigned
martial arts to gang violence occurred. supreme throughout the 1960s-1970s.2
In any culture, politics and government This style of cinema relies on flashy
are a popular medium in the media. The moves from the performers, quick shots,
introduction of social change reflects and clever visual effects, involving “...
changes in the cinema of the time. reverse motion, fast motion, hidden
1 Vesia, Michael. “The Gangster as Hero in Hong 2 Bordwell, David. 2000. Planet Hong Kong: Popular
Kong Cinema.” Offscreen, August 2002. Cinema and the Art of Entertainment, 131. Cambridge,
Mass: Harvard University Press.
1The Illinois Undergraduate Journal of History • March, 2022 • Vol. 1 No. 1
trampolines, and whirs and whooshes to engage in industrial planning.6 With the
emphasize colossal leaps.”3 One movie newly flourishing economy, the style of
that demonstrates these qualities is One- the film was made to match the
Armed Swordsman (1967), by director atmosphere at the time; having a movie
Chang Cheh. This is a film that takes genre of mainly darkness and dreariness
place hundreds of years ago, alluding to during a time of growth and expansion
a more traditional time. In this film, the would be contradictory. The martial arts
protagonist, Fang Kang, seeks revenge films of the 1960s and 1970s focused
against his aggressors after they chop his heavily on astonishing effects and
arm off unjustly. There are glorious fight graceful fights rather than brutal
scenes with animated martial arts moves, violence and dark plots, both of which
stunts that use hidden trampolines and would be seen as reflecting the attitudes
clever camerawork, and fast shot of Hong Kong residents within their
changes to create a sense of urgency for respective time periods. Another martial
the viewer.4 This style of film would be arts action movie that reflected the
the standard throughout the 1960s-1970s, attitudes of Hong Kong in the 1960s-
with many others of this style being 1970s is the renowned Robert Clouse
released during this period, like Five film, Enter the Dragon. Starring Bruce Lee,
Brothers, and The Magic Blade. This new one of the most legendary Hong Kong
style of film would be due to many action stars, the film follows Bruce Lee
factors, some of which include “... portraying a character named Lee. Lee
unparalleled industrial growth, rapid decides to attend a martial arts
population increase, a nascent culture of competition on a crime lord’s island in
consumption, and the proliferation of a order to gain intelligence about the
youth-based mass culture..."5 Man-Fung crimes he is committing.7 Throughout
Yip discusses how people’s attitudes the film, Lee demonstrates genuine
were brighter, and outlook on life was prowess and skill in fighting, using his
more positive in this time period. Many Wing Chun martial arts knowledge.
things were changing for the better Similar to the tricks used in One-Armed
between the 1960s and 1970s, especially Swordsman, there are instances of camera
economic growth. During the 1960s, illusions and wires being used to create
Hong Kong’s GDP in exports was at 54%, epic stunts for the audience.8
and the government had begun to With their fast-paced shots and sense of
3 Bordwell, Planet Hong Kong: Popular Cinema and the Whaples. March 16, 2008. URL
Art of Entertainment, 130. http://eh.net/encyclopedia/economic-history-of-
4 One-Armed Swordsman, Directed by Chang Cheh hong-kong/
7Bordwell, Popular Cinema and the Art of
(Shaw Brothers Studio, 1967)
5 Man-Fung, Yip. 2014. “In the Realm of the Senses: Entertainment, 130..
8Bordwell, Planet Hong Kong: Popular Cinema and the
Sensory Realism, Speed, and Hong Kong Martial Arts
Cinema.” Cinema Journal 53 (4): 81 Art of Entertainment, 135-136.
