For Psychological Assessment and Evaluation - APA GUIDELINES APA TASK FORCE ON PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION GUIDELINES
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APA GUIDELINES
for Psychological Assessment
and Evaluation
APA TASK FORCE ON PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
AND EVALUATION GUIDELINES
APPROVED BY APA COUNCIL OF REPRESENTATIVES
MARCH 2020
APA | Guidelines for Psychological Assessment and Evaluation ICopyright © 2020 by the American Psychological Association. This material may be reproduced and distributed without permission provided that acknowledgment is given to the American Psychological Association. This material may not be reprinted, translated, or distributed electronically without prior permission in writing from the publisher. For permission, contact APA, Rights and Permissions, 750 First Street, NE, Washington, DC 20002-4242. This document will expire as APA policy in 10 years (2030). Correspondence regarding the APA Guidelines for Psychological Assessment and Evaluation should be addressed to the American Psychological Association, 750 First Street, NE, Washington, 20002-4242. Suggested Citation American Psychological Association, APA Task Force on Psychological Assessment and Evaluation Guidelines. (2020). APA Guidelines for Psychological Assessment and Evaluation. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/about/policy/guidelines-psychological-assessment-evaluation.pdf II APA | Guidelines for Psychological Assessment and Evaluation
APA GUIDELINES
for Psychological Assessment
and Evaluation
APA TASK FORCE ON PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
AND EVALUATION GUIDELINES
APPROVED BY APA COUNCIL OF REPRESENTATIVES
MARCH 2020
Task Force Workgroup APA Staff
Linda F. Campbell, PhD (co-chair) Michael J. Cuttler, PhD, ABPP Catherine L. Grus, PhD
University of Georgia Law Enforcement Services, Inc. Chief Education Officer
Education Directorate
Lisa D. Stanford, PhD, ABPP (co-chair) Stephen T. DeMers, EdD
Akron Children’s Hospital University of Kentucky C. Vaile Wright, PhD
Senior Director, Health Care Innovation
Vincent C. Alfonso, PhD Giselle A. Hass, PsyD, ABAP
Practice Directorate
Gonzaga University, School of Education Independent PracticeAUT H O R’S NOTE
This document was developed by representatives from the Board of Professional Affairs, the
Committee on Psychological Tests and Assessment, the Committee for the Advancement of
Professional Psychology, the Committee on Professional Practice and Standards, the Board
of Educational Affairs, and the Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards in col-
laboration with APA staff. The work group included Vincent C. Alfonso, PhD; Linda F. Campbell,
PhD (co-chair); Michael J. Cuttler, PhD, ABPP; Stephen T. DeMers, EdD; Giselle A. Hass, PsyD,
ABAP; Lisa D. Stanford, PhD, ABPP (co-chair); and APA staff members Catherine L. Grus, PhD,
and C. Vaile Wright, PhD.
The work group also acknowledges the earlier contributions from April Harris-Britt, PhD,
representing the Board for the Advancement of Psychology in the Public Interest, and several
members of CPTA who made substantive contributions to Guideline 5. The work group
extends its appreciation to the APA staff members who facilitated the work of the guideline,
including Marianne Ernesto, Mary G. Hardiman, MS, and Sarah A. Rose..TAB L E O F C O NT ENTS
Introduction3
Scope4
Audience and Stakeholders 4
Statement Distinguishing Between Guidelines and Standards 4
Compatibility With APA Ethics Code 4
Definition of Terms 5
Documentation of Need/Public Benefit 5
Development of the Guidelines 6
Selection of Evidence 7
Competence9
Psychometric and Measurement Knowledge 14
Selection, Administration, and Scoring of Tests 16
Diverse, Underrepresented, and Vulnerable Populations 18
Training and Supervisory Qualifications and Role 21
Technology22
References25
APA | Guidelines for Psychological Assessment and Evaluation 12 APA | Guidelines for Psychological Assessment and Evaluation
I NTR O DUCT IO N
The purpose of the American Psychological Association (APA) Guidelines for Psychological
Assessment and Evaluation (PAE) is to assist and inform psychologists of best practice when
psychological instruments, including psychometric tests and collateral information, are used
within the practice of psychological assessment and/or evaluation. As the discipline of psy-
chology has expanded, the application of psychological assessment has also developed in
response to new areas of practice. Integrated medical and primary care, online assessment
and scoring, and global initiatives are examples of these new areas. Since the last publication
of test user qualifications guidelines (APA, 2001), neuropsychology, forensic psychology,
cognitive science, consulting, industrial/organizational, integrated health, and other fields
have evolved into more defined and recognized specific areas of practice with developing
professional practice guidelines, standards of practice, and identified consistency with the
APA Ethics Code (APA, 2017a). Commensurate with the growth and varied expertise in the
assessment field is the need for (a) core knowledge and skills that are essential for all psy-
chologists whose assessment services impact individuals, groups, organizations, and the
public and (b) specific domains of expertise within the field requiring additional knowledge,
skills, and clinical experience to address the expansion of assessment service delivery across
new populations and settings. These guidelines focus on the core knowledge and skills that
psychologists, including those in specialty areas of practice, should strive to possess to
deliver assessment services competently. Additionally, the purpose of these guidelines is to
inform clients/patients, the public, other professionals collaborating with psychologists, reg-
ulatory bodies, and training programs of the qualification expected to acquire professional
competency as defined by the APA Ethics Code and to maintain high professional standards
of practice. The guidelines apply to standardized tests of ability, aptitude, achievement, atti-
tudes, interests, personality, cognitive functioning, mental health, and other construct
domains.
