Evaluation of Damages to the Architectural Heritage of Naples as a Result of the Strongest Earthquakes of the Southern Apennines
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applied
sciences
Article
Evaluation of Damages to the Architectural Heritage
of Naples as a Result of the Strongest Earthquakes of
the Southern Apennines
Germana Gaudiosi 1 , Giuliana Alessio 1 , Rosa Nappi 1, * , Valentina Noviello 2 , Efisio Spiga 3
and Sabina Porfido 1,4
1 Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Sezione di Napoli Osservatorio Vesuviano,
Via Diocleziano, 328, 80124 Napoli, Italy; germana.gaudiosi@ingv.it (G.G.); giuliana.alessio@ingv.it (G.A.);
sabina.porfido@cnr.it (S.P.)
2 Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche-ISMed, 80124 Napoli, Italy; valentina.noviello@ismed.cnr.it
3 Independent Researcher, 83020 Avellino, Italy; spiga@comune.aiellodelsabato.av.it
4 Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche-ISA, Via Roma 64, 80100 Avellino, Italy
* Correspondence: rosa.nappi@ingv.it
Received: 4 August 2020; Accepted: 25 September 2020; Published: 1 October 2020
Abstract: The city of Naples (Campanian region, Southern Italy) has been hit by the strongest
earthquakes located inside the seismogenic areas of the Southern Apennines, as well as by
the volcano-tectonic earthquakes of the surrounding areas of the Campi Flegrei, Ischia and
Vesuvius volcanic districts. An analysis of the available seismic catalogues shows that in the
last millennium, more than 100 earthquakes have struck Naples with intensities rating I to III on
the Mercalli–Cancani–Sieberg (MCS) scale over the felt level. Ten of these events have exceeded the
damage level, with a few of these possessing an intensity greater than VII MCS. The catastrophic
earthquakes of 1456 (I0 = XI MCS), 1688 (I0 = XI MCS) and 1805 (I0 = X MCS) occurred in the
Campania–Molise Apennines chain, produced devastating effects on the urban heritage of the city
of Naples, reaching levels of damage equal to VIII MCS. In the 20th century, the city of Naples was
hit by three strong earthquakes in 1930 (I0 = X MCS), 1962 (I0 = IX MCS) and 1980 (I0 = X MCS),
all with epicenters in the Campania and Basilicata regions. The last one is still deeply engraved
in the collective memory, having led to the deaths of nearly 3000 individuals and resulted in the
near-total destruction of some Apennine villages. Moreover, the city of Naples has also been hit by
ancient historical earthquakes that originated in the Campanian volcanic districts of Campi Flegrei,
Vesuvio and Ischia, with intensities up to VII–VIII MCS (highest in the Vesuvian area). Based on
the intensity and frequency of its past earthquakes, the city of Naples is currently classified in the
second seismic category, meaning that it is characterized by “seismicity of medium energy”. In this
paper, we determine the level of damage suffered by Naples and its monuments as a result of the
strongest earthquakes that have hit the city throughout history, highlighting its repetitiveness in
some areas. To this aim, we reconstructed the seismic history of some of the most representative
urban monuments, using documentary and historical sources data related to the effects of strong
earthquakes of the Southern Apennines on the city of Naples. The ultimate purpose of this study is to
perform a seismic macro-zoning of the ancient center of city and reduce seismic risk. Our contribution
represents an original elaboration on the existing literature by creating a damage-density map of the
strongest earthquakes and highlighting, for the first time, the areas of the city of Naples that are most
vulnerable to strong earthquakes in the future. These data could be of fundamental importance to
the construction of detailed maps of seismic microzones. Our study contributes to the mitigation of
seismic risk in the city of Naples, and provides useful advice that can be used to protect the historical
heritage of Naples, whose historical center is a UNESCO World Heritage site.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6880; doi:10.3390/app10196880 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6880 2 of 29
Keywords: Naples (Southern Italy), historical earthquakes; Southern Apennines; seismic hazard
1. Introduction
Since historical times, the central-southern Apennines chain has generated the strongest
earthquakes in Italy. The epicenters of the most energetic events located along this chain have
shown a significant alignment in the northwest-southeast direction, parallel to the main direction of
the Apennines (Figure 1). The city of Naples has always been exposed to strong earthquakes, and
these repeatedly have hit the Southern Apennines from the 15th century to the present (Appendix A
Table A1) [1–4]. Our analysis of the available earthquake catalogues and relative scientific papers
shows that more than 100 earthquakes with intensities of I > III Mercalli–Cancani–Sieberg (MCS) over
the felt level hit the city of Naples in the last millennium. Ten of these events far exceeded the damage
threshold, with intensities of VII MCS or greater [5–7]. The strong historical earthquakes that have
struck the city since the 15th century (Figure 1) occurred in 1456 (I0 = XI MCS), 1688 (I0 = XI MCS),
1694 (I0 = X MCS), 1702 (I0 = X MCS), 1732 (I0 = X-XI MCS), 1805 (I0 = X MCS), 1930 (I0 = X MCS),
1962 (I0 = IX MCS) and 1980 (I0 = X MCS) [1–3]. Moreover, the city being located between two active
volcanic districts, the Somma-Vesuvio to the East, and the Campi Flegrei volcanic field to the West,
has been affected also by volcano-tectonic and volcanic earthquakes [8–10] even if characterized by
low/moderate magnitude and shallow hypocenters (Appendix A Table A1).
