FOURTH BIENNIAL UPDATE REPORT - UNDER THE UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE
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S I N G A P O R E ’S
FOURT H BIENNIAL
U P D AT E R E P O R T
UNDER THE UNITED N ATIONS FRAMEWORK
CONVENTION ON CLIM ATE CH ANGE
CONTENTS
PUBLISHED BY
National Environment Agency
Environment Building
40 Scotts Road
Singapore 228231
IN COLL ABORATION WITH
Ministry of Foreign Affairs Foreword 003
Ministry of National Development
Ministry of Sustainability and the Environment
Ministry of Trade and Industry
Ministry of Transport
Executive Summary 006
National Climate Change Secretariat
IMAGES CONTRIBUTED BY
Barramundi Asia Pte Ltd
Building and Construction Authority
Earth Observatory of Singapore
Energy Market Authority
Housing & Development Board
Land Transport Authority FOURTH BIENNIAL UPDATE REPORT
National Climate Change Secretariat
National Environment Agency CHAPTER 1
National Parks Board
Neste Corporation National Circumstances 008
PUB, Singapore’s National Water Agency
Sembcorp Cogen Pte Ltd
CHAPTER 2
Sembcorp Industries
Senoko Energy Pte Ltd Enhancing Capacities 018
Singapore Food Agency
Singapore LNG Corporation Pte Ltd
CHAPTER 3
National Greenhouse Gas Inventory 024
© N ATION AL ENVIRONMENT AGENCY 2020 CHAPTER 4
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
Mitigation Measures 060
or mechanical, without the prior permission of the National Environment Agency.
NOTES ON USING THIS DOCUMENT
As a non-Annex I Party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC), Singapore is obliged to submit our National Communication
(NC) every four years1 and our 1st Biennial Update Report (BUR) to the UNFCCC
in 2014.2
Singapore submitted our 4th NC and 3rd BUR in 2018. ANNEX
2016 Greenhouse Gas Inventory Worksheets 082
The BUR presents Singapore’s ongoing and planned mitigation actions till 2020.
This document was prepared in accordance with the UNFCCC Biennial Update Greenhouse Gas Summary Tables for 2014,
Reporting Guidelines (decision 2/CP.17 annex III).
2012, 2010, 2000 and 1994 130
Glossary
UNFCCC decision 1/CP.16
140
1
2
UNFCCC decision 2/CP.17
FOREWORD
F O U R T H B I E N N I A L U P D AT E R E P O R T
2020 has been a year of extraordinary circumstances, and a
stark reminder of how vulnerable we are to the forces of nature.
Even as we continue to tackle the global health crisis, we cannot
afford to put the climate agenda on the back burner. Extreme
climate and weather events have become more frequent and could
become our new reality if global warming is not addressed. The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)’s landmark
Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C, Special Report on Climate
Change and Land and Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a
Changing Climate published in recent years underscore the urgency
for a global response to mitigate the impact of climate change.
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Therefore, as we rebuild and recover from the an enhanced Nationally Determined 3
pandemic, we must take the opportunity to Contribution (NDC) to peak our emissions
shift our economies and societies towards a at 65 million tonnes of carbon dioxide
low-carbon and climate-resilient future. equivalent (MtCO2 eq) around 2030. We
have also put forward our long-term low-
The Paris Agreement represents a clear emissions development strategy (LEDS),
global commitment to tackle climate change. which aspires to halve emissions from
A concerted response by all countries will its peak to 33MtCO2 eq, with a view to
be critical towards achieving the long-term achieving net-zero emissions as soon as
temperature goal of the Paris Agreement. viable in the second half of the century.
Each country must plan for and implement
efforts to reduce its carbon footprint and Our transition to a low-carbon future
prepare for climate challenges. will require a concerted effort across
our industry, economy and society.
Singapore is committed to supporting the Our actions over the years, such as
global call for enhanced climate action. harnessing solar energy, improving
Although our access to alternative energy energy efficiency, adopting cleaner
sources is greatly limited, we have undertaken vehicles, safeguarding our greenery and
early efforts to drive sustainable development implementing a carbon tax, have set
and pursue low-carbon growth. We are on the foundation for Singapore’s carbon
track to achieve our 2009 Copenhagen mitigation strategy. We will continue to
FOREWORD
FOREWORD
pledge to reduce emissions by 16% below pursue emissions reductions across all
our business-as-usual (BAU) level in 2020. sectors through a comprehensive suite
In March this year, Singapore submitted of mitigation measures.
Opposite page: The Farm at One Farrer, Skyrise Greenery Award 2017 winner
F O U R T H B I E N N I A L U P D AT E R E P O R T
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The Active, Beautiful, Clean Waters (ABC Waters) Programme has transformed Singapore into a City of Gardens and Water.
At the same time, we are implementing long- our obligations under the United Nations
term adaptation plans to enhance the nation’s Framework Convention on Climate Change
climate and resource resilience. For Singapore, (UNFCCC). We will continue to press ahead
climate change is an existential challenge. to implement our climate strategies in good
As a low-lying island city-state, Singapore is faith to advance global climate efforts, in the
fundamentally vulnerable to the threat of rising spirit of collaboration and collective action
sea levels and extreme weather conditions. with all countries. The pandemic reminds us
that a global crisis requires a global solution –
Singapore’s Fourth Biennial Update Report governments need to work in concert with one
summarises the progress we have made as another, and in collaboration with the scientific
a nation to address climate change and meet and business communities and civil society.
FOREWORD
FOREWORD
MR TEO CHEE HEAN
SENIOR MINISTER
CHAIRMAN OF THE INTER-MINISTERIAL
C O M M I T T E E O N C L I M AT E C H A N G E ( I M C C C )
Opposite page: Reducing emissions through
travel on the MRT
E X EC U T I VE S UMM ARY
F O U R T H B I E N N I A L U P D AT E R E P O R T
Singapore is a small, low-lying, island city-state use a cleaner fuel mix for electricity generation,
vulnerable to the effects of climate change. switching from fuel oil to natural gas. However,
there are limits to how much more emissions
Given Singapore’s small size and dense urban can be reduced by switching fuels, as natural gas,
landscape, there are challenges to using the cleanest fossil fuel, already constitutes about
alternative energy sources such as solar, nuclear 95% of our fuel mix for electricity generation.
and wind energy. Such difficulties in switching While Singapore continues to invest actively
to alternatives are recognised by the United in research on clean energy technologies to
Nations Framework Convention on Climate reduce the use of fossil fuels, there are limits
Change (UNFCCC). to the deployment of alternative or renewable
energy sources.