6 Schenk, Catherine. “Economic History of Hong
Kong”. EH.Net Encyclopedia, edited by Robert
2The Illinois Undergraduate Journal of History • March, 2022 • Vol. 1 No. 1
urgency, these movies reflected the would focus on martial arts, fast
changes occurring in Hong Kong at the camerawork, stunts, and carefully
time; the excited camera moves and choreographed fight scenes, the
mystical action shots reflected the transition into crime and gangster films
excitement held by Hong Kong during was a significant change in style and
their time of growth. With the city presentation. Instead of elegant fight
flourishing and new freedoms being sequences, there would be brutal
added, filmmakers were eager to shootings and killings, with dramatic
celebrate through their art form. The showdowns and stories to match the
booming industry, new business new, darker environment brought on by
freedoms, and greater happiness among the changing political climate of British
the people were driving factors of this control and a loss of identity.10 Johnnie
identity. Hong Kong had developed its To was one of the prominent directors in
own identity over many years, a feeling this new genre. His movies often
that would be reflected in the cinema of matched the described grit and brutality,
the 1960s and 1970s.9 As previously especially in his film Election. This film
mentioned, the GDP of Hong Kong features many shootings, blood, and
dramatically increased during this time unfiltered fights. When examining this
period. This factor certainly worked to shift, there appear to be several factors at
incentivize the creation of new, play. The foremost factor in this shift to
lighthearted, and fun cinema for the grittier, darker times are the experiences
people of Hong Kong to enjoy. This, and events occurring in Hong Kong from
along with the other political factors like the 1990’s onward. A key event which
new gained independence and identity led to this new genre was the
were paramount in the jovial tone these introduction of Hong Kong’s own
action films took on at the time. When political parties, as up until “...the late
social attitudes would change later on, 1980s and early 1990s Hong Kong had no
the films would match. This trend of the political representation or political
media matching the attitudes of the parties.”11 This new introduction of
people at the time is one that would political parties would mark a new shift
remain consistent throughout Hong in Hong Kong culture and lifestyle, one
Kong’s history. The political happenings marked by a struggle of power between
in the 1990’s in Hong Kong held content Hong Kong, China, and Britain. In the
repercussions for the cinema produced. late 1990s, this would come to a head
There would be a shift into the gangster with Hong Kong being handed over to
action genre in the 1980s. Whereas in the China in 1997. With this new
1960s and 1970s, these action movies introduction of Hong Kong’s own
9 Carroll, John M.. A Concise History of Hong Kong. 10 Bordwell, Planet Hong Kong: Popular Cinema and the
Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2007. Art of Entertainment, 13.
Accessed May 2, 2021 11 Carroll, John M.. A Concise History of Hong Kong, 6.
3The Illinois Undergraduate Journal of History • March, 2022 • Vol. 1 No. 1
political parties, derision and criticism very unwelcome by the people of Hong
would follow in Hong Kong cinema Kong, but they reluctantly accepted the
matching the darkness and doubt inevitable changes. One 1988 poll
looming over Hong Kong.12 Political and revealed that “...more than half of the
social turmoil would continue in Hong respondents believed that reversion to
Kong, coming to a head in 1997. Hong Chinese rule would hurt civil rights and
Kong was already undergoing immense individual liberties.”15 Similar to the case
change and turmoil before the handover in the 1960’s-1970’s, these social events
of 1997. The economy was slowing influenced the moods and attitudes that
down, identity was being lost, and the would influence the cinema at the time.
people were living worse lives than the Along with this new shift in mood, some
previous glory of the 1960s and 1970s. of the rules associated with British rule
Other social happenings in Hong Kong were eliminated, leading to fewer
would influence this new style of action restrictions on crime movies. In an
film, particularly that of the 1997 interview, Johnnie To explains that while
handover of Hong Kong to China; The under British rule, filmmakers could
Hong Kong handover to China had been “...do what they wanted to do, so long as
in the works since the colonial takeover the films and events… weren’t
of Hong Kong began hundreds of years controversial or criminal in nature.”16 He
prior. In 1982, that colonial rule was set goes on to describe that any language
to expire. British and Chinese leaders mentioning triads or other gang-related
met over this matter to negotiate the crime was outright banned until the
transition, with British prime minister introduction of the three-category film
Margaret Thatcher deciding that British rating system, allowing for cinema to be
rule over Hong Kong was no longer rated 18+.17 Johnnie To would take
worthwhile. Thus, Thatcher decided that advantage of this new filmmaking
Britain would hand over Hong Kong to freedom in the creation of his action
China with no input from Hong Kong films. The Sino-British agreement
itself.13 Eventually, in 1984, Britain and provided that China would have
China came to an agreement with sovereignty over Hong Kong as a “one
the Sino-British Joint Declaration, which country, two systems” model, meaning
stated China would assume sovereignty that in theory, Hong Kong could govern
over Hong Kong from 1997, lasting fifty itself.18 Of course, China would still hold
years until 2047.14 These changes were great governmental influence over Hong
12 Bordwell, Planet Hong Kong: Popular Cinema and the 190.
16 Nochimson, Martha P., Robert Cashill, and
Art of Entertainment, 248.