Indeed, in early historical times, the most severe earthquakes to hit Naples originated from the
Vesuvian area, including the 62 AD and 79 AD earthquakes [11], which had maximum intensities
up to VII–VIII MCS. Naples was also affected by the seismicity related to the eruption of Vesuvio
in 1631 [4,12] and more recently by the 9 October 1999 earthquake (Md = 3.6 [13]; Mw = 3.24 [14]).
Additionally, Naples suffered from the Campi Flegrei earthquakes preceding and accompanying
the eruption of Monte Nuovo in 1538 [5,15], and more recently was affected by the 4 October 1983
earthquake (M = 4.2 [3]) during the 1982–1984 bradyseismic crisis of Campi Flegrei.
In this paper we present an analysis of the damages that have occurred in Naples due to the
strongest earthquakes located in Campania–Molise (Southern Apennines), but we do not take into
account the damages of earthquakes that occurred in Vesuvio and Campi Flegrei, for which there is
not as much detailed information as for the Apennines earthquakes. The aim is mainly to highlight
local seismic hazards and potential heavy damage that could threaten the historical center of Naples
and its rich architectural heritage. Based on the intensity and frequency of earthquakes that have
occurred in the past, the city of Naples is ranked in the second seismic category, ‘average seismicity’
(Deliberazione Giunta Regionale n.5447 of 2012).The structure of this paper includes an introduction
describing the most relevant seismic events that have hit the Neapolitan area, the object of the study,
as well as geological structure of the city, highlighting its main characteristics and historical and
architectural heritage. Section 2 describes the methodology applied in the study, in which the levels
of damage to prestigious monuments of the Naples area are determined and then compared with
a density map detailing areas of similar damage. Section 3 illustrates in detail the most important
Apennines earthquakes that have hit the city of Naples, including detailed data that are collected in
the Appendix A. In Section 4 we analyze and discuss the results of our study. Section 5 outlines the
conclusions of our analysis.
The city of Naples is located inside the Campanian Plain, a very large tectonic depression NW-SE
elongated, that originated during the extensional regime following the formation of the Southern
Apennines [16–19]. The Plain includes the Campi Flegrei and Somma-Vesuvio active volcanic districts
to the west and southeast of the city, respectively. In particular, the most important explosive eruptions
of the Campi Flegrei volcanic field produced the Campanian Ignimbrite (Figure 2) (Ignimbrite Campana
(IC)) (39,000 years) and the Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (Tufo Giallo Napoletano (TGN)) (15,000 years) [20]
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6880 3 of 29
lithoid tuffs that represented the main source rocks for most of the ancient and modern buildings
inside the
Appl. Sci. urban
2020, 10, x area of Naples.
FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 31
Figure1.1. Map
Figure Map of
of historical
historical earthquake
earthquake locations
locations (after
(after CPTI15,14). Naples are
CPTI15,14). The earthquakes felt in Naples are
denoted
denotedwith a red
with square,
a red all others
square, are denoted
all others with a white
are denoted withsquare.
a whiteThesquare.
distributions of instrumental
The distributions of
quakes from the Italian Seismological Instrumental and Parametric Data-Base (ISIDE) are
instrumental quakes from the Italian Seismological Instrumental and Parametric Data-Base (ISIDE) represented
by
areblack dots. by black dots.
represented
The
Themaincity reliefs
of Naplesof theis urbanized
located insidearea oftheNaples includePlain,
Campanian ancient
a eruptive
very large centers originating
tectonic the
depression
hills
NW-SEof Capodimonte,
elongated, that Vomero, Pizzofalcone,
originated during Posillipo and Camaldoli
the extensional regime (Figure
following2). These were the results
the formation of the
of activity from about 70 explosive monogenetic volcanoes as well
Southern Apennines [16–19]. The Plain includes the Campi Flegrei and Somma-Vesuvio active as down-faulting displacement
associated with the
volcanic districts tocollapse
the westofand thesoutheast
Campi Flegrei
of the caldera [21,22]. In particular, the most important
city, respectively.
The very
explosive intense urbanization
eruptions of the Campi of Naples
Flegrei has been almost
volcanic continuousthe
field produced overCampanian
time, and architectural
Ignimbrite
development and consequent anthropic activities have nowadays hidden
(Ignimbrite Campana (IC)) (39,000 years) and the Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (Tufo Giallo Napoletano the ancient eruptive centers,
making
(TGN)) their
(15,000 relative
years)volcanic
[20] lithoidmorphologies rather undetectable.
tuffs that represented the main source rocks for most of the ancient
The stratigraphic setting of the urban
and modern buildings inside the urban area of Naples. area is very complex and mainly characterized by a cover of
loose The
pyroclastic and reworked material lying on Neapolitan
main reliefs of the urbanized area of Naples includes ancient Yellow Tuff (TGN)
eruptive sequence, with lateral
centers originating
and
the vertical heterogeneitiesVomero,
hills of Capodimonte, due to the presence of Posillipo
Pizzofalcone, different and
erupted products,
Camaldoli. and were
These vertical
theand lateral
results of
variation in lithification grades [23].
activity from about 70 explosive monogenetic volcanoes as well as down-faulting displacement
The main
associated withoutcropping
the collapsedeposits in theFlegrei
of the Campi urbancaldera
area of [21,22].