Singapore’s greenhouse gas emissions for 2016
totalled 50,702.71 gigagram CO2 equivalent. In addition to reducing emissions, Singapore will
Carbon dioxide (CO2) accounted for 95.2% of continue to raise awareness and build capabilities
total emissions. Non-CO2 gases such as methane to improve energy efficiency across the sectors
(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), perfluorocarbons through the use of incentives or regulatory
(PFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), sulphur measures where appropriate. Singapore has
hexafluoride (SF6) and nitrogen trifluoride implemented a carbon tax of S$5 or US$3.64 per
(NF3) accounted for the remaining 4.8% of tonne of CO2 equivalent (tCO2 eq) of greenhouse
total emissions. This excludes an estimate of gas (GHG) emissions in the first instance, between
HFCs emissions from the refrigeration and air 2019 and 2023, as a transition period. We intend
conditioning (RAC) sector, for which we are in to increase it to S$10-15 or US$7.27-10.91/
the process of finalising. tCO2 eq by 2030. The carbon tax will complement
our existing mitigation efforts to meet our climate
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0 Singapore is on track to achieve our Copenhagen pledge under the Paris Agreement. 0
6 pledge submitted in 2010 to reduce our 7
emissions by 16% below our business-as-usual As a relatively low-lying, densely populated island
(BAU) level in 2020. To build on these efforts, in the tropics, Singapore is naturally vulnerable to
we have submitted an enhanced Nationally the impacts of climate change. Singapore takes
Determined Contribution (NDC) committing to a proactive, long-term approach towards climate
peak our emissions at no higher than 65 million change adaptation. Climate change resilience
tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (MtCO2 eq) goes beyond physical adaptation, and must
around 2030. include building resilient mindsets as well as
collective action to safeguard our environment.
Singapore has also set out a long-term Climate resilience and adaptation plans will be
low-emissions development strategy (LEDS), continuously reviewed and adjusted as new
aspiring to halve emissions from its peak to knowledge and information on the effects of
33MtCO2 eq by 2050, with a view to achieving climate change become available.
net-zero emissions as soon as viable in the
second half of the century. Our enhanced Climate change is an issue with many dimensions
NDC and LEDS build on policies and initiatives that cut across the responsibilities of several
we have progressively implemented over the ministries. The Inter-Ministerial Committee
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
years. They demonstrate our seriousness and on Climate Change (IMCCC) continues to play
commitment to support global climate action an important role in coordinating Singapore’s
and to work towards a low-carbon, climate- approach to climate change.
resilient future.
As a responsible member of the global
A key pillar of Singapore’s strategy to mitigate community, Singapore is actively working at
greenhouse gas emissions is to improve the international, regional and bilateral levels to
energy efficiency across different sectors of support global efforts to address the challenges
the economy. Singapore has taken steps to of climate change.
Opposite page: Optimising the use of land space
CHAP TER 1
F O U R T H B I E N N I A L U P D AT E R E P O R T
N AT I O N A L
CIRC UMS TANCE S
Singapore has taken early measures on sustainable
development and optimised the use of scarce
land through integrated urban planning.
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N AT I O N A L C I R C U M S TA N C E S
Country Profile area also means that our population density Water
F O U R T H B I E N N I A L U P D AT E R E P O R T
of about 7,866 people per km2 is one of the
highest in the world.
Singapore is a small island state in Southeast Asia and consists of Located in the equatorial rain belt, Singapore
receives abundant rainfall annually. However,
one main island and more than 60 smaller ones. It is located between Economy Singapore is considered a water-scarce
latitudes 1°09’N and 1°29’N and longitudes 103°36’E and 104°25’E, country due to limited land to collect and
approximately 137km north of the equator. It is separated from Singapore is an export-oriented economy that store rainwater. To ensure water sustainability,
Peninsular Malaysia by the Straits of Johor, and the Indonesian is highly dependent on international trade. In Singapore has developed a diversified and
2019, in nominal terms, Singapore’s external
islands by the Straits of Singapore. robust supply of water through the Four
merchandise trade amounted to S$1,022 billion National Taps, namely local catchment water,
or US$759 billion, two times its GDP (S$508 imported water, NEWater (high-grade reclaimed
billion or US$377 billion). Over several decades, water produced from treated used water)
Singapore has built up a strong economy where and desalinated water.
manufacturing, wholesale trade and retail
Land Area Northeast Monsoon (late January to early March)
trade sectors each comprised around 21% and Since 2011, the total water catchment area has
is usually much drier, with February being the driest
17% of GDP respectively, in 2019. Singapore’s increased from half to two-thirds of Singapore’s
The main island of Singapore is about 49km month during this period. Afternoon thunderstorms
small domestic market has necessitated an land surface with the completion of three
east to west and 28km from north to south, are common throughout the year, especially during
export-oriented economy, with the bulk of reservoirs in urbanised areas. Despite our best
with a coastline of 215km. The total land area the inter-monsoonal periods from late March
our industries manufacturing products for efforts to maximise water supply from our local
(including that of smaller islands) is about to May and October to November. During the
export rather than local consumption. For catchments, Singapore is still physically limited
728.0km2. Among the smaller islands, the larger Southwest Monsoon and inter-monsoonal periods,
example, Singapore is one of the five largest by our small land area, while demand for water
ones are Pulau Tekong (26.7km2), Pulau widespread heavy rain and gusty winds associated
export refining centres in the world, and our continues to increase in tandem with economic
Ubin (10.2km2) and Sentosa (4.8km2). with Sumatra squalls also occur occasionally.
three refineries produce primarily for global and population growth. Water demand is
export. Oil made up around 17% of our total expected to almost double by 2060.
Singapore’s surface reaches 163m at our Recent Trends
merchandise exports in 2019. Singapore’s
0 highest point. Much of Singapore is generally Observations by the Meteorological Service 0
1 strategic geographical location has also Integral to the large-scale collection of 1
flat and less than 15m above sea level, as Singapore showed that the warm trend experienced
0 enabled it to develop into a major air and sea used water for recycling into NEWater is 1
defined by the Singapore Height Datum (SHD).3 in Singapore over the past decades continued in
transportation hub. The economic structure in the Deep Tunnel Sewerage System (DTSS).
2019. For 28 consecutive months from February
2019 is as shown. A superhighway for used water management,
Climate 2018 to May 2020, Singapore’s monthly mean
temperatures were above the respective monthly the DTSS provides a cost-effective and
average. The annual mean temperature in 2019 sustainable solution to meet Singapore’s
Singapore is situated near the equator and
was 28.4°C, equalling the record set in 2016. Four long-term needs for used water collection,
has a tropical climate, with relatively high and
of the past five years (2015, 2016, 2018 and 2019) treatment, reclamation and disposal.
uniform temperatures, abundant rainfall, and
high humidity throughout the year. The 1981- are also among the top 10 warmest years on Economic Structure, 2019
record with respect to annual mean temperature. (Nominal Value Added Share, %) % NEWater and desalinated water are
2010 long-term average daily temperature was
independent of rainfall, and thus greatly
about 27.5°C, with an average daily maximum Manufacturing 20.9
Other than the high temperatures, 2019 was also enhance the resiliency of our water sources
of about 31.5°C and an average daily minimum Construction 3.7
particularly dry. Rainfall recorded at the climate against dry weather. However, the production
of about 24.7°C. The long-term average annual Utilities 1.2
station was 1,368mm, making 2019 the third driest of these two sources is more energy-intensive
rainfall is around 2,166mm.