APA’s (2001) “Guidelines for Test User Qualifications” were responsive to the identified
problem of misuse of tests within the United States and internationally. The competence of
the test users was the primary reason for concern, and the International Test Commission
(2001) and several other countries have issued guidelines to address this concern. Compe-
tence of test users continues to be a growing problem despite the development of multiple
guidelines, procedures, and standards. The current guidelines focus on two areas identified
as deficits in the 2001 guidelines: the need for greater specificity of assessment constructs
and foundational knowledge, and the need to address the expanded and more specialized
roles of psychologists using assessment and evaluation tools in various clinical and other
professional settings.
APA | Guidelines for Psychological Assessment and Evaluation 3• Those who generate, use, interpret, and/or give feedback to those
Scope who have been evaluated.
• Test developers, who generate test content and are involved in
The scope of the APA PAE Guidelines addresses the use of psycholog-
collecting evidence for psychometric reliability, validity in pre-
ical instruments, including psychometric tests and collateral data
dicting key outcomes, and equity across different subgroups of
when used within the context of psychological assessment, and
interest.
focuses on (a) assessment procedures, (b) professional competen-
cies in psychological assessment and evaluation, and (c) assess- • Educators and trainers who are responsible for instruction on
ment knowledge competencies. There are several topics that are psychological assessment, testing, and evaluation.
outside the scope of these guidelines. These include, but are not
• Employers who use assessments to make personnel decisions.
limited to, an in-depth treatment of technology-based assessments,
test security, and the use of assessments for certification and licen- • The public, test takers, and those impacted by test results given
sure. These PAE guidelines apply to all assessment procedures to others.
whether or not the tests are referenced by psychological terminol-
• Legislative and regulatory bodies that make decisions about or
ogy (e.g., psychological testing) and apply to any assessment and
monitor psychological assessment and evaluation.
evaluation procedures (e.g., job selection, performance appraisals,
clinical assessment of mental health status, psychoeducational/ • Relevant professional psychology associations.
multifactored evaluation of learning issues) that could result in psy-
chological distress for the individual being assessed, result in the
diagnosis of a deficit, or impact the individual’s well-being. The
guidelines apply broadly to professional competencies of psycholo- Statement Distinguishing Between Guidelines
gists conducting assessments and evaluations, including selection and Standards
and evaluation of tests used, test administration, scoring, interpre-
tation, report writing and feedback, and work within the limits of The term guidelines refers to statements that suggest or recommend
documented training and experience with specific tests used. specific professional behavior, endeavor, or conduct for psycholo-
Psychologists strive to meet the knowledge and skill-based compe- gists. Guidelines differ from standards. Standards are mandatory
tencies established to set a high standard in psychological practice and thus may be accompanied by an enforcement mechanism (e.g.,
such as professional and ethical decision-making, rights of test tak- the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct; APA, 2017a).
ers, justification for use of tests, sensitivity to diversity, and technical By contrast, guidelines are aspirational in intent; they are not man-
knowledge of tests used. The individual guidelines address clinical datory, definitive, or exhaustive. They aim to facilitate the continued
and knowledge competencies that are recommended to psycholo- systematic development of the professional and to promote a high
gists, and seek to inform psychologists’ understanding of the scope level of professional practice by psychologists. A set of guidelines
of assessment practice in psychological testing. may not apply to every professional and clinical situation within the
scope of that set. As a result, guidelines are not intended to take
precedence over the professional judgments of psychologists that
are based on the scientific and professional knowledge of the field
Audience and Stakeholders and the ethics code. Further, federal and state laws also supersede
guidelines.
The APA PAE guidelines are important for those directly involved in These guidelines are professional practice guidelines that are
the process of testing, assessment, and evaluation, including the applied to the practice of psychology and not to specific treatments
following: that may be used in the practice of psychology. Professional practice
• Psychologists who directly conduct assessments, such as admin- guidelines are directed to practitioners and are intended to provide
ister, score, and accurately interpret tests, compose reports, or aspirational guidance in ethical and professional decision-making in
give feedback or any component thereof. professional practice.
• Psychology students pursuing a higher degree.
• Those responsible for selecting psychological tests, assessing the
need, determining the use of tests, and making recommendations. Compatibility With APA Ethics Code
• Those who purchase and/or oversee the acquisition and mainte- These guidelines are consistent with the current APA Ethics Code
nance of psychological assessment tools and procedures. (APA, 2017a). The guidelines are also consistent with and acknowl-
• Those who supervise others in conducting aspects of assessment edge other relevant APA policy such as the Standards of Accreditation
and those who work under the oversight of a higher credentialed for Health Service Psychology (APA, Commission on Accreditation,
person. 2015), the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing
(American Educational Research Association [AERA] et al., 2014),
and the Professional Practice Guidelines: Guidance for Developers and
Users (APA, 2015b).
4 APA | Guidelines for Psychological Assessment and EvaluationDefinition of Terms Documentation of Need/Public Benefit
ASSESSMENT QUALIFICATIONS AVOIDANCE OF HARM
The term assessment qualifications refers to the combination of Psychological testing, assessment, and evaluation is a core compo-
knowledge, skills, abilities, training, experience, and practice creden- nent of psychological practice, treatment planning, and subsequent
tials that are deemed desirable for the use of psychological tests and decisions regarding those served. Psychologists are guided by pro-
assessment materials. However, the term describes two types of fessional standards of practice in engaging in psychological testing,
qualifications: (a) generic assessment knowledge and skills neces- assessment, and evaluation to be compliant with competency
sary for typical uses of tests and (b) specific qualification for the expectations and to avoid harm to clients. Guidelines for psycholog-
responsible use of tests in specific settings and for specific purposes ical assessment and evaluation are important for use by psycholo-
(APA, 2001). gists to aspire to fair, respectful, and competent service delivery and
treatment of examinees.