Naples, as regards the areal extension, are
pyroclastic
The very ashes,intense
lapilli and pumice dating
urbanization less than
of Naples 15,000
has beenyears, which
almost therefore erupted
continuous over time,afterand
the
TGN setting, as well as some reworked pyroclastics, as shown on the
architectural development and consequent anthropic activities have nowadays hidden the ancient Geological Map of Naples
(Figure
eruptive 2) centers,
[24]. The litifiedtheir
making deposits of IC
relative and TGN
volcanic very rarely rather
morphologies outcrop inside the urban area.
undetectable.
As
Thethe city of Naples
stratigraphic settingis of
located nextarea
the urban to the western
is very areaand
complex of the Southern
mainly Apennines,
characterized by a it has
cover
consistently been exposed
of loose pyroclastic to the strong
and reworked historical
material lyingearthquakes
on Neapolitan thatYellow
repeatedly have hit
Tuff (TGN) the mountain
sequence, with
lateraland
chain and itsvertical
villages.heterogeneities
Moreover, as the duecity
to the presencebyoftwo
is enclosed different erupted
great active products,
volcanic and (i.e.,
districts vertical
the
and lateral variation
Somma-Vesuvio and in lithification
Campi Flegreigrades
volcanic[23].
fields), it has also been affected by the seismic activity
(even The main outcropping
at low/moderate deposits
magnitudes) of in the urban areaand
volcano-tectonic of Naples,
volcanicasearthquakes,
regards thean areal extension,
issue are
that persists
pyroclastic ashes, lapilli and pumice dating less than 15,000 years, which therefore erupted after the
TGN setting, as well as some reworked pyroclastics, as shown on the Geological Map of Naples
(Figure 2) [24]. The litified deposits of IC and TGN very rarely outcrop inside the urban area.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 31
As the city of Naples is located next to the western area of the Southern Apennines, it has
consistently been exposed to the strong historical earthquakes that repeatedly have hit the mountain
chain and
Appl. Sci. its10,
2020, villages.
6880 Moreover, as the city is enclosed by two great active volcanic districts (i.e., the
4 of 29
Somma-Vesuvio and Campi Flegrei volcanic fields), it has also been affected by the seismic activity
(even at low/moderate magnitudes) of volcano-tectonic and volcanic earthquakes, an issue that
to the present
persists to the day [20,25–27].
present In particular,
day [20,25–27]. the Campi
In particular, Flegrei
the Campi area, near area,
Flegrei the city,
nearhas
theundergone
city, has
considerable deformations and almost continuous subsidence due to several
undergone considerable deformations and almost continuous subsidence due to several bradyseismic phases over
the past two millennia
bradyseismic phases over[28].
the past two millennia [28].
Figure GeologicalMap
Figure 2. Geological MapofofNaples
Naples extracted
extracted from
from the Geological
the Geological Map Map of 1:50,000
of Italy, Italy, 1:50,000 (Sheet
(Sheet Naples
n. 446–447).
Naples n. 446–447).
Settlements in
Settlements in the
the Gulf
Gulf ofof Naples
Naples datedate backback toto aa very
very ancient
ancient age age due
due to to its
its mild
mild climate,
climate, the the
fertility of
fertility of its
its soil
soil and
and its
its abundance
abundance of of landings
landings and and natural
natural harbors.
harbors.
The city
The city has
has been
been influenced
influenced in in its
its urban
urban development
development by by the
the arrival
arrival of of various
various peoples
peoples and and
cultures, from its Greek foundations, Roman conquest, Byzantine
cultures, from its Greek foundations, Roman conquest, Byzantine domination, Norman and Swabian domination, Norman and Swabian
dominations and
dominations andalternating
alternating French
French and andSpanish dynasties
Spanish to the present
dynasties to the era [29,30].era
present Such multiethnic
[29,30]. Such
multiethnic influence has given Naples a unique reality that is rich in history and culture boththe
influence has given Naples a unique reality that is rich in history and culture both in terms of its in
urbanof
terms layout
its theasurbanwell as its art
layout asand
welltraditions.
as its art and Thetraditions.
historic center of Naples
The historic centerrepresents
of Naples anrepresents
exclusive
example
an of a vertical
exclusive example stratified city, and
of a vertical its architecture
stratified city, and is based on overlapping
its architecture of different
is based architectural
on overlapping of
styles [31]. It has been possible to reconstruct the historical events of
different architectural styles [31]. It has been possible to reconstruct the historical events of many many parts of the city with
greater
parts of precision
the city with duegreater
to the numerous
precision due archaeological
to the numerous findings that have been
archaeological foundthat
findings overhave
the years.