year behind 1997 (1,119mm) and 2015 (1,267mm)
Other Goods Industries 0.0 than treating raw water from the local
since rainfall records began in 1869. Wholesale & Retail Trade 17.3 catchment. PUB, Singapore’s National Water
The climate of Singapore is characterised by
N AT I O N A L C I R C U M S TA N C E S
N AT I O N A L C I R C U M S TA N C E S
Agency, has been investing in research and
two monsoon seasons separated by inter- Transportation & Storage 6.7
development (R&D) to improve the energy
monsoonal periods. The Northeast Monsoon Population Accommodation & Food Services 2.1
efficiency of our water production. For instance,
occurs from December to early March, and
Information & Communications 4.3 biomimetic membrane technology, which
the comparatively drier Southwest Monsoon As of June 2019, Singapore’s total population,
Finance & Insurance 13.9 mimics and models desalination processes
from June to September. The early part of including foreigners working in Singapore, was
Business Services 14.8 in nature (e.g. in mangrove plants and marine
the Northeast Monsoon (December to early estimated at 5.7 million. The resident population,
fish), is being engineered and scaled up to
January) is the wetter period of the year when comprising Singapore citizens and permanent Other Services Industries 11.3
reduce the energy needed for membrane-based
monsoon surges occur, which sometimes result residents, was estimated at 4.0 million, or 71% of Ownership of Dwellings 3.8
water purification processes. Another research
in prolonged heavy rain. The later part of the the total population. Singapore’s small land
3
The SHD is defined as the mean sea level determined at Victoria Dock in Singapore between 1935 and 1937.
and commercial hubs, but also power plants, Alternative Energy
F O U R T H B I E N N I A L U P D AT E R E P O R T
reservoirs, air and seaports and industries, Constraints
all within our boundaries. Singapore has also
adopted a greening strategy to extend our Singapore has limited land area, relatively
natural capital and green cover. Our urban flat land, a high urban density, low wind
greenery and natural ecosystems help to speeds, and lacks geothermal resources.
mitigate the effects of, and build resilience to, Therefore, harnessing alternative energy
climate change by storing and sequestering sources such as hydroelectric, wind,
carbon. As trees grow, they build up biomass geothermal or nuclear power is a major
and become carbon stock. Our greenery also challenge. While solar energy is Singapore’s
helps to keep urban areas cooler and improve most viable alternative energy option,
air quality, thus mitigating the impact of competing uses for land greatly limit our
climate change. access to solar energy at scale. Such
difficulties in transitioning to alternative
The seawater reverse osmosis membrane vessels used in the desalination plant Climate Vulnerabilities energy are recognised by the United
are more energy-intensive compared to treating water from the local catchment.
Nations Framework Convention on
Fundamentally, climate change poses an Climate Change (UNFCCC), under
priority is pressure-retarded osmosis, which approach that seeks to achieve sustainable asymmetrical and existential challenge to small Articles 4.8 and 4.10.
recovers energy from the waste streams of growth alongside environmental protection. island nations like Singapore. Although our
seawater desalination and NEWater production. As we work towards a low-carbon future, impact on global emissions is small, the effect Biomass
Combining these technologies will lower the the extent of emission reduction from our of climate change is disproportionately large
energy demand for water production at a climate strategy will depend on our national on us as a low-lying island nation. Biomass, which is used by many countries
systems level. These low-energy solutions will circumstances, past mitigation efforts and with available land mass as an alternative
take time to develop and mature before they geographical constraints, which limit our Singapore’s vulnerability to climate change to fossil fuel, is not viable as a significant
can be fully deployed. access to renewable energy at scale. will require the Government to pursue a energy resource for Singapore. Singapore
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1 comprehensive adaptation programme already converts much of our waste to 1
2 3
Managing demand is equally essential to Historically, our strategic geographical position to protect our coasts, low-lying areas and energy, providing about 2.5% of the total
ensuring a sustainable water supply. Singapore along the East-West trade routes has made communities.4 These adaptation actions electricity generated in 2018. Nonetheless,
adopts a multi-pronged approach in managing Singapore a natural location for oil storage and will impose significant fiscal costs on we will continue to monitor developments
its water demand: pricing water to reflect its refining facilities serving the region. Building on the Government. in this area.
scarcity value, mandating water efficiency our position as a key regional port, the refining
standards and public education on water and petrochemical plants help create synergies
conservation practices. Through wide-ranging and are part of a business supply network in
water conservation measures, Singapore’s Southeast Asia, the Western Pacific, South Asia
per capita domestic water consumption was and Australasia. The refining and petrochemical
reduced from 165 litres per day in 2003 to sector is a large source of our carbon
141 litres per day in 2019. Through holistic and emissions and Singapore has been working to
efficient water demand management strategies, improve energy efficiency in these sectors. This
Singapore has a distribution loss of 8.3% in is an ongoing effort.
2019. The number of leaks in Singapore, at
5.3 leaks/100km/year, is low compared to Singapore has taken early measures on
N AT I O N A L C I R C U M S TA N C E S
N AT I O N A L C I R C U M S TA N C E S
other countries. sustainable development such as switching to
natural gas for electricity generation instead
Singapore’s National of more pollutive fuel oil, and imposing a
Circumstances and vehicle quota system to cap vehicle growth.
Constraints In addition, we have optimised the use of our
The Plant-A-Tree Programme is a platform for organisations and individuals to actively
scarce land through integrated urban planning. participate in the greening of Singapore by planting trees.
Singapore currently accounts for around 0.1% Given Singapore’s unique circumstances as
of global emissions. We will continue to build both a city and a nation-state, our small land
Singapore’s Climate Action Plan: Take Action Today for a Sustainable Future outlines the impact of climate change on Singapore
4
on a long-standing and comprehensive national area has to accommodate not only housing and Singapore’s strategy in reducing Greenhouse Gas emissions.