ASSESSMENT
EMERGING UNDERSERVED OR VULNERABLE CLIENT
The term assessment refers to a complex activity integrating knowl-
POPULATIONS
edge, clinical judgment, reliable collateral information (e.g., observa-
tion, semistructured or structured interviews, third-party report), and The population served by psychologists continues to reflect the shift
psychometric constructs with expertise in an area of professional of focus to underserved, rural, older adult, immigrant and refugee,
practice or application. Psychological assessment is a problem-solv- and other vulnerable populations. Ongoing research and empirical
ing process of identifying and using relevant information about indi- evidence support the need to recognize culture, language, ethnicity,
viduals, groups, or institutions for the purpose of decision-making and socioeconomic status, gender, disability, and other forms of human
recommendations (APA, 2001). This includes sensitivity toward the diversity in decisions regarding service delivery. Several factors
inclusion of diverse and underserved populations. contribute to one’s ability to conduct an assessment, formulate
differential diagnoses, and develop contextually and culturally rele-
EVALUATION vant treatment recommendations: choice of test instruments, rela-
tive weight of multiple data points, and contextual factors relevant
Although the terms evaluation and assessment are often used inter-
to decision-making all must be considered when assessing the
changeably, evaluation is a component and often end product of the
increasingly diverse population that psychologists serve. Guidelines
assessment process.
are important in identifying expectations for competent service to
varied populations.
PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING
Psychological tests are defined as any psychometrically derived mea- PUBLIC INFORMATION
surement instrument that assesses the psychological constructs in
Adoption of assessment qualifications and competencies for psy-
which a structured sample of an examinee’s behavior in a specified
chologists provides the public with identifiable information regard-
domain is obtained and subsequently quantified, scored, interpreted,
ing training, evaluation, supervision, and competence of those from
and synthesized using a standardized process for the purpose of
whom they seek services. In turn, competency in assessment pro-
evaluative conclusion or recommendation (AERA et al., 2014).
tects the recipients of assessment services by clarifying appropriate
According to these AERA, APA, and National Council on
assessment processes and supporting quality in assessment service
Measurement in Education (NCME) standards, although tests may
delivery, validity and accuracy of psychological reports, and appro-
differ vastly in terms of item and presentation design, response
priate use of assessment results. Further, professional practice
format, and purpose, the commonality across all test instruments is
guidelines are not legal or regulatory documents and are not enforce-
that the process by which the subject’s responses are evaluated and
able by law or through professional association codes of ethics.
scored is standardized. In addition, other instruments that can be
Guidelines rather serve as an aspirational template from which
included in psychological assessment protocols where subject
psychologists can identify decision-making factors for assessment
responses are aggregated and scored in a standardized fashion, such
determinations for protection of the public and in conformance with
as structured diagnostic interviewing systems (e.g., Structured Clini-
the standard of within the profession of psychology.
cal Interview for DSM-5 Disorders, Clinician Version; First et al., 2016)
and/or structured life history (i.e., biodata; Oswald et al., 2004)
PROFESSIONAL GUIDANCE
inventories and other job performance prediction instruments
(Schmidt & Hunter, 1998) developed using psychological assessment Advances in Knowledge and Practice. Research and ongoing studies
principles and used with concurrent declarations of generalized continue to expansively and specifically increase our understanding
predictive utility in similar settings, also fall within the purview of the of human behavior, cognition, and affect. As a means of measure-
AERA/APA/NCME standards. ment and evaluation of these factors, existing psychological tests are
revised, and newly developed tests are designed to improve accu-
racy and validity of testing. Professional practice guidelines are
APA | Guidelines for Psychological Assessment and Evaluation 5necessary to assist psychologists in their professional development LEGAL AND REGULATORY MATTERS
and ongoing commitment to be knowledgeable in current and
Laws. Changes in federal and state laws or absence of applicable laws
improved means of assessment.
often generate the need for guidelines. Assessment user credentials
Specialized Areas of Practice. Psychology has continued to grow
and scope of practice in testing, assessment, and evaluation have
into new areas of practice and into multidisciplinary roles across differ-
been the subject of new legislation, particularly at the state, provin-
ent settings and specialties (e.g., forensics, neuropsychology, geropsy-
cial, and territorial jurisdictional levels. Guidelines for psychologists
chology, technology, integrated and primary care). Specialized areas
conducting assessment will provide an important resource for those
of practice call upon psychologists to be competent in specific aspects
who practice in jurisdictions that have revised or created new regu-
of testing and evaluation that may extend beyond traditional and
lations as well as for psychologists in those jurisdictions that have
general areas of assessment. Guidelines apply to all psychologists and
not specifically addressed testing, assessment, and evaluation.
therefore provide a common set of practice expectations that include
Court Decisions and Case Law. Periodically, federal laws make
those engaging in specialized practice. Guidelines offer information
changes that affect the practice of psychology (e.g., qualification
and education not only for those engaging in specialized assessment
as an expert witness). Psychological assessment is often an integral
but also for all psychologists to have an informed understanding of
part of forensic evaluation. Guidelines for assessment and evalua-
practice in multiple areas of specialization.
tion can serve as an important deliberative component for the deter-
Specialized Populations. Professional practice guidelines express
mination of expert status (e.g., Daubert v. Dow Pharmaceuticals),
broad and general expectations for psychologists conducting assess-
special education eligibility (e.g., Individuals with Disabilities
ments and evaluations, increase awareness of individual differences
Education Act), and disability determination (e.g., Social Security
that may affect assessment, and assist psychologists in differentiating
Administration). Psychologists who have used test instruments and
general assessment principles and practices from those specific to
other means of assessment related to a court case or eligibility
specialized settings. Psychologists, by virtue of core training, are
decision are supported by the profession’s endorsement of assess-
expected to demonstrate general assessment competency. However,
ment guidelines.