been
Parthenope,
found over the first nucleus
years. of the future
Parthenope, Naples,
the first was founded
nucleus by theNaples,
of the future Cumanswas in the eighth century
founded by the
BC on Echia
Cumans in theMountain, and is BC
eighth century presently
on Echia known as Pizzofalcone
Mountain, [32]. known as Pizzofalcone [32].
and is presently
The harbor
The harbor was was located
located to to the
the east
east ofof the
the city,
city, near
near the
the present-day
present-day Municipio
Municipio Square,Square, andand there
there
Castel Nuovo
Castel Nuovo (as (as known
known as as Maschio
Maschio Angioino)
Angioino) becamebecame the the headquarters
headquarters of of the
the medieval
medieval age age andand
one of the most important symbols of the city. At the beginning of the
one of the most important symbols of the city. At the beginning of the sixth century BC, the city was sixth century BC, the city was
rebuilt as Neapolis,
rebuilt Neapolis, meaning
meaning “new “newcity”,
city”,and andwas wasconceived
conceivedsimilarly
similarlytotothe thecity ofof
city Cuma
Cuma [32]. Due
[32]. Due to
the privileged relationship with Athens, Naples became one of
to the privileged relationship with Athens, Naples became one of the largest ports in the the largest ports in the Mediterranean
Sea, with unchanged
Mediterranean Sea, with urban development
unchanged urbanuntil the middle
development of the
until thefirst century
middle of the BC [33].
first Following
century BC [33].the
influences the
Following of Athens
influences andof Syracuse,
Athens and the political
Syracuse, and
thesocial equilibrium
political and socialofequilibrium
Naples wasof compromised
Naples was
towards the end
compromised of the the
towards fifthend
century
of theBC by the
fifth expansion
century BC byof thetheexpansion
Oscii people, of thewho conquered
Oscii people, who both
the territories
conquered bothofthe the territories
Etruscans of in the
northern
Etruscans Campania and the
in northern territories
Campania andof the Cumans
territories[32].
of the In
327 BC, the
Cumans [32].city of Naples
In 327 BC, thewas citystrongly
of Naples contended
was strongly between the Sanniti
contended between andthe Romans.
SannitiRome had the
and Romans.
strongest
Rome hadinfluence,
the strongestreducing the city’s
influence, Greekthe
reducing traditions and habits
city’s Greek [32]. and
traditions Fromhabits
the first century
[32]. From BC the until
first
approximately
century BC until the first century AD,
approximately Roman
the first high AD,
century society wenthigh
Roman to Naples
societyfor rest to
went and recreation.
Naples for rest It
was precisely in this period that Naples was enriched with refined Roman
and recreation. It was precisely in this period that Naples was enriched with refined Roman villas. In villas. In the Augustan
age,Augustan
the Naples was age,hit with was
Naples the catastrophic
hit with the earthquakes of 62 AD and
catastrophic earthquakes of 79
62 ADAD and and the
79 ADeruption
and the of
Vesuviusof
eruption [2,34,35].
Vesuvius [2,34,35].
Many churches were built during the empire of Constantine in the fourth century, such as
San Giovanni Maggiore and San Giorgio Maggiore. In 533 AD, the church of Santa Maria Maggiore
alla Pietrasanta was built in the historical center of Naples [36,37].
Naples was the attracted the attention of the Byzantine and Gothic peoples following the crisis of
the Roman empire. The Byzantines conquered Naples in 534 AD, and thereafter became a Byzantine
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6880 5 of 29
province for the next six centuries, during which the Duchy of Naples was established. Numerous
monasteries were built in the city during this time, including the Greek monastery of San Sebastiano.
Moreover, several churches were located on the hills of the interior or on the islands, such as the
hill of Monte Echia or the islet of Megaride. Between 780 and 790 AD [37], the Byzantine bishop
Stephen II built the church of San Gaudioso [36,37]. In the centuries of ducal government, Naples
often found itself in contrast with the Lombards and Saracens and also had to face repeated contrasts
with the pontifical state. The defensive wall was enlarged to protect Naples against attacks and heavy
population growth. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the churches of Santi Severino e Sossio (10th century)
and Santa Maria Donnalbina were built. In 1137, the Duchy was conquered by the Normans who later
formed the Kingdom of Sicily.
Guglielmo I of Sicilia was responsible for the construction of Castel Capuano (1176) and for the
restoration and expansion of Castel dell’ Ovo by building the tower later known as Normandy.
After the Norman period, Naples was subjected to Swabian domination. Thanks to Federico II of
Swabia, Naples regained strong central power, thanks in particular to the establishment of the first
State University of History.
During the subsequent Angevin domination, Charles I and Charles II of Anjou reorganized the
city of Naples, with urban planning interventions aimed at creating a port city [38].