Carbon Capture, Utilisation Geothermal Marine (tidal and wave power)
F O U R T H B I E N N I A L U P D AT E R E P O R T
4.5m/s, while prime wind sites require annual
and Storage (CCUS) average wind speeds in excess of 7.5m/s. In
and Hydrogen Geothermal energy is not commercially viable The tidal range (difference between high and addition, there are challenges to harnessing
in Singapore given the lack of conventional low tide) is about 1.7m, well below the 4m tidal offshore winds due to busy maritime traffic
Singapore will look into emerging low-carbon geothermal resources and our small land area. range that is typically required for commercial in our waters.
solutions such as CCUS and low-carbon Unconventional geothermal resources cannot tidal power generation. The availability of
hydrogen (as alternative fuel and industrial be utilised in a cost-effective manner with wave power is determined by the height and Solar
feedstock), which have the potential to help current technologies. frequency of waves, but the waters around
reduce our carbon footprint. Singapore are relatively calm as we are Despite Singapore’s space constraints, the
Hydroelectric power surrounded by land masses. In addition, wave, Government is pressing ahead to promote
Whilst such solutions have been conceptually tidal and ocean thermal energy have limited solar photovoltaic (PV) deployment, with solar
proven, their large-scale deployment is Hydroelectricity harnesses the energy of flowing application as much of our sea space is energy being our most viable renewable energy
currently limited by economic, institutional water for the generation of electricity. Much of used for ports, anchorage and international source. Singapore has taken proactive steps
and technical constraints. We will continue Singapore is generally flat and less than 15m shipping lanes. to facilitate solar deployment through regular
to evaluate such technologies and invest above sea level, as defined by the SHD. The reviews to streamline existing regulations and
in R&D initiatives to facilitate their cost- absence of major river systems means that Nuclear compliance requirements. The Government has
effective application. hydroelectricity is not a viable option in Singapore. also embarked on the SolarNova Programme,
Singapore conducted a pre-feasibility study which aggregates demand for solar deployment
(Pre-FS) on nuclear energy as an option to meet across public sector buildings and spaces
our long-term needs. The study concluded in to catalyse the growth of solar energy. The
2012 that nuclear energy technologies available lead demand generated has also helped
at the time were not suitable for deployment and will continue to support the solar industry
in Singapore. to develop its capabilities. In addition, the
Recognition of National Circumstances in the United Nations Framework Convention Government is actively investing in R&D
0 on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Since the conclusion of the Pre-FS, we have and test-bedding to improve the efficiencies 0
1 been monitoring the development of safer and lower the costs of solar PV and related 1
4 5
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Articles 4.8 and 4.10 nuclear energy technologies. Newer nuclear technologies.
calls for Parties to take into consideration developing countries’ national circumstances – power plant designs that are being developed
especially small island countries, countries with low-lying coastal areas, land-locked and transit and tested have the potential to be much safer As solar deployment increases, we are pursuing
countries, and countries disadvantaged in the use of alternative energy sources, amongst others. than many of the plants that are in operation solutions to manage the intermittency of solar
today. However, the risks to Singapore, given PV in Singapore’s context, to ensure a stable
Article 4.8: “Parties shall give full consideration to actions to meet the specific needs and concerns that we are a small and densely populated city, and reliable grid, for example, energy storage
of developing country Parties arising from the adverse effects of climate change and/or the impact still outweigh the benefits at this point. Most of and solar forecasting.
of the implementation of response measures.” Three sub-clauses in the article are of specific these newer technologies are still in the testing
relevance to Singapore, namely: phase and have not been operationally proven. Pursuit of Sustainable
As we are planning for the long term and not for Development
4.8 (a) Small island countries our immediate energy needs, we will continue
4.8 (b) Countries with low-lying coastal areas to monitor the progress of these nuclear Singapore has always prioritised environmental
4.8 (h) Countries whose economies are highly dependent on income generated from the energy technologies to keep our energy options issues and has pursued the goals of growing
production, processing and export, and/or on consumption of fossil fuels and associated open for the future. We will also continue to the economy and protecting the environment
energy-intensive products strengthen our capabilities to understand concurrently.
N AT I O N A L C I R C U M S TA N C E S
N AT I O N A L C I R C U M S TA N C E S
nuclear science and technology.
Article 4.10: “The Parties shall, in accordance with Article 10, take into consideration in the Our pursuit of sustainability and environmental
implementation of the commitments of the Convention the situation of Parties, particularly Wind protection is reflected in our approach to urban
developing country Parties, with economies that are vulnerable to the adverse effects of the development and resource management,
implementation of measures to respond to climate change. This applies notably to Parties with Harnessing wind energy is also not viable, given including how we manage transportation,
economies that are highly dependent on income generated from the production, processing and our low average wind speeds of about 2m/s to housing, waste, greenery, energy and water.
export, and/or consumption of fossil fuels and associated energy-intensive products and/or the 3m/s and lack of land for large-scale application For instance, since the early 2000s, we have
use of fossil fuels for which such Parties have serious difficulties in switching to alternatives.” of wind turbines. Most commercial wind farms been replacing fuel oil with natural gas –
leverage average wind speeds of at least the cleanest form of fossil fuel – as the
IMCCC FRAMEWORK INFOGRAPHIC
primary fuel for electricity generation. In 2019, lowest in the world. We ranked among the IMCCC FRAMEWORK INFOGRAPHIC
F O U R T H B I E N N I A L U P D AT E R E P O R T
natural gas accounted for around 95% of our 20 best-performing out of 141 countries in
electricity generation, with the remainder terms of emissions intensity in 2017.5 We INTE R - M INIS TE R I A L C OM M IT TE E
mainly from waste-to-energy plants and solar are recognised as Asia’s most sustainable ON C LIM ATE C H A NG E
I NTE R - MI NI STE R I A L C O MMIT TEE
PVs. We have deployed around 400MWp of city and the fourth most sustainable city O N C L I M ATE
Chaired by Senior Minister: C H A NG E
Mr Teo Chee Hean
solar PVs in 2020, including floating PVs, globally according to the 2018 Sustainability Chaired by Senior Minister: Secretariat:
Secretariat:
Mr Teo Chee Hean National Climate
and aim to increase this to at least 2GWp Cities Index. The Sustainability Cities Index National Climate Change
Change Secretariat Secretariat:
Secretariat
by 2030. We are also developing innovative recognises that Singapore is undertaking National Climate
IM C C C E X E C U TIV E C OM M IT TE E Change Secretariat
clean energy solutions in partnership with several sustainability initiatives that will create I MC C CSecretary
Chaired by Permanent E X E C U TI V E C O MMIT TEE
academia, industry and other countries. We a high-quality living environment, which is (Strategy Group, PMO)
Chaired by Permanent Secretary
(Strategy Group, PMO)
price energy at market cost, without any resilient and in line with the broader climate
subsidy, to reflect resource scarcity and change agenda. Singapore has also been
promote judicious usage. We also maintain ranked first in the Global Competitiveness Index
stringent measures to discourage vehicle in the World Economic Forum (WEF)’s Global M ITIG ATION NE G OTI ATIONS A DA P TAT I O N
ownership and usage, and to encourage energy Competitiveness Report 2019, underscoring MITI G ATI O N NE G OTI ATI O NS ADAP TATION
efficiency and conservation across all the how our sustainability efforts have helped
sectors. To maximise the potential of emission Singapore maintain its competitiveness.