13 Little, Becky. “How Hong Kong Came Under 'One Johnnie To. "One Country, Two Visions: An Interview
Country, Two Systems' Rule.” History.com. A&E with Johnnie To." Cinéaste 32, no. 2 (2007): 37..
17 To, Johnnie. "One Country, Two Visions: An
Television Networks, September 3, 2019.
14 Carroll, John M.. A Concise History of Hong Kong, Interview with Johnnie To." 37.
18 Carroll, John M.. A Concise History of Hong Kong,
180.
15 Carroll, John M.. A Concise History of Hong Kong, 6.
4The Illinois Undergraduate Journal of History • March, 2022 • Vol. 1 No. 1
Kong, hence some of the disrespectful chairman position of the Wo Luen Shing,
themes towards China that would be one of the triad societies in Hong Kong.
seen in the gangster genre. Lok is seen to be the more level-headed
After shifting to Chinese sovereignty, and patient of the two candidates, while
members of Hong Kong felt a loss of Big D is rambunctious and tries to buy
identity and anger. Hong Kong had out the election. Lok is elected over Big
adapted to their unique status of being D, a result that Big D does not take kindly
multicultural and diverse. The to. Eventually, Lok proposes a truce to
introduction of new rule over their Big D, which he accepts. Later on, this
territory held the consequence of another move would be seen as one of sly
identity shift occurring, leading to ambition to gain power unfairly. The two
disgruntled attitudes. Accordingly, the men agree that Big D will become the
identity they had developed over the chairman when Lok’s term is up.
years felt disrespected and disregarded. Moreover, in the final sequence of the
Feeling the need to re-establish film, Big D and Lok are fishing together
themselves, cinema at the time, when Big D suggests that they share the
especially of the action genre, would no power of the chairman position,
longer represent the themes of old, with prompting Lok to savagely kill him with
traditional martial arts and customs. a rock, after which he tracks down Big
Along with these social changes, the D’s wife and does the same to her.19 This
gangs, known as triads, moved to the can be interpreted as To saying that even
forefront of Hong Kong’s media, a shift when things appear to have a happy
that would have a lasting impact on the ending, betrayal and deceit will follow,
gangster genre. making reference to the new Chinese
This new attitude regarding politics control of Hong Kong. Many of To’s
is demonstrated in Johnnie To’s Election. other films held a similar theme of a
In this film, the stylization that was seen happy ending being impossible with
in the martial arts genre is stripped away. uncertainty of who is actually in power.
There are no fancy stunts or camerawork, This visceral final sequence and the
but rather a more realistic feel to make violence throughout gave Election an 18+
the film feel more genuine and less rating. However, it was still successful at
mystical. Since much of Hong Kong felt the box office. Looking at the new
as if their previous identity was lost, the elements portrayed in this film, there are
focus on traditional martial arts and a number of real life-events and general
customs would change to a focus on factors which influenced the darker
disrespecting authority. Released in atmosphere in the film. First, it is
2005, this gangster movie follows Lok important to contextualize the dark triad
and Big D, two political candidates in the film. Triad groups are similar to
seeking election for the now vacant American mafias. They are “...not
19 Election, Directed by Johnnie Toh (Milkyway
Image Studios, 2005)
5The Illinois Undergraduate Journal of History • March, 2022 • Vol. 1 No. 1
exclusively criminal organizations but and anxieties that the people of Hong
are multi-faceted brotherhoods in the Kong felt towards these criminal
form of loose cartels bound by social as organizations, all while maintaining a
well as economic ties.”20 Some subtle sense of criticism towards corrupt
authorities say that these groups would government and practices. In a separate
often hold great power, conducting interview about his gangster films, To
criminal operations all throughout Hong proves this when he says that “The
Kong, including things like human and Election films are meant to portray
drug trafficking.21 This demonstrates reality, the way things really are. No one
that the general sadness and disdain for shoots guns. It’s the way gangsters really
the new Hong Kong held a good deal of behave.”24 It is clear that with Johnnie To,
influence on the brooding moods seen in his gang movies did not wish to stray
the film. away from real world events and
The dark triad in Election is portrayed as accuracy, especially with events that
one of these groups, representing the were contemporary. This is a contrast to
dangers of crime in Hong Kong during the martial arts films within the action
the 2000’s. This is not to say that these genre, with many of them having made-
groups were only dangerous in the up stories and plot lines. This reinforces
2000’s; these crime groups have been the notion that authenticity was a driving
prevalent ever since the late 1950’s.22 In factor for the new form of action movies.