those who work with populations with distinct characteristics or in a
service delivery context that may require specialized knowledge and
skills will benefit from guidelines that specify the fields of knowledges
and skills appropriate for specialized populations and settings. Development of the Guidelines
Professional Risk-Management. Professional practice guidelines
lend direction to psychologists in those areas not governed by federal The APA 2001 Guidelines for Test User Qualifications were scheduled
or state regulations. Therefore, these guidelines assist psychologists to expire in 2016. During the 2016 Spring Consolidated meeting, the
in understanding the parameters of practice for assessment and evalu- Board of Professional Affairs (BPA) and the Committee on
ation in those circumstances when regulation have not been developed. Psychological Tests and Assessment (CPTA), which are the two
Guidelines may also provide documentation for best practice for oversight groups for these guidelines, proposed the formation of a
protection of psychologists in litigious situations. working group to identify competencies necessary for test users that
Development of New Technology. The APA (2013) Guidelines for would address the misuse of psychological tests. The item was dis-
the Practice of Telepsychology identify ethical factors in telepsychology cussed during the 2016 Spring and Fall Consolidated meetings, and
practice (e.g., competence, informed consent, standards of care, a recommendation was made by BPA, CPTA, and the Committee for
testing and assessment). The Guidelines for PAE are a critical compan- the Advancement of Professional Psychology (CAPP) to (a) endorse
ion document to the telepsychology guidelines, as they will assist a working group with the purpose of developing professional prac-
and inform psychologists who are contemplating and/or actively tice guidelines and (b) to expand the working group to include rep-
adapting existing assessment protocols to online and other electron- resentatives from the Board for the Advancement of Psychology in
ically enhanced technology platforms. the Public Interest and the Board of Educational Affairs. Additionally,
Changing Social Norms. Provision of psychological services has a representative from the Association of State and Provincial
been affected by increasingly diverse populations (e.g., gender, socio- Psychology Boards was included.
economic status, race, ethnicity), electronic communication, increased The BPA, CPTA, CAPP, and APA staff identified the importance
access to information via social media, and other factors that affect of a consensus document that (a) includes competencies, (b) incor-
the context of assessment and qualifications for assessments. Publish- porates training and experience criteria, and (c) addresses the
ers are preparing online versions of traditional assessment instruments setting-specific nature of psychological assessment as it relates to
and are encouraging practitioners to use automated applications such these qualifications and competencies. These criteria are central to
as online administration, scoring, and interpretation. Professional the mission and scope of the document and the guidelines.
practice guidelines addressing assessment competency will support The reasonable options for going forward were to develop a new
these evolving changes from traditional practice in a competent and document or to revise the 2001 Guidelines. The Committee on
effective manner in response to the expanding scope of assessment Professional Practice and Standards reviewed a 2009 proposal to
in integrated health, services through teleconferencing, services to revise the 2001 guidelines and determined that, given the prescribed
diverse populations, and forensic settings. format and structure of the 2015 document, Professional Practice
Guidelines: Guidance for Developers and Users, revision would be a more
extensive project than commissioning a newly developed document.
A decision was made by the work group to develop a new consensus
6 APA | Guidelines for Psychological Assessment and Evaluationdocument of guidelines in the current 2015 format and structure. A
significant identified need for new guidelines was the importance of
application to clinical and health practice areas, which was not
achieved in the 2001 guidelines.
The working group was composed of seven members who repre-
sented and were appointed by the aforementioned groups. The
funding for the project was provided by the APA Practice
Directorate.
Selection of Evidence
The working group relied on prior documentation relevant to guide-
line development, including the Guidelines for Test User Qualifications
(APA, 2001) and peer-reviewed publications from a diverse range of
related topics on assessment, testing, competencies, and relevant
policies and procedures. Given the setting-specific nature, purpose
and scope, population targets, diversity factors, and desired educa-
tion and training experience of psychological assessment, other
approved guidelines and association policies were used.
APA | Guidelines for Psychological Assessment and Evaluation 7APA Guidelines for Psychological Assessment and Evaluation
CO M PETENCE
GUIDELINE 1 but not competent to use the same tests to skills for the purpose of expansion of scope
Psychologists who conduct determine competency to stand trial. of practice. These means may include, but
psychological testing, assessment, Competency is determined by both techni- are not limited to, postdoctoral courses,
cal mastery over a particular test and the targeted continuing education (CE), super-
and evaluation strive to develop
appropriately identified need for the test in vision, and consultation. Engagement in
and maintain their own competence. the overall purpose of the assessment. assessment and evaluation often has limita-
This includes competence with (Illustrations of these diverse areas of exper- tions based on licensure, professional
selection, use, interpretation, tise that share testing elements are noted in education, and training. Psychologists are
integration of findings, Guideline 4.) encouraged to seek appropriate proficiency
Assessments are typically accompa- and/or board-level certifications through a
communication of results,
nied by referral questions. Psychologists peer-review process when such certifica-
and application of measures. tions are available and related specifically to
seek to acquire the competency to deter-
mine the need and the purpose for assess- the psychologists’ area(s) of specialized
Rationale
ment, the characteristics of the examinee, assessment practice(s). Section 9 of the
Competence is defined as “demonstrable and the context and setting for the assess- APA (2017a) Ethical Principles of Psycholo-
elements or components of performance ment typically through clinical interviews, gists and Code of Conduct delineates
(knowledge, skills, and attitudes in their psychometric data (e.g., cognitive, person- standards of practice when performed by
integration)” (Kaslow et al., 2009, p. 34). ality, performance, learning, memory, psychologists but does not directly address
Competence can be diminished through executive functioning) and collateral or assessment competency.