At the end of the 13th and beginning of the 14th centuries, numerous churches were built as a
result of kings’ subsidies [29,30,36,37], including the churches of San Agrippino (1265), San Lorenzo
Maggiore (1270), Santa Maria La Nova (1279), San Domenico Maggiore (1283), Sant’ Agostino Maggiore
(1287) and San Pietro Martire (1294), the monastery of Santa Chiara (1310) and the Santa Maria Assunta
Cathedral (1270–1313). In addition, Charles I of Anjou was responsible for the construction of a new
fortress, Castel Nuovo (known as Maschio Angioino) (1279), which was located by the sea, right near
the creek that previously hosted the port of Naples. The construction of the Santa Maria del Carmine
church dates back to the end of the 13th century, thanks to the contributions of Roberto d’ Angio’ who
donated the land in 1270, although historical sources report the date of the start of construction as the
12th century [36,37]. During the Angevin domination, the church of Santissima Annunziata Maggiore
(1318, but completely rebuilt and enlarged in 1513), Castel Sant’Elmo (1329–1343), Certosa di San
Martino (1325–1368, located at Vomero hill) and Castello del Carmine (1382) were built [36,37].
During the Catalan–Aragonese kingdoms (15th century), the church of Santa Maria di Monteoliveto
(Sant’Anna dei Lombardi) was built (1411) and subsequently enlarged during the kingdom of Alfonso V
of Aragona. He also restored Castel Nuovo, which had been damaged by continuous wars, and added
an exemplary Triumph Arch and the famous throne room. Subsequently, the city of Naples underwent
considerable expansion, with the construction of a new wall with 22 cylindrical towers [36,37]. Alfonso
V of Aragona made the city of Naples a true capital of the Mediterranean [29,30]. During the Ferdinando
kingdom, many monuments were built [39]: Palazzo Carafa d’Andria (in the early 15th century), Porta
Capuana (1484), the Como Palace (Museo Filangieri) (1464 and 1490), the Diomede Carafa Palace (1470)
and the facade of the San Severino palace (about 1470) of the Salerno princes. The currently facade of
the church of Gesù Nuovo was rebuilt in 1584, as well as the actual lower church of Santi Severino e
Sossio (1490). The urban situation is described in detail in the Tavola Strozzi dated at the end of 15th
century (Figure 3).
Between the 16th and 17th centuries, the fortification walls were built to the south of Naples [29,30].
Under Spanish domination, the kingdom of Carlo V (and the regency of his viceroy Don Pedro de
Toledo) subjected Naples to further transformations in which the quarters of Toledo and the present
Spanish quarters were built, in order to accommodate the Spanish military garrisons. At the beginning
of the 16th century further work of transformation and fortification of Castel Nuovo (Maschio Angioino)
and the construction of Palazzo Pignatelli di Monteleone were made by the Bourbons. During the
16th and 17th centuries, the churches of Gesù Vecchio dell’Immacolata di Don Placido (1554), San
Tommaso d’Aquino (1567 but destroyed in 1932), San Liguoro/San Gregorio Armeno (1572), San Severo
out of the walls (1573), Gesù Nuovo (1584), Madonna della Pietà dei Turchini (1592), San Filippo Neri
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 31
(Maschio Angioino) and the construction of Palazzo Pignatelli di Monteleone were made by the
Bourbons. During
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6880the 16th and 17th centuries, the churches of Gesù Vecchio dell’Immacolata di6Don of 29
Placido (1554), San Tommaso d’Aquino (1567 but destroyed in 1932), San Liguoro/San Gregorio
Armeno (1572), San Severo out of the walls (1573), Gesù Nuovo (1584), Madonna della Pietà dei
(Gerolamini)
Turchini (1592),
(1592), SanSan Filippo
Filippo e Giacomo
Neri (1593),(1592),
(Gerolamini) San Paolo
SanMaggiore
Filippo e(1538–1630), Santa Maria
Giacomo (1593), della
San Paolo
Sanità or San Vincenzo (1602–1614), Santa Maria della Verità/Sant’Agostino
Maggiore (1538–1630), Santa Maria della Sanità or San Vincenzo (1602–1614), Santa Maria della degli Scalzi (1603), Santa
Maria ai Monti (1606–1654),
Verità/Sant’Agostino Santa(1603),
degli Scalzi TeresaSanta
degli Maria
Scalzi ai
(1604),
MontiSan Michele Arcangelo
(1606–1654), Santa Teresadei Mercedari
degli Scalzia
Port’Alba (1620), San Nicola alla Carità (1647) and la Croce di Lucca were built [36,37].
(1604), San Michele Arcangelo dei Mercedari a Port’Alba (1620), San Nicola alla Carità (1647) and la Construction of
the Regio Arsenal dates back to 1577, but it was destroyed in the early 1900s, while
Croce di Lucca were built [36,37]. Construction of the Regio Arsenal dates back to 1577, but it was the construction
of PalazzoinCarafa
destroyed di Maddaloni
the early 1900s, whileisthedated to 1580. of
construction In Palazzo
the 17thCarafa
century, the Churchisofdated
di Maddaloni SantatoMaria
1580.