an interview about his gangster films, Another film showing the dark triad and
Johnnie To says that “What was gang theme within the action genre is
important was not being graphic, but to that of Young and Dangerous. Directed by
emphasize the fear and anxiety in the Andrew Lau, this film was released in
gangsters’ world. That’s how gangsters 1996. This film follows a group of teens’
operate, they impose fear. They use the involvement in a triad after getting a beat
word honor, but it’s really all about down due to a misunderstanding
money and profit.”23 Through both the between the group and a man named
director’s own expressions and the film's “Ugly Kwan” and his men. Later in the
realistic nature, it is clear that Election film, the teens seek their revenge on Ugly
sought to portray a sense of realism, Kwan’s men through performing hits,
especially in its message. To masterfully but are quickly caught and punished.The
sets up the environment of the film and triad then falls apart, and many of the
constructs the plot to match the real fears members betray one another.. However,
20 Broadhurst, Roderic, and Lee King Wa. "The 22 Broadhurst and Wa. "The Transformation of Triad
Transformation of Triad ‘Dark Societies’ in Hong ‘Dark Societies’ in Hong Kong” 6.
Kong: The Impact of Law Enforcement, Socio- 23 Eagan, Daniel. “Interview: Johnnie To on Election
Economic and Political Change." Security Challenges 5, and Exiled.” danieleagan.com, June 1, 2007.
no. 4 (2009): 3
24 To, Johnnie. "One Country, Two Visions: An
21 Broadhurst and Wa. "The Transformation of Triad
Interview with Johnnie To." 37.
‘Dark Societies’ in Hong Kong” 6.
6The Illinois Undergraduate Journal of History • March, 2022 • Vol. 1 No. 1
in the end, the members seek to work action movies is the influence and effects
together. One of the members, Chiang, of the United States on Hong Kong
returns to take the chairman position of cinema. The United States held a
the triad group, all while letting fellow moderate amount of influence over
member Ho Nam that he will not be Hong Kong throughout history, ranging
forgotten.25 from media to financial impacts. In 1983
With this gesture, director Andrew Lau “...the plunging Hong Kong dollar was
wanted to portray these criminals as pegged to the American Dollar…”28 This
virtuous towards their own people, powerful influence would carry over to
while presenting the audience with a other aspects of Hong Kong life, such as
dilemma of whether or not to support the film industry. In the 1990’s, the
these criminals; on one hand, they have description of directors was “Often
committed violent acts, but on the other, trained in the West and in television, less
they are still ethical in the treatment of tied to Mainland traditions than older
their own, only using violence for hands, these young filmmakers turned
revenge. Portraying the triad members away from the martial arts and toward
as the “good guys” was used to gangster films…”29 Being trained in the
undermine the impending Chinese West, these filmmakers would be
takeover of 1997.26 The triad members exposed to the gangster and crime genre,
are portrayed as above the law, going as these films were very prevalent in the
against the laws implemented by the United States. While initially this new
unfavorable Chinese rule. When the film style of film revived the Hong Kong
was released, it was said that “...the cinema industry, with some even calling
Young and Dangerous franchise may have it the golden era,30 this newfound
won some street credibility because of its attention to Hong Kong cinema would
edgy disrespect of China.”27 This hold some negative implications. With
demonstrates the discontent Hong Kong this new wave of popularity, Hong Kong
felt with the impending rule of China cinema would not be confined to local
looming. As seen infilms like Election, popularity.