not only failure of adequate initial training supplemental materials (e.g., socioemo-
but also failure to self-monitor adaptation tional measures). Without complete under- Application
to revisions, new instruments and methods, standing of the need and purpose for the Profession-wide and specialty-specific
and general advancements in assessment. assessment, the characteristics of the competencies are recognized and refer-
The competency movement referenced as examinee, the appropriateness of the enced by quality assurance documents and
the “culture of competency” additionally instruments chosen, and the context and entities in psychology (e.g., Ethical
specifies a “culture of assessment” outlin- setting in which assessment occurs, inter- Principles and Code of Conduct: APA,
ing the importance of self-assessed com- pretation and application of the results of 2017a; Standards of Accreditation: APA,
petence (Roberts et al., 2005). Continual the assessment are more likely to be limited COA, 2015; Association of State and
monitoring and self-assessment of compe- and/or inaccurate. Provincial Psychology Boards, 2014) and in
tency boundaries are important in meeting In addition to technical and clinical specific areas of practice (e.g., Hessen et al.,
standards of practice defined elsewhere. competence, aspired-to professional compe- 2018). Assessment is identified as a pro-
Rapid and ongoing development of instru- tence encompasses (a) skilled communica- fession-wide competency in these and
ments, procedures, norming advancements, tion with the examinee or client that other quality assurance measures.
technology, and evolving evidence-based promotes an effective working relationship; Profession-wide competencies are evalu-
practices can render a once-competent (b) the commitment to explain the risks, ated by the criteria of whether they are
psychologist examiner to unethical prac- benefits, and possible outcomes of assess- observable, measurable, and quantifiable.
tice through habituation of patterns and ment, including in high-stakes scenarios, to This consistency is necessary to maintain
personal preferences in assessment proce- the best of the examiner’s knowledge and continuity and objectivity across and within
dure and application. understanding; and (c) demonstration of competencies. Assessment competency
The complexity, breadth, and diversity respect for the recipients of services and the entails several functional competencies
of psychological testing, assessment, and commitment to nondiscrimination and that include but are not limited to selection,
evaluation necessitate a distinct delineation equity in professional practice. The need, use, interpretation, report of results, and
of areas of expertise. That is, psychologists purpose, and referral question are core use of results in response to the purpose of
consider their boundaries of expertise and elements in assessment decision-making; the assessment.
practice within the legal, ethical, and profes- however, an environmental scan of the Selection of tests or evaluation measures.
sional scope of practice and competence of context in which the examinee or client is Psychologists seek to become knowledge-
those boundaries. Psychologists strive to functioning related to the reason for assess- able of the psychometric characteristics of
understand the limits of their expertise ment is typically considered a critical compo- test instruments as well as other factors
when the same instruments may be used for nent of psychologists’ competence. likely to impact the applicability of specific
different purposes. Psychologists may be Psychologists attempt to identify the test instruments and evaluation measures
competent to administer measures of cogni- most effective means by which they may to the assessment question at hand (e.g.,
tive ability for the purpose of psychoeduca- remain competent in continued areas of reading levels, physical requirements,
tional determinations of a learning disability expertise as well as in the acquisition of new cultural background, characteristics of the
APA | Guidelines for Psychological Assessment and Evaluation 9standardization/normative group). Similarly, and as such they are encouraged to include errors based on preconceived beliefs, and/
psychologists strive to maintain appropriate all additive data sources in drawing conclu- or other intervening factors such as anchor-
knowledge of the context and environment sions, inferences, and decisions. ing effects (i.e., overweighting initial data),
in which the assessment is to be performed, Integration of data. Psychologists seek attribution effects (i.e., favoring data from
as well as any additional relevant factors the competency to integrate all data points one source over another), and/or confirma-
that might affect outcome and recommen- and other form of findings in the writing or tion effects (i.e., selectively weighting data
dations. In addition, psychologists are encour- oral reporting of results. Multiple data points based on personally held beliefs). An excel-
aged to obtain and to review carefully available include but are not limited to standardized lent and thorough discussion of these and
collateral and supplemental information such tests, clinical interview, collateral reporting, other biases effecting psychological assess-
as treatment histories, previous assessments, behavioral checklists, environmental ment that affect accurate interpretability of
third-party observations, and/or perfor- context, and client variables. Integration of multiple data can be found in Reynolds and
mance reviews for consideration and incorpo- data points is a distinct skill from interpre- Suzuki (2013).
ration when reaching conclusions and/or tation but results in interpretation and the Reporting results. Psychologists typically
making recommendations. Other factors to formation of case conceptualization, which deliver assessment results through a written
be considered in selection of measurement advances decision-making and initial forma- report often enhanced by oral explanation,
instruments may include characteristics of tion of recommendations. The weighting of depending on context and purpose. Because
the examinee, appropriateness of the norma- data points in the integration of data is a the functional definition of scores often
tive group, cultural relevance, and alignment process that considers the cultural, ethnic, employs terminology that may not be in the
of the test instrument construct with the and other diversity variables that influence typical vernacular of examinees and recipi-
purpose of the testing. the context and interpretation of data points. ents of assessment feedback, psychologists
Use. Fidelity to the purpose and use of Interpretation. To accurately interpret are encouraged to become aware of the
a given instrument are often critical to the findings, psychologists strive to understand meaning of scores that underlie the interpre-
validity of a test instrument as well as the the conceptual meaning of scores and the tation and strive to describe findings in a
accuracy of the assessment results. As such, technical range of interpretation of any given report in a suitably interpretable manner.
psychologists consider the reason for set of individual scores (see Section 2 of these Psychologists seek to become aware of the
testing as well as the anticipated contribu- guidelines). Accurate interpretation is depen- preferred language of the report recipient(s),
tion of the selected test or battery to the dent on the psychologist’s ability to integrate reading level, and general ability to compre-
operative referral question and/or process multiple sources of data points. Insofar as hend the information.