reduction from sectoral measures, Singapore Long-Term Emissions
Long-Term Emissionsand
and International Negotiations
International Negotiations ResilienceWorking
Resilience Working Group
Group
Long-Term EmissionsWorking
and International Negotiations Resilience Working Group
implemented a carbon tax, the first carbon Innovation will be key for Singapore to continue Mitigation Working
Mitigation WorkingGroup
Group
Mitigation WorkingWorking
Group
Group
Group Working Group
pricing scheme in Southeast Asia, in 2019. to develop sustainably. We aim to develop an
The carbon tax is not standalone – it forms ecosystem of green finance and active R&D that
part of our comprehensive suite of mitigation nurtures the development and adoption of low- Institutional Arrangements infrastructure and policies needed for long-
measures to reduce emissions, create green carbon innovations. With such an ecosystem, term mitigation. A Measurement, Reporting
growth opportunities, and transit to an we can seize green growth opportunities, grow Climate change is an issue with many and Verification (MRV) Task Force under the
energy-efficient and low-carbon economy. our economy and create new jobs as we transit dimensions that cut across the responsibilities LWG is tasked with coordinating inter-agency
0 0
1 We safeguard more than 7,800 hectares of to a low-carbon economy. of several ministries. The Inter-Ministerial MRV efforts. This includes the preparation of 1
6
green spaces – nature reserves, gardens Committee on Climate Change (IMCCC) was Singapore’s National Communication (NC) and 7
and parks – across Singapore, and integrate Despite our constraints and unique therefore set up in 2007 to oversee the whole- Biennial Update Report (BUR) by an inter-agency
greenery throughout the city. circumstances, Singapore is committed to of-government coordination on Singapore’s working group for approval by the IMCCC, and
reducing our emissions across all sectors to approach to climate change. The IMCCC preparing Singapore to undergo the International
This approach has allowed Singapore’s support global climate action. Details of our is chaired by the Senior Minister and Consultations and Analysis (ICA) process. The
emissions intensity today to be one of the mitigation actions are provided in Chapter 4. Coordinating Minister for National Security, RWG studies Singapore’s vulnerability to the
and includes the Minister for Sustainability and effects of climate change and recommends long-
the Environment, the Minister for Finance, the term plans that ensure the nation’s adaptation
Minister for Foreign Affairs, the Minister for to future environmental changes. Singapore is
National Development, the Minister for Trade reviewing our institutional arrangements and
and Industry, and the Minister for Transport. will provide an update in the next BUR.
The IMCCC is supported by an Executive
Committee (Exco) comprising the Permanent To ensure the effective coordination of
Secretaries of the respective Ministries. Singapore’s domestic and international policies,
The IMCCC Exco oversees the work of the plans and actions on climate change, the
N AT I O N A L C I R C U M S TA N C E S
N AT I O N A L C I R C U M S TA N C E S
International Negotiations Working Group National Climate Change Secretariat (NCCS)
(INWG), Long-Term Emissions and Mitigation was established as a dedicated unit in July
Working Group (LWG), and the Resilience 2010 under the Prime Minister’s Office. NCCS
Working Group (RWG). is part of the Strategy Group which supports
the Prime Minister and his Cabinet to establish
The INWG develops Singapore’s international priorities and strengthen strategic alignment
climate change negotiations strategy under across the Government. The positioning of
Neste, the largest renewable diesel and sustainable aviation fuel producer worldwide, has been
operating one of its largest renewable refineries in Singapore since 2010. Its sustainable aviation the UNFCCC. The LWG examines options for NCCS underscores the importance that
fuel will be used by international airlines for more environmentally friendly travel. emission reduction and identifies the capabilities, Singapore places on climate change.
5
Source: International Energy Agency, CO 2 Highlights 2019CHAP TER 2
F O U R T H B I E N N I A L U P D AT E R E P O R T
The planting of nectaring
plants in our parks has helped
provide food sources for many
native fauna, attracting species
such as the Crimson Sunbird.
ENHANCING
C A PAC I T IE S
Even as we build up our Measurement, Reporting
and Verification capacities domestically,
we continue to share our experiences and best
practices with fellow developing countries.
0
1
8
E N H A N C I N G C A PA C I T I E SSingapore recognises the importance of enhancing our capacity
F O U R T H B I E N N I A L U P D AT E R E P O R T
for Measurement, Reporting and Verification (MRV) processes,
and pursuing ambitious climate actions. Enhancing our technical
expertise is an ongoing process, taking into consideration the best
available science and technology, as well as our experience from
implementing previous programmes.
Given Singapore’s unique circumstances by participating in training programmes
and evolving needs, we constantly seek organised by the UNFCCC Secretariat,
new opportunities to leverage innovative IPCC and other expert organisations.
technologies and solutions to address our
climate change adaptation and mitigation Furthermore, efforts were undertaken to
needs. Whilst Singapore does not rely enhance the transparency of GHG inventory
exclusively on external sources for financial, reporting in the following areas:
technical, technological or capacity-building
support to address climate change, the 1 Inclusion of NF3 gas
Government pursues partnerships with civil In addition to the six GHGs that Singapore
society, academia, businesses and other like- has been reporting, Singapore has taken the
0 minded countries to co-create solutions that initiative to include a seventh GHG, NF3, 0
2 can support Singapore’s transition towards a into the national GHG inventory. 2
0 1
low-carbon, climate-resilient future. We also
participate in technical workshops, and consult 2 Recalculation of GHG time series
subject experts at the UNFCCC Secretariat, In line with IPCC Good Practice Guidance
think-tanks, academia and international to continually review the GHG inventory,
organisations to further enhance our MRV Singapore’s GHG inventory has been updated
processes and climate policies. Having learnt in a consistent manner. Where historical
much from these efforts, we continue to pay it data is unavailable, the splicing techniques
forward by sharing our experiences and best prescribed in the 2006 IPCC Guidelines, such
practices with fellow developing countries. as extrapolation and surrogate method, were
applied to ensure time series consistency.
MRV Capacities More details are provided in Chapter 3.
To enhance the transparency of Singapore’s 3 New and updated reporting tables
GHG inventory, Singapore has transitioned As Singapore transitioned to the 2006 IPCC
from using the Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines Guidelines, all reporting tables in the GHG
for National GHG Inventories for some sectors inventory chapter were updated to reflect the
E N H A N C I N G C A PA C I T I E S
E N H A N C I N G C A PA C I T I E S
to using the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National updated guidance, IPCC sectors, categories
GHG Inventories for all sectors. In addition, the and subcategories, where applicable.
Global Warming Potentials (GWPs) applied to all For enhanced transparency, a new table is
GHGs now take reference from the IPCC Fifth included to reflect the methods and emission
Assessment Report (AR5) instead of the IPCC factors used for emissions estimation, and
Second Assessment Report (SAR), to take into GHG emissions estimates provided in the
account the latest science. Singapore has been Annex worksheets are now provided in units
building its capacity to facilitate the transition of mass (e.g. gigagram).
Opposite page: The Supertrees at Gardens by the Bay
harvest solar energy for their light-up at night.Singapore will continue efforts to enhance our the RAC sector for the year 2014. The same
F O U R T H B I E N N I A L U P D AT E R E P O R T
MRV capabilities to improve the transparency methodology was used to obtain an estimate
of our reports. We will continue to build our for 2016. The estimate is 6.26MtCO2 eq.6
capacities through participation in technical
workshops and the outcomes will be included On 1 January 2019, Singapore implemented
in future BURs. licensing controls on the HFCs regulated under
the Kigali Amendment of the Montreal Protocol.