Donnalbina (ninth century) and the Church of Santa Maria Maggiore alla
In the 17th century, the Church of Santa Maria Donnalbina (ninth century) and the Church of Pietrasanta (sixth century)
Santa
were rebuilt,
Maria Maggioreand in 1667
alla the construction
Pietrasanta of the Presidio
(sixth century) were di Pizzofalcone
rebuilt, and in began.
1667 the In 1600, the building
construction of theof
the Palazzo Reale (Royal Palace) took place [39], and was subsequently expanded
Presidio di Pizzofalcone began. In 1600, the building of the Palazzo Reale (Royal Palace) took placein 1734 when Naples
became
[39], andthe wascapital of the kingdom
subsequently expanded withinCharles III of Naples
1734 when Bourbon. The final
became the transformations took place
capital of the kingdom within
Ferdinand’s
Charles III oftime between
Bourbon. The1838
finaland 1858 with a general
transformations restoration
took place of the neoclassical
in Ferdinand’s time between style. In 1919
1838 and
this was largely dedicated to the National Library, where the oldest wing was used
1858 with a general restoration of the neoclassical style. In 1919 this was largely dedicated to the as a Museum of
Historic Property.
National Library, where the oldest wing was used as a Museum of Historic Property.
Figure
Figure 3.
3. Tavola
TavolaStrozzi:
Strozzi:view ofof
view Naples depicting
Naples thethe
depicting Aragonese fleetfleet
Aragonese re-entering the port
re-entering on 12onJuly
the port 12
1465 after the defeat of the Angevin Navy at Ischia on 7 July. (Attributed to F. Rosselli—Museo
July 1465 after the defeat of the Angevin Navy at Ischia on 7 July. (Attributed to F. Rosselli—Museo
Nazionale
Nazionale didiSan
SanMartino,
Martino, Naples,
Naples, Italy.)
Italy.)
During the 20th century, many other changes and renovations were carried out, both in the
During
Municipio Square and in the oldest city center [30].
As can be seen from the synthetic historical and architecturalarchitectural excursus
excursus reported
reported soso far,
far, the
uniqueness of
uniqueness of Naples
Naples and
and above
above all
all of its historical
historical center
center stems
stems largely
largely from the use of the ancient
path of
Greek path of road
road that
thathas
hasbeen
beenpreserved
preservedtotothe thepresent
presentday.
day.Because
Becauseof of this,
this, thethe historic
historic center
center of
Naples was declared a human heritage site in 1995 by UNESCO, and was included on its list of
of Naples was declared a human heritage site in 1995 by UNESCO, and was included on its list
protected properties.
Our analysis
analysishashasallowed
allowedus tousreconstruct the seismic
to reconstruct the history
seismicofhistory
some of of thesome
most representative
of the most
urban monuments
representative urbanofmonuments
Naples, andoftoNaples,
perform a seismic
and macro-zoning
to perform of the ancientofcenter
a seismic macro-zoning of the
the ancient
city in of
center order
the to
cityreduce future
in order seismicfuture
to reduce risk. A methodology
seismic already widely
risk. A methodology testedwidely
already for assessing
tested the
for
damage level of some cities affected by both historical and relatively more recent
assessing the damage level of some cities affected by both historical and relatively more recent earthquakes was
adopted [40,41].
earthquakes was adopted [40,41].
2. Methodology
2. Methodology
In the
In the last
last 1000
1000 years,
years, the
the Southern
Southern Apennines
Apennines have have been
been the
the source
source area
area of
of strong
strong earthquakes
earthquakes
that have
that have had
had aa considerable
considerable impact
impact onon the
the city
city of
of Naples,
Naples, exceeding
exceeding the
the threshold
threshold of of damage.
damage. In In this
this
paper we consider the level of damage suffered by the city of Naples and its monuments
paper we consider the level of damage suffered by the city of Naples and its monuments as a result as a result of
thethe
of strongest earthquakes
strongest earthquakesthatthat
have affected
have it throughout
affected its history,
it throughout highlighting
its history, recurrences
highlighting in some
recurrences in
areas. We reconstructed the seismic history of some of the most representative
some areas. We reconstructed the seismic history of some of the most representative urban urban monuments
in Naples using
monuments a methodology
in Naples already widely
using a methodology tested
already that tested
widely assesses theassesses
that damagethe level of cities
damage levelthat
of
have been
cities affected
that have beenboth historically
affected and relatively
both historically andmore recently
relatively by recently
more earthquakes [5]. We determined
by earthquakes [5]. We
the level of damage in certain Neapolitan structures relative to historical earthquakes, distinguishing
three different classes of damage (Table 1): minor damage (MD) (slight damage; surface cracks, light
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 31
determined the level of damage in certain Neapolitan structures relative to historical earthquakes,
distinguishing
Appl. three different classes of damage (Table 1): minor damage (MD) (slight damage;
Sci. 2020, 10, 6880 7 of 29
surface cracks, light non-structural damage); serious damage (SD) (large and extensive cracks,
moderate structural damage, heavy non-structural damage and occasionally partial collapses); and
non-structural damage); (GD)
great damage/collapse serious damage
(heavy (SD) (large
cracks, and extensive
very heavy damage,cracks,
heavymoderate structural
structural damage,damage,
partial
heavy non-structural damage
and in some case total collapse). and occasionally partial collapses); and great damage/collapse (GD)
(heavy cracks, very heavy damage, heavy structural damage, partial and in some case total collapse).