to which the results will be applied. In this primary sources of data can be inconsistent Psychological reports typically include
regard, specific examples of the utility of rendering a clear determination difficult, a summary section that integrates key
assessment measures are often prescribed psychologists seek to develop the knowledge elements from the findings in relation to the
in the technical manual of an instrument, and skills to critically evaluate these apparent purpose for the assessment and cohesively
and as such, psychologists strive to data inconsistencies and arrive at the most presents the information in an organized,
thoroughly and critically evaluate the appli- viable interpretation of the data that serves comprehensible, and interpretable manner.
cability and/or supporting scientific the purpose of the assessment accurately Psychologists attempt to develop the skills
evidence for use of a given instrument in (Hopwood & Bornstein, 2014). to create summaries of the key findings and
settings that differ substantially from those Psychologists aspire to reflect accuracy to identify recommendations based on the
specified by the publisher. in their interpretation of test and assess- summaries that are recognized in the field
Psychologists understand that test ment instrument results and to carefully as effective treatment components.
instruments are not typically used as singular consider and control potential sources of Psychologists aspire to develop the compe-
measures but rather are integrated with other error and/or bias, particularly when these tency to construct comprehensive evidence-
standard measures as well as nonstandard- errors may contribute to a diagnosis, recom- based recommendations, recognized in the
ized yet valuable data points (e.g., collateral mendation, disposition, or other high-stakes field, that address possible treatments or
interviews, behavioral checklists, paper decisions (e.g., custody, employment, accommodations resulting from the
review of prior documents). Tests and other guardianship determination, competence findings. Psychologists working in profi-
measurement instruments can be cited in the and decisional capacity, disability compen- ciency areas that result in disposition, selec-
technical manual for multiple uses. Psychol- sation, incarceration). In this regard, errors tion, third-party decisions, and other
ogists remain aware that although their area in reporting assessment results can include high-stakes assessment purposes are
of expertise may support use of a test for a overinterpretation, inconsistent interpreta- encouraged to develop competencies
particular purpose, other uses of the test may tion, selective interpretation, and/or other commensurate with their areas of specialty
fall outside the psychologists’ scope of misinterpretations of results. Although practice and expertise.
competence. Similarly, psychologists are sources of these errors can be attributable Explanation of use and implementation.
advised that assessment is most comprehen- to lack of technical knowledge, the most Psychologists seek to develop the compe-
sive and accurate when multiple data points common sources of bias effecting interpre- tency to explain to the recipients of the
are used to arrive at a determination (e.g., tation of psychological assessment data report or findings how the recommenda-
diagnosis, recommendation, disposition), include distortions and subjective weighting tions derived from the summaries can or
10 APA | Guidelines for Psychological Assessment and Evaluationwill be used to accomplish the purpose of graduate training. The APA Ethics Code Psychologists will be mindful that compe-
the assessment. The various areas of (APA, 2017a), the AERA et al. (2014), and tency evolves as subject matter matures
specialty or proficiency in psychology can other professional associations delineate over time and that acquisition and mainte-
render significantly different findings and standards of practice in assessment, mea- nance of competency is an ongoing process
recommendations or can render similar surement, and evaluation. The APA Ethics that requires self-assessment and aware-
findings and summaries that result in very Code requires that psychologists practice ness of contemporary standards of practice.
different recommendations and are imple- within their boundaries of competence The ongoing process of self-assessment
mented in significantly different ways. The (APA, 2017a) and that psychologists in includes attention to the potential
scores and summaries of cognitive tests of practice who seek to expand their scope of emergence of complex interpersonal
intelligence, executive functioning, memory, practice in assessment undertake relevant dynamics between client and assessor (e.g.,
achievement, and personality could be the education, training, supervised experience, Bram & Peebles, 2014; Yalof, 2019).
same for two people, yet the recommenda- consultation, or study (APA, 2017a).
tions and implementation could differ Assessment, among other specialty Application
depending on the purpose of the assess- and proficiency areas in psychology, has
Psychologists who wish to acquire or main-
ment (e.g., psychoeducational, child evolved over recent years given the expan-
tain competence in assessment recognize
custody, competency to stand trial, sion of specialty practice in assessment and the importance of foundational competen-
preemployment screening, fitness for duty evaluation (e.g., psychoeducational, foren- cies and special focus competencies. With
evaluations management selection, sic, child custody, geropsychology, person- the exception of specialists in neuropsy-
diagnostic classification, developmental ality, neuropsychological, development). chology (Hessen et al., 2018; Roper et al.,
disability, workers’ compensation, and New and revised testing instruments and 2018 Smith, 2019), a trajectory has not yet
immigration hardship waivers). Psycholo- materials continue to develop given psycho-
gists are best advised to self-monitor their been established for the acquisition of com-
metric improvements (e.g., norming petency. These foundational areas are
professional boundaries to appropriately methods), research findings on learning,
conduct the elements of assessment or described as including measurement theory
motivation, memory, and other factors. and psychometrics, the components of con-
evaluation within their scope of practice.
Knowledge, skills, and attitude that would ducting assessments (e.g., selection,
meet standards of practice at an earlier time administration, and scoring), integration of
would likely be inadequate in contemporary data points, interpretation of scores, con-
practice. Not only the acquisition of compe- ceptualization, and communication of
tence but the maintenance of competence results and recommendations. Psychologists
GUIDELINE 2 is typically required by the aforementioned may acquire foundational knowledge
Psychologists who conduct standards of practice. That is, failure to gain through coursework, webinars, self-study,
psychological testing, assessment, initial competency and failure to maintain CE, and other sources. These areas of foun-
and evaluation seek appropriate competency may both result in unethical dational assessment factors are well
practice (APA, 2017a). described in several documents: PAE
training and supervised experience
The means by which psychologists Guidelines (this document), the AERA Code
in relevant aspects of testing,
competently expand scope of practice post of Ethics, the Recommended Competencies
assessment, and psychological formal training may occur through CE, for Users of Psychologist Tests, the NCME,
evaluation. seminars, supervised experience, and and the Standards for Educational and
consultation. Further, the recent and devel- Psychological Testing.