Land Use, Land-Use Change The licensing regime has enabled Singapore to
and Forestry Sector collect more accurate import and export trade
data on HFCs. With the new licensing condition,
Singapore continues to monitor GHG Singapore is working to develop a Tier 2
emissions and removals from the Land Use, estimate of HFCs emissions for data from
Land-Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) 2019 onwards, to be included in the national
sector via wall-to-wall assessment of the GHG inventory in future BURs/biennial
land use and land-use changes derived transparency reports.
through very high-resolution satellite images,
encompassing all land-use categories Reference Approach
as well as activity data on the five carbon and Sectoral Approach
pools, in accordance with the guidelines Emissions
defined by the IPCC. Most of the emission
factors are obtained from field measurements As a global trading hub with a high trade to
and modelling. GDP ratio, Singapore experiences volatility
in trade data as a direct result of our large
As we proceed to build on the refinements and varying trade volumes coupled with the
reported in previous BURs, we continue to presence of a large refining and petrochemical Caribbean participants of the 2019 Singapore-UNDRR Joint Training Programme workshop on disaster resilience at the
0 0
2 enhance our data collection and analysis for sector. This gives rise to large discrepancies Earth Observatory of Singapore (EOS) 2
2 this sector. In doing so, we have embarked on between emissions calculated using the 3
our next cycle of field measurements for the reference approach and sectoral approach.
national forest inventory, which will provide an As such, emissions calculated using the
update to the emission factors. The revised sectoral approach would be more accurate
factors will be used in the preparation of than using the reference approach in
subsequent BURs. We have also taken a closer Singapore’s context. Cooperation Programme (SCP), which is our countries, in particular the Small Island
look at processing our satellite images in order flagship technical assistance programme. Developing States and Least Developed
to refine the estimates of our activity data. Singapore is building its capacity to understand Since its establishment in 1992, more than Countries, in building climate resilience while
the discrepancies through an ongoing study. 131,000 officials from over 170 countries and achieving their Paris Agreement pledges.
We continue to build our capacity by The results will be included in future BURs. territories have participated in our training They cover topics such as climate adaptation
providing regular internal training programmes. Our SCP programmes are aimed at and mitigation strategies, disaster risk
opportunities for technical staff as well as International strengthening countries’ ability to implement the reduction, energy efficiency and emission
participating in capacity-building workshops Cooperation Efforts 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the reduction. Singapore also works with
to develop our technical capabilities further. 2030 Agenda and the Paris Agreement, in areas developed and developing country partners
Climate change is a global challenge that such as Climate Action, Sustainable Cities and and international organisations to synergise
Developing an Emissions requires global solutions. Singapore believes Communities, and Affordable and Clean Energy. expertise and pool resources to implement
Inventory for HFCs based
E N H A N C I N G C A PA C I T I E S
E N H A N C I N G C A PA C I T I E S
that the most effective way we can contribute capacity-building programmes. In June 2019,
on IPCC Tier 2 Methodology is through sharing our best practices and Recognising the difficulties faced by many we worked with the UN Office for Disaster
expertise in climate change and sustainable developing countries in countering the growing Risk Reduction (UNDRR) on a “train-the-
In 2018, Singapore developed an interim development with fellow developing countries. challenge of climate change, we established trainers” workshop in disaster resilience for
Tier 1b estimate of HFCs emissions from We do this primarily through the Singapore the Sustainable Development and Climate the Caribbean. In January 2020, we worked
Change Programme in 2012 and the Climate with the UNFCCC Secretariat and the NDC
Action Package in 2018. Courses under these Partnership on a workshop on enhancing NDCs
6
The estimate includes a minute quantity (0.0008MtCO 2 eq) of PFC-116 emissions.
programmes aim to support all developing for Southeast Asian countries.CHAP TER 3
F O U R T H B I E N N I A L U P D AT E R E P O R T
N AT I O N A L
GREENHOUSE
G A S IN V E N T O RY
0
2
4
N AT I O N A L G R E E N H O U S E G A S I N V E N T O RY
Carbon dioxide
emissions make
up about 95% of
our total greenhouse
gas emissions.The most significant greenhouse gas (GHG) emitted in Singapore
F O U R T H B I E N N I A L U P D AT E R E P O R T
is carbon dioxide (CO2), primarily produced by the burning of fossil
Emission
Factor
fuels to generate energy used by the industry, building, household
NF3
and transport sectors. Given Singapore’s small land size and highly
Method
Applied
urbanised landscape, the GHG emissions from the Agriculture,
NA = Not Applicable, NE = Not Estimated and NO = Not Occurring
Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) sector are negligible in comparison
Emission
with other economic sectors and the size of carbon stocks.
Factor
SF6
Method
Applied
Emission
Factor
Methodology Used
PFCs
Method
Applied
Emission
Factor
HFCs
Method
Applied
A natural gas-fired combined cycle plant converted from a conventional oil-fired steam power plant
D = IPCC default, CS = Country specific and PS = Plant specific
Emission
Methodology Used
Factor
NO
NO
NO
NO
D
D
D
D
D
0 0
2 2
N 2O
6 7
2006 IPCC Guidelines
Method
Applied
Tier 2 and Tier 3 methodologies based on
NO
NO
NO
NO
T1
T1
T1
T1
T1
the 2006 IPCC Guidelines and the 2013
Singapore’s emissions were estimated using Supplement to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines:
Emission
Factor
the 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National GHG Wetlands (Wetlands Supplement),
NO
NO
NO
NO
PS
D
D
D
D
Inventories. Emissions estimates were based where applicable.
CH4
on the sectoral approach. Most emissions
Method
Applied
T2, T3
estimates were derived using the Tier 1 IPCC Good Practice Guidance
NO
NO
NO
NO
T1
T1
T1
T1
methodology provided in the 2006 IPCC
Guidelines. Where default conversion and The CO2 emissions from hazardous waste
Emission
Factor
D, CS
D, CS
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
N AT I O N A L G R E E N H O U S E G A S I N V E N T O RY
N AT I O N A L G R E E N H O U S E G A S I N V E N T O RY
PS
emission factors were used, they were taken incineration were estimated using Tier 1
D
D
from the 2006 IPCC Guidelines as well, unless methodology from the 2006 IPCC Guidelines,
CO2
otherwise stated. with default emission factors from the IPCC
Method
Applied
T2, T3
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
T1
T1
T1
T1
Good Practice Guidance due to unavailable
Higher tier methodology was used where factors in the 2006 IPCC Guidelines.