Table 1. Level of damage by historical earthquakes, distinguishing among three different classes of
Table 1. Level of damage by historical earthquakes, distinguishing among three different classes
damage.
of damage.
MD (Minor Damage) SD (Serious Damage) GD (Great Damage/Collapse)
MD (Minor Damage)large and extensive
SD (Serious
cracks,Damage)
moderate GD (Great Damage/Collapse)
slight damage; surface heavy cracks, very heavy damage,
large
structural and extensive
damage, heavycracks,
cracks, light heavystructural
heavy cracks, very heavy damage,
damage, partial
moderatedamage
slight damage; surface cracks, non-structural structural damage,
and heavy structural damage, partial
non-structural damagedamage
light non-structural heavy non-structural damage and and in some cases total collapse
occasional partial collapses
occasional partial collapses
and in some cases total collapse
The classification of damage suffered by buildings of Naples was carried out by means of the
The classification
expressions and termsofuseddamage
in thesuffered by buildings
historical of Naples
sources (i.e., “leviterwas carried
lesa”, out by means
“leggiermente lesa”of and
the
expressions
”picciola parte andpatita”
terms for
used in the
minor historical
damage; sources (i.e.,
“plurimum “leviterand
laceratum” lesa”, “leggiermente
”tutto lesionato” for lesa” and
serious
”picciola parte patita” for minor damage; “plurimum laceratum” and ”tutto
damage; and “a fundamentis devastatum”, “gittato a terra” and “totalmente rovinato” for great lesionato” for serious
damage;
damage). andThis“a fundamentis
analysis devastatum”,
was possible thanks to“gittato
the damagea terra” and “totalmente
descriptions by severalrovinato”
authors whofor great
used
damage). This analysis was possible thanks to the damage descriptions
recurring verbs, adjective and adverbs that defined increasing damage levels [40–45]. by several authors who used
recurring verbs,
For each adjective studied
earthquake and adverbs
in thisthat defined
paper, increasing
tables damage
are presented levels
in the [40–45].A that show the
Appendix
For each
original nameearthquake studied in whose
of the monument this paper,
damagetablesisareknown,
presentedtheintype
the Appendix
of building,A that
theshow
yearthe of
original name of the monument whose damage is known, the type of building,
construction (and in some cases reconstruction), the level of damage suffered following the the year of construction
(and in some
earthquake cases
and thereconstruction), the levelThe
geographic coordinates. of damage
damagesuffered
reportedfollowing the earthquake
by all buildings was mapped and thefor
geographic coordinates. The damage reported by all buildings was
each earthquake examined (Figures 4–6, Moreover, we generated a density map allowing the mapped for each earthquake
examined (Figures
identification 4–6).
of areas withMoreover,
the samewe generated
damage valuea density map allowing
for all examined the identification
historical earthquakes. of Forareas
this
with the same
purpose, we damage
used the valueArcGIS
for all examined
(version historical earthquakes.
10.8) Silverman For this purpose,
algorithm, we used thea
which calculates
ArcGIS (version 10.8)area
magnitude-per-unit Silverman algorithm,
from point featureswhich calculates
that fall within aaneighborhood
magnitude-per-unit
aroundareaeachfrom point
cell [46].
features that fall within a neighborhood around each cell [46].
The final results were interpreted and are commented upon in this paper, with a discussion of
The final results
the usefulness were of
and value interpreted
our studyand to are commented
improving the upon in this
literature paper,
about with arisk
seismic discussion of the
in the city of
usefulness
Naples. and value of our study to improving the literature about seismic risk in the city of Naples.
Figure 4.
Figure 4. Map
Mapofofthe
the1456
1456Mercalli-Cancani-Sieberg
Mercalli-Cancani-Sieberg (MCS)
(MCS) macroseismic
macroseismic intensity
intensity (modified
(modified fromfrom
[1])
[1])the
on on left;
the left;
mapmap ofdamage
of the the damage to Naples
to Naples fromfrom the earthquake
the earthquake of 5 December
of 5 December 14561456 onright.
on the the right.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6880 8 of 29
Appl.Sci.
Appl. Sci.2020,
2020,10,
10,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 88of
of31
31
Figure 5.
Figure
Figure 5. Map
Map of
Map of the
of the 1688
the 1688 MCS
1688 MCS macroseismic
MCS macroseismic intensity
macroseismic intensity (modified
intensity (modified from
(modified from [1])
from [1]) on
[1]) on the
on the left;
the left; map
left; map of
map of the
of the
damage
damage to Naples from the earthquake of 5 June 1688 on the right.
damage to Naples from the earthquake of 5 June 1688 on the right.
Figure 6.
Figure 6.