Rationale oping application of technology to knowl- Psychologists consider the
Training programs of recent years incorpo- edge and skills acquisition (e.g., webinars, decision-making factors that meet the
rate competency expectations for assess- online CE) increases opportunities for standards of practice in their select subject
ment and conducting psychological testing self-directed study. Psychologists attempt matter area. Psychologists who identify an
that reflect accreditation standards, ethical to identify the most effective means through area of expanded scope of practice strive to
standards, jurisdictional laws, and regula- which to gain the desired set of competen- determine their existing level of competency
tions (e.g., Hessen et al., 2018). Psychologists cies. Psychologists who want to expand as well as the knowledge and skills to be
in practice have experienced variable qual- their scope of practice in psychoeduca- attained. This determination can be made
ity and content in initial graduate training tional assessment are likely to pursue a through consultation with those who are
and subsequent CE, proficiency acquisition, somewhat different set of knowledge and recognized for their practice in that area of
or self-directed access to education and skills than those who wish to conduct foren- expertise. Multiple methods of acquiring
training. That is, a trajectory has not been sic evaluations, acceding, however, to the knowledge and skills can be adopted to
established for the acquisition of compe- point of common foundational principles include coursework, workshops, webinars,
tence, the maintenance of competence, and standards. and other CE that is specifically focused on
supervised work experience, or criteri- Assessment is a fluid and dynamic the target area of practice. Psychologists are
on-based expectations for practitioners activity that calls for focused and ongoing encouraged to develop their specialty skills
who expand their scope of practice post attention to maintenance of competence. through subject matter instruction and
APA | Guidelines for Psychological Assessment and Evaluation 11education (e.g., forensics, child custody) examinee. Existing ethical and legal obliga- Psychologists also strive to prevent or min-
coupled with consultation. The subject tions to prevent negative impact stems from imize misuse of assessment results that can
matter component of competency frequently the recognition that all tests and measure- be anticipated and to correct misuse or
includes supervised experience. Knowledge ment procedures have both appropriate and misinterpretation of assessment findings
of the subject matter is integrated with skill inappropriate uses depending on purpose that come to their attention following the
development, typically under consultation or and setting of the assessment, the limita- release of this material.
supervision of an expert in the area. tions of the test or assessment procedure to Psychological assessments are
Psychologists comply with the APA address that purpose in that setting, the typically used in the hope of gaining infor-
(2017a) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and characteristics of the test taker in relation to mation that can direct an intervention,
Code of Conduct. Section 2, Competence, the normative sample that supports the ameliorate a problem or difficulty, gain
specifically delineates the importance of valid interpretation of the test results, and insight into abilities and skills, or inform
relevant education, training, supervised the human confidence that can be placed in decision-making. Sometimes the results of
experience, and consultation when expand- the interpretation of the results obtained for psychological assessment reveal findings
ing scope of practice into areas new to that client in that setting for that purpose. In that could be seen as detrimental to the
psychologists. Further, the maintenance of addition, psychologists remain alert to any interests of the examinee achieving their
competence requires ongoing effort to meet ethical and, in some cases, legal obligation goals or problematic in some way unrelated
the standard of practice. Failure to maintain to protect the client from misuse or misrep- to the original purpose. Where appropriate,
competence can result in inadvertent resentation of the data. Further, psycholo- psychologists strive to obtain informed
practice beyond the data necessary to gists may find themselves called upon to consent, which may include capacity to
substantiate findings, inappropriate use of guard against reports generated by consent and freedom to withdraw, such that
instruments, and inaccurate interpretation. untrained individuals who could misunder- the examinee understands that the results
Psychologists recognize the importance of stand or misuse this information in such a of assessment may not provide the desired
fair and equitable treatment in conducting way that could harm a client, a recipient of outcome and, depending on the context of
test results such as an employer, a court, or the assessment, may not be protected from
assessments with diverse and underrepre-
a health care system or test publisher. unwanted disclosure. There may be such
sented populations. They strive to use
Copyrights on proprietary assessment instances in which safeguards should be
methods that are age and language appro-
material are designed to be unavailable to taken if the disclosure of the purpose of
priate and, when needed, employ the
individuals without proper training and eth- testing will spoil or influence the results.
services of professional interpreters to
ical obligations to maintain security. These safeguards might include debriefing
achieve more accurate assessment results.
after the assessment rather than full disclo-
Application sure prior to beginning the assessment. For
example, an individual who agrees to
Psychologists strive to understand and undergo psychological assessment to
maintain their competence in the selection, demonstrate appropriateness for advance-
GUIDELINE 3 administration, and interpretation of psy- ment in their job may not receive the individ-
Psychologists who conduct chological tests as well as their client’s ual’s desired result, and results would be
psychological testing, assessment, ability to engage in and understand fully the shared with the potential employer. The
assessment process including the potential examinee agrees to release the results of the
and evaluation strive to be mindful
risks and negative outcomes that could assessment to their employer as a condition
of the potential negative impact result in addition to any positive benefits of employment. The results of the assess-
and subsequent outcome of those they may be seeking. Psychological tests ment reveal significant difficulties in job-re-
measures on clients/patients/ are continually changing through test revi- lated abilities that might not only preclude
examinees/employees, supervisees, sions, research findings about appropriate promotion but even threaten their continued
other professionals, and the or inappropriate applications or unantici- employment. This highlights the need to
pated complications, or threats to validity in recognize that there are many consumers to
general public.