T1 = Tier 1, T2 = Tier 2 and T3 = Tier 3
PROCESSES AND PRODUCT USe
data was available. Specifically, higher tiers
Greenhouse Gas Source
Fugitive Emissions from Fuels
1B3 Other Emissions from Energy
and country/plant-specific emission factors In addition, the IPCC Good Practice Guidance
Fuel Combustion Activities
1A2 Manufacturing Industries
and Sink Categories
were used for estimating fugitive emissions and Uncertainty Management in National
2A5 Other (please specify)
1C2 Injection and Storage
2A4 Other Process Uses
1B2 Oil and Natural Gas
2A1 Cement Production
from oil and natural gas, emissions from GHG Inventories were applied to improve the
1A1 Energy Industries
2A3 Glass Production
1C1 Transport of CO2
2A2 Lime Production
Transport and Storage
Mineral Industry
1A5 Non-Specified
1C Carbon Dioxide
some categories of industrial processes transparency, consistency, comparability,
1A4 Other Sectors
INDUSTRIAL
and Construction
1B1 Solid Fuels
and product use, CH4 emissions from solid completeness and accuracy of the inventory.
1A3 Transport
of Carbonates
ENERGY
Notation keys:
Production
waste disposal and CO2 emissions from the
incineration of solid waste. Emissions from The tables on pages 27-31 provide the report
the Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry for methods and emission factors used for
1A
1B
2A
1
2
sector were also obtained mainly from using the emissions estimation.8
2
0
N AT I O N A L G R E E N H O U S E G A S I N V E N T O RY F O U R T H B I E N N I A L U P D AT E R E P O R T
Greenhouse Gas Source CO2 CH4 N 2O HFCs PFCs SF6 NF3
and Sink Categories Method Emission Method Emission Method Emission Method Emission Method Emission Method Emission Method Emission
Applied Factor Applied Factor Applied Factor Applied Factor Applied Factor Applied Factor Applied Factor
2B Chemical Industry
2B1 Ammonia Production NO NO NO NO NO NO
2B2 Nitric Acid Production NO NO
2B3 Adipic Acid Production NO NO NO NO
2B4 Caprolactam, Glyoxal and
Glyoxylic Acid Production NO NO NO NO
2B5 Carbide Production NO NO NO NO
2B6 Titanium Dioxide Production NO NO
2B7 Soda Ash Production NO NO
2B8 Petrochemical and Carbon
T3 PS NO NO
Black Production
2B9 Fluorochemical Production NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO
2B10 Other (please specify) NO NO NO NO NO NO
2C Metal Industry
2C1 Iron and Steel Production T3 PS NO NO
2C2 Ferroalloys Production NO NO NO NO
2C3 Aluminium Production NO NO NO NO NO NO
2C4 Magnesium Production NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO
2C5 Lead Production NO NO
2C6 Zinc Production NO NO
2C7 Other (please specify) NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO
2D Non-Energy Products from
Fuels and Solvent Use
2D1 Lubricant Use T1 D NO NO NO NO
2D2 Paraffin Wax Use T1 D NO NO NO NO
2D3 Solvent Use NO NO NO NO NO NO
2D4 Other (please specify) NO NO NO NO NO NO
Notation keys:
T1 = Tier 1, T2 = Tier 2 and T3 = Tier 3 D = IPCC default, CS = Country specific and PS = Plant specific NA = Not Applicable, NE = Not Estimated and NO = Not Occurring
Greenhouse Gas Source CO2 CH4 N 2O HFCs PFCs SF6 NF3
and Sink Categories Method Emission Method Emission Method Emission Method Emission Method Emission Method Emission Method Emission
Applied Factor Applied Factor Applied Factor Applied Factor Applied Factor Applied Factor Applied Factor
2E Electronics Industry
2E1 Integrated Circuit or T2a, T2b, T2a, T2b, T2a, T2b, T2a, T2b,
Semiconductor NA PS NA PS NA PS D, PS D, PS D, PS D, PS
T3 T3 T3 T3
2E2 TFT Flat Panel Display NA PS NO NO T3 PS T3 PS T3 PS
2E3 Photovoltaics NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO
2E4 Heat Transfer Fluid NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO
2E5 Other (please specify) NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO
2F Product Uses as Substitutes for
Ozone Depleting Substances
2F1 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning T2b NA NO NO NO NO NO NO
2F2 Foam Blowing Agents NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO
2F3 Fire Protection T2b NA NO NO NO NO NO NO
2F4 Aerosols NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO
2F5 Solvents T2b NA NO NO NO NO NO NO
2F6 Other Applications NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO
2G Other Product
Manufacture and Use
2G1 Electrical Equipment NO NO NO NO T3 PS NO NO
2G2 SF6 and PFCs from Other
Product Uses NO NO NO NO
2G3 N2O from Product Uses NO NO
2G4 Other (please specify) NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO
Notation keys:
T1 = Tier 1, T2 = Tier 2 and T3 = Tier 3 D = IPCC default, CS = Country specific and PS = Plant specific NA = Not Applicable, NE = Not Estimated and NO = Not Occurring
9
2
0
N AT I O N A L G R E E N H O U S E G A S I N V E N T O RY0
3
0
N AT I O N A L G R E E N H O U S E G A S I N V E N T O RY F O U R T H B I E N N I A L U P D AT E R E P O R T
Greenhouse Gas Source CO2 CH4 N 2O HFCs PFCs SF6 NF3
and Sink Categories Method Emission Method Emission Method Emission Method Emission Method Emission Method Emission Method Emission
Applied Factor Applied Factor Applied Factor Applied Factor Applied Factor Applied Factor Applied Factor
2H Other
2H1 Pulp and Paper Industry NO NO NO NO NO NO
2H2 Food and Beverages Industry NA PS NA PS NA PS
2H3 Other (please specify) NA PS NA PS NA PS NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO
3 AGRICULTURE,
FORESTRY AND OTHER LAND USE
3A Livestock
3A1 Enteric Fermentation NE NE NE NE
3A2 Manure Management NE NE NE NE
3B Land
3B1 Forest land T3 CS NO NO T3 D
3B2 Cropland T1 D NO NO T1 D
3B3 Grassland NO NO NO NO NO NO
3B4 Wetlands T1 D NO NO T1 D
3B5 Settlements T3 CS NO NO T1 D
3B6 Other land NO NO NO NO NO NO
3C Aggregate Sources and Non-CO2
Emissions Sources on Land
3C1 Burning NO NO NO NO NO NO
3C2 Liming NE NE
3C3 Urea Fertilisation NE NE
3C4 Direct N2O Emissions from
T3 CS
managed soils
3C5 Indirect N2O Emissions from
T3 CS
managed soils
3C6 Indirect N2O Emissions from
NE NE
manure management
3C7 Rice Cultivations NO NO
3C8 Other (please specify) NO NO NO NO NO NO
Notation keys:
T1 = Tier 1, T2 = Tier 2 and T3 = Tier 3 D = IPCC default, CS = Country specific and PS = Plant specific NA = Not Applicable, NE = Not Estimated and NO = Not Occurring
Greenhouse Gas Source CO2 CH4 N 2O HFCs PFCs SF6 NF3
and Sink Categories Method Emission Method Emission Method Emission Method Emission Method Emission Method Emission Method Emission
Applied Factor Applied Factor Applied Factor Applied Factor Applied Factor Applied Factor Applied Factor
3D Other
3D1 Harvested Wood Products NO NO
3D2 Other (Sea) T3 CS NO NO NO NO
4 WASTE
4A Solid Waste Disposal T2 D
4B Biological Treatment
NO NO NO NO
of Solid Waste
4C Incineration and Open Burning
of Waste 7 T1, T2a D T1 D T1 D
4D Wastewater Treatment and
NE NE NA D
Discharge
4E Other (please specify) NO NO NO NO NO NO
5 OTHER
5A Indirect N2O emissions from the
Atmospheric Deposition of Nitrogen NO NO
in NOx and NH3
5B Other (please specify) NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO
Information items
CO2 from Biomass Combustion for
Energy Production T2a D
Notation keys:
T1 = Tier 1, T2 = Tier 2 and T3 = Tier 3 D = IPCC default, CS = Country specific and PS = Plant specific NA = Not Applicable, NE = Not Estimated and NO = Not Occurring
7
T1 method was used for the emissions estimation from the incineration of clinical waste and hazardous waste, while T2a method was used for the emissions estimation from incineration of solid
waste. For the incineration of sludge, it is based on a CDM methodology.