Young and Dangerous, Internal Affairs, and The United States of America took notice
To Be Number One, when the social and of Hong Kong cinema, being particularly
political climate got darker, the themes interested in the martial-arts action stars.
and violence of the cinema followed. For example, “Jackie Chan and John
One last factor that is essential to Woo became American celebrities, and
understand the shift to the crime genre of Tsui, Lam, Wong, and others finished
25 Young and Dangerous, directed by Andrew Lau 178.
29 Bordwell, Planet Hong Kong: Popular Cinema and the
(Jing’s Production 1996)
26 Carroll, John M.. A Concise History of Hong Kong, 6. Art of Entertainment, 3.
27 Bordwell, Planet Hong Kong: Popular Cinema and the 30 Bordwell, Planet Hong Kong: Popular Cinema and the
Art of Entertainment, 6. Art of Entertainment, 3.
28 Carroll, John M.. A Concise History of Hong Kong,
7The Illinois Undergraduate Journal of History • March, 2022 • Vol. 1 No. 1
films in Hollywood.”31 Jackie Chan happiness, and cultural security.
became so popular in the United States Furthermore, the shift to crime and
that he is largely credited with gangsters as the primary type of action
generating the genre of Comedy Kung film can be attributed to a number of
Fu in America, a genre that combined factors; however, it is essential to
legitimate martial arts skills with understand that the cross-cultural
comedic plot lines and action influences, political changes, and social
sequences. With Hong Kong losing
32 changes are largely responsible for this
some of its most iconic martial arts shift in the action genre. The introduction
actors, the action industry would again of social and political change reflects in
start to lose its identity, hence the turn the people’s attitudes, and created a
towards gangster and crime films. distinct change in the cinema of that
Consequently, local action films of the specific era. In the case of Hong Kong in
Martial Arts variety would start to fail, the 1990s, the new Chinese rule over the
going into “...a tailspin, losing its nation created an attitude of disdain
regional markets and failing…”33 With towards the new authority. For this, the
these new martial-arts films failing cinema would focus on gangs, crime, and
locally, the crime and gangster variety violence, both to disrespect this authority
would begin its popularity. This resulted and to illustrate the way Hong Kong
in an interesting exchange of genres, as citizens felt during the 1990s. As Hong
Hollywood received martial arts Kong continues to change, its cinema
influence for its cinema, and Hong Kong will match.
received crime for its action genre.
III. CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bordwell, David. 2000. “Planet Hong
Political climates and culture shifts hold
Kong: Popular Cinema and the Art
a great deal of importance on the cinema.
of Entertainment”. Cambridge,
As was seen in Hong Kong, when the
Mass: Harvard University Press.
times got dark, the cinema’s contents,
attitudes, themes, and characters Broadhurst, Roderic, and Lee King Wa.
followed. Triads had always existed in "The Transformation of Triad ‘Dark
Hong Kong. It took deep political Societies’ in Hong Kong: The Impact
turmoil in the nation to push this dark of Law Enforcement, Socio-
theme to the forefront of the cinema, Economic and Political Change."
away from a focus on tradition, Security Challenges 5, no. 4 (2009):
31 Bordwell, Planet Hong Kong: Popular Cinema and the 33 Bordwell, Planet Hong Kong: Popular Cinema and the
Art of Entertainment, 4. Art of Entertainment, 3.
32 Chen, Xiaxin. Kung Fu Moves in American Movies.
Boston, Massachusetts: Northeastern University, 2016,
60.
8The Illinois Undergraduate Journal of History • March, 2022 • Vol. 1 No. 1
6. Under 'One Country, Two Systems'
Carroll, John M.. A Concise History of Rule.” History.com. A&E Television
Hong Kong. Lanham, MD: Rowman Networks, September 3, 2019.
& Littlefield Publishers, 2007. To, Johnnie, director, Election, Milkyway
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Massachusetts: Northeastern and Johnnie To. "One Country, Two
University, 2016. Visions: An Interview with Johnnie
Eagan, Daniel. “Interview: Johnnie To To." Cinéaste 32, no. 2 (2007): 37..
on Election and Exiled.” Vesia, Michael. “The Gangster as Hero
danieleagan.com, June 1, 2007 in Hong Kong Cinema.” Offscreen,
Johnnie To, Election. Tubi, 2005 August 2002.
Lau, Andrew, director, Young and Yip, Man-Fung. “In the Realm of the
Dangerous, Jing’s Production 1996, 1 Senses: Sensory Realism, Speed, and
hr., 39 minutes Hong Kong Martial Arts Cinema.”
Cinema Journal 53 (2014): 8
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