using the test with a particular client popu- assessment results, including an employer
lation or for a particular purpose or in a or organizational client. The psychologist is
Rationale
particular setting. Psychologists assume an typically expected to seek the client’s
Psychologists recognize their ethical and, in appropriate degree of responsibility to informed consent and full understanding of
some situations, legal obligations regarding understand the strengths and weaknesses the range of outcomes that could result from
the prevention of negative impact that of all assessment procedures they employ, the assessment and the potential recipients
could result from their selection, adminis- to use the latest versions or forms of all who might gain access to the results before
tration, interpretation, or reporting of results tests and procedures, and to seek informa- consent is given.
from psychological tests and measurements. tion and understanding about any limita- Psychologists strive to use tests appro-
The exception to this may be forensic evalu- tions or concerns in using the tests they priately and to understand the strengths and
ations, which often require an independent have selected with the client in the setting weaknesses of the assessment procedures
opinion that may negatively impact the and for the purpose of their assessment. they use and to correct any misuse they
12 APA | Guidelines for Psychological Assessment and Evaluationdiscover not only for the benefit of the client specific. A competent psychologist main- knowing how to select, administer, and
being assessed or the client or agency or tains a foundational fund of knowledge and interpret a psychological test of cognitive
sponsor requesting the evaluation but also to skill about tests and test procedures in ability, academic achievement, or emotional
maintain the reputation of the profession of general (e.g., validity, reliability, normative adjustment and functioning but also seeks
psychology and the public’s confidence that population) that supports selection and use to know and understand special education
psychologists are competent, current, and of a test instrument or assessment proce- law and requirements around eligibility for
responsible in their selection, administration, dure in a given situation. However, a specific services (Wright & Wright, 2015), as well as
and interpretation of assessment procedures. individual is rarely, if ever, a competent user the student’s cultural context, the classroom
of psychological assessment in all the set- context, and how it affects manifestation of
tings and contexts where assessment tools learning and adjustment difficulties. In
are used. Psychologists strive to develop the addition, a suitable level of knowledge about
contextual knowledge and skill to be com- best practices in classroom methods is
GUIDELINE 4 petent in one or perhaps two of the primary important to make helpful and appropriate
arenas where psychological tests are recommendations of educational interven-
Psychologists strive to consider the
employed. These primary arenas may tions based on test data gleaned from the
multiple and global settings (e.g., change as the profession evolves and/or as use of psychological tests.
forensic, education, integrated care) the professional in question develops addi- In the employment/coaching area of
in which services are being provided. tional skills and experience. At present, the practice, the competent user of psycholog-
following areas of professional practice ical tests strives to understand the purpose
Rationale tend to be the primary areas in the use of of any evaluation, who is the client, who has
psychological assessment: clinical, forensic, a legal right to access the results of an
Psychological tests are used in a variety of
neuropsychology, police and public safety assessment, and whether the procedures
settings for a variety of purposes. Validity is
psychology, educational/school psychol- selected to be used provide sufficient
not a unitary property of the test instrument.
ogy, geropsychology, industrial and organi- reliability and validity for this purpose and
Rather, validity evidence is evaluated within
zational psychology, employment selection/ this client in this context. Psychologists
the context of these multiple settings and
coaching, and integrated health care. working in this area seek to understand
purposes. In addition, most tests are devel-
Each of these practice settings calls for employment law and the legal standards for
oped within a cultural or regional context
the psychologist to develop adequate knowl- what constitutes employment discrimina-
where the test developer has an intended
edge of practice standards, legal standards, tion versus assessment of job appropriate
target population of test takers for a specific
collaborative professional roles and desired aptitudes and skills.
purpose. The psychologist, however, strives
purposes, methods and outcomes that call With clinical service providers and
to recognize when the selection and use of
for the use of psychological tests and proce- those working in health care delivery
this instrument deviates from the expected or
dures. For example, a psychologist working in systems, the competent psychologist strives
intended purpose and recognize the signifi-
a forensic setting is expected to be not only to understand how the results of any
cance and implications of such deviations.
suitably competent in their knowledge of psychological assessment will be used so
The psychologist considers these deviations
psychological testing, individual differences, that the appropriateness of that use can be
when interpreting test results for a particular
psychopathology, and other aspects of evaluated and any cautions or limitations in
client and reporting results for a specific pur-
psychological theory and research but also use of the findings can be noted in any report.
pose and within a specific context. These
appropriately knowledgeable about the legal In systems of integrated care where psychol-
deviations can include not only using a test in
context in which the results of their psycho- ogists work as part of a multidisciplinary
a setting for which it was not designed (e.g., a
logical testing will be reported and used. team, the psychologist strives to make sure
broad assessment of academic achievement
Depending on their area of practice, a compe- that the presentation of assessment results
intended as a screening tool for adults used
tent forensic psychologist might be expected is understandable for the other team
for diagnostic assessment of a child’s learn-
to know courtroom procedure; rules of members as well as the client and presented
ing difficulties) but also using a test designed,
evidence; rules of jury selection; or legal in such a way that any possible complica-
developed, and normed in one country or
definition or elements of terms such as insan- tions or limitations in the interpretation of
region of the world in a different country or
ity, dangerousness, and consciousness of guilt the findings is made known and addressed
region. The psychologist strives to under-
(Weiner & Otto, 2014). The work of neuro- in the report.
stand the significance of such cultural and
psychologists may, at times, overlap with the Psychologists also strive to be mindful of
linguistic deviations and to acknowledge
work of forensic psychology (Demakis, 2012), the problems associated with the increasing
possible influences, including limitations and
calling for attention to both legal and clinical use of the psychological tests globally, includ-
potential errors, in their use and interpreta-
issues associated with this type of special- ing delivering tests across legal boundaries of
tion of tests.
ized assessment. states, provinces, territories, or countries. In
Similarly, a psychologist working in a some instances, using psychological tests
Application
school environment with a task of identifying across legal boundaries, such as states in the
Competence in psychological assessment children in need of special educational same country, may provoke a concern about
is typically situation specific or setting services not only strives to be competent in intentionally or unintentionally circumventing
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