Figure Map
6. Map of
Map of the
of the 1694
the 1694 MCS
1694 MCS macroseismic
MCS macroseismic intensity
macroseismic intensity (modified
intensity (modified from
(modified from [1])
from [1]) on
[1]) on the
on the left;
the left; map
left; map of
map of the
of the
the
damage
damage to
to Naples
Naples from
from the
the earthquake
earthquake of
of 8
8 September
September 1694
1694 on
on the
the
damage to Naples from the earthquake of 8 September 1694 on the right.right.
right.
3. Historical Earthquakes of the Southern Apennines Felt in Naples
3. Historical
3. Historical Earthquakes
Earthquakes of of the
the Southern
Southern Apennines
Apennines Felt Felt in in Naples
Naples
The strongest historical earthquakes to have struck the city of Naples since the beginning of the
The strongest
The strongest historical
historical earthquakes
earthquakes to to have
have struck
struck thethe citycity of
of Naples
Naples sincesince thethe beginning
beginning of of the
the
15th century (Figure 1) were in 1456 (I0 = XI MCS), 1688 (I0 = XI MCS), 1694 (I0 = X MCS), 1702 (I0 = X
15th century (Figure 1) were in 1456 (I0 = XI MCS), 1688 (I0 = XI MCS), 1694 (I0 = X MCS), 1702 (I0 = XX
15th century (Figure 1) were in 1456 (I 0 = XI MCS), 1688 (I 0 = XI MCS), 1694 (I0 = X MCS), 1702 (I 0 =
MCS), 1732 (I0 = X-XI MCS), 1805 (I0 = X MCS), 1930 (I0 = X MCS), 1962 (I0 = IX MCS) and 1980 (I0 = X
MCS), 1732
MCS), 1732 (I(I00== X-XI
X-XI MCS),
MCS), 1805
1805 (I(I00== XX MCS),
MCS), 1930
1930 (I(I00== XX MCS),
MCS), 19621962 (I(I00== IX
IX MCS)
MCS) and and 1980
1980 (I(I00== XX
MCS) [1–3]. Devastating effects were inflicted upon the historical Neapolitan urban area as a result of
MCS) [1–3].
MCS) [1–3]. Devastating
Devastating effectseffects were
were inflicted
inflicted upon
upon the
the historical
historical Neapolitan
Neapolitan urban urban area area as as aa result
result
these seismic events, and damages reaching levels of up to VIII MCS have been recorded [6,7].
of these seismic events, and damages reaching levels of up to VIII MCS
of these seismic events, and damages reaching levels of up to VIII MCS have been recorded [6,7]. have been recorded [6,7].
During the 20th century, the city of Naples was hit by three major earthquakes (in 1930, 1962
During the
During the 20th
20th century,
century, thethe city
city of of Naples
Naples waswas hithit byby three
three major
major earthquakes
earthquakes (in (in 1930,
1930, 1962
1962
and 1980) originating in the Southern Apennines. The last of these events is still deeply engraved in
and 1980)
and 1980) originating
originating in in the
the Southern
Southern Apennines.
Apennines. The The last
last ofof these
these events
events is is still
still deeply
deeply engraved
engraved in in
the collective memory, due to the high number of casualties, of about 3000, and the almost complete
the collective memory, due to the high number of casualties, of about
the collective memory, due to the high number of casualties, of about 3000, and the almost complete 3000, and the almost complete
destruction of some nearby Apennines villages.
destruction of
destruction of some
some nearby
nearby Apennines
Apennines villages.
villages.
The main seismological and macroseismic parameters of the earthquakes that hit the city of Naples
The main seismological and macroseismic
The main seismological and macroseismic parameters parameters of of the
the earthquakes
earthquakes that that hit hit the
the city
city of of
in the previous centuries are listed in Appendix A Table A1. Between 1293 and 2002, 178 recorded
Naples in the previous centuries are listed in Appendix A Table
Naples in the previous centuries are listed in Appendix A Table A1. Between 1293 and 2002, 178 A1. Between 1293 and 2002, 178
events hit Naples, about ninety of which had an epicentral intensity of I0 >= VII MCS. Ten events struck
recorded events
recorded events hit hit Naples,
Naples, about
about ninety
ninety of of which
which had
had an an epicentral
epicentral intensity
intensity of of II00 >=
>= VII
VII MCS.
MCS. Ten Ten
Naples severely, exceeding a damage level greater than VII MCS [6,7]. The 5 December 1456 earthquake
events struck Naples severely, exceeding a damage level greater than
events struck Naples severely, exceeding a damage level greater than VII MCS [6,7]. The 5 December VII MCS [6,7]. The 5 December
1456 earthquake
1456 earthquake is is considered
considered one one ofof the
the most
most catastrophic
catastrophic events events to to have
have occurred
occurred in in Italy
Italy during
during
historical times,
historical times, andand had
had anan epicentral
epicentral intensity
intensity ofof XI
XI MCS
MCS and and aa magnitude
magnitude Mw Mw == 7.2 7.2 [14,42].
[14,42]. ItIt was
was
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6880 9 of 29
is considered one of the most catastrophic events to have occurred in Italy during historical times, and
had an epicentral intensity of XI MCS and a magnitude Mw = 7.2 [14,42]. It was a very complex event