1
3
0
N AT I O N A L G R E E N H O U S E G A S I N V E N T O RYF O U R T H B I E N N I A L U P D AT E R E P O R T
Strict enforcement programmes and air quality monitoring have helped to ensure that air quality remains good.
Global Warming Potentials Precursors
The estimated CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs, SF6 and Emissions of precursors such as carbon
NF3 emissions were converted to CO2 equivalent monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), non-
(CO2 eq) using the 100-year time-horizon global methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs)
0 warming potential (GWP) values from the IPCC and other gases such as sulphur dioxide (SO2) 0
3 3
2 Fifth Assessment Report, as presented in the are not included in the inventory. The levels of 3
table below. these gases in the air are currently monitored
by a network of ambient air quality monitoring
Greenhouse Chemical GWP stations. CO, NOx and SO2 are considered
Gas Formula air pollutants and are regulated under the
Environmental Protection and Management Act
Carbon dioxide CO2 1
(EPMA) which stipulates emission standards for
Methane CH4 28 these pollutants. Strict enforcement programmes
Nitrous oxide N 2O 265 and air quality monitoring have helped to ensure
Hydrofluorocarbons HFCs 116–12,400 that the emissions of all these precursors are
minimised and that air quality remains good.
N AT I O N A L G R E E N H O U S E G A S I N V E N T O RY
N AT I O N A L G R E E N H O U S E G A S I N V E N T O RY
Perfluorocarbons PFCs 6,630–11,100
Sulphur hexafluoride SF6 23,500
Singapore’s Emissions for 2016
Nitrogen trifluoride NF3 16,100
Singapore’s GHG emissions for 2016
totalled 50,702.71 gigagram (Gg) CO2 eq.
This excludes the interim Tier 1b estimate
of HFCs emissions from the RAC sector of
6,265.27Gg CO2 eq in 2016. A breakdown
of the total GHG emissions by sources in
Gg CO2 eq8 is shown in the tables on pages
34-35.9,10
8
Using Global Warming Potentials (GWPs) from the Second Assessment Report (SAR), Singapore’s GHG emissions for 2016
totalled 50,570.86Gg CO 2 eq (including NF 3). The GWP for NF 3 was referenced from the Fourth Assessment Report due to
unavailability in the SAR.
9
As some figures are considerably small, they may be presented as “0.00” due to rounding.
10
Figures may not add up to the totals due to rounding.Greenhouse Gas Source Net CO2 CH4 N 2O HFCs Greenhouse Gas Source PFCs SF6 NF3 Total (Net)
F O U R T H B I E N N I A L U P D AT E R E P O R T
and Sink Categories and Sink Categories National Emissions
CO2 equivalents (Gg) CO2 equivalents (Gg)
Total (Net) National Emissions 48,263.33 100.38 320.01 469.13 Total (Net) National Emissions 1,235.41 93.94 220.51 50,702.71
1 ENERGY 47,746.49 77.55 222.78 1 ENERGY 48,046.82
1A Fuel Combustion Activities 46,660.74 55.64 220.95 1A Fuel Combustion Activities 46,937.33
1A1 Energy Industries 20,044.55 9.22 63.94 1A1 Energy Industries 20,117.71
1A2 Manufacturing Industries 1A2 Manufacturing Industries
18,613.56 11.68 15.78 18,641.02
and Construction and Construction
1A3 Transport 7,345.58 33.17 140.93 1A3 Transport 7,519.68
1A4a Commercial / Institutional 445.29 1.06 0.20 1A4a Commercial / Institutional 446.54
1A4b Residential 211.77 0.51 0.10 1A4b Residential 212.37
1B Fugitive Emissions from Fuels 1,085.75 21.91 1.83 1B Fugitive Emissions from Fuels 1,109.49
1B2 Oil and Natural Gas 1,085.75 21.91 1.83 1B2 Oil and Natural Gas
2 INDUSTRIAL 2 INDUSTRIAL
249.94 0.03 23.02 469.13 1,235.41 93.94 220.51 2,291.98
PROCESSES AND PRODUCT USe PROCESSES AND PRODUCT USe
3 Agriculture NE NE NE 3 Agriculture
3 Land Use, Land-Use 3 Land Use, Land-Use
11.95 NO 5.18 17.12
Change and Forestry Change and Forestry
4 Waste 254.95 22.79 69.03 4 Waste 346.78
4A Solid Waste Disposal 22.79 4A Solid Waste Disposal 22.79
4C Incineration and Open 4C Incineration and Open
Burning of Waste 254.95 0.00 2.09 Burning of Waste 257.04
0 Clinical Waste Incineration 2.53 0.00 0.06 Clinical Waste Incineration 2.59 0
3 3
4 Hazardous Waste Incineration 252.42 0.00 2.03 Hazardous Waste Incineration 254.44 5
4D Wastewater Treatment 4D Wastewater Treatment
and Discharge NE 66.95 and Discharge 66.95
Information items11 Information items11
CO2 from Biomass Combustion 1,707.00 CO2 from Biomass Combustion
1,707.00
for Energy Production for Energy Production
Notation keys: Notation keys:
NE = Not Estimated and NO = Not Occurring NE = Not Estimated and NO = Not Occurring
The breakdown of emissions by type of gas is as shown.
N AT I O N A L G R E E N H O U S E G A S I N V E N T O RY
N AT I O N A L G R E E N H O U S E G A S I N V E N T O RY
Emissions Percentage of
Greenhouse Gas (Gg CO2 eq) Total Emissions
CO2 48,263.33 95.19%
PFCs 1,235.41 2.44%
HFCs 469.13 0.92%
N 2O 320.01 0.63%
NF3 220.51 0.43%
CH4 100.38 0.20%
SF6 93.94 0.19%
11
According to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines, information items are not included in the national total GHG emissions. 11
According to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines, information items are not included in the national total GHG emissions.You can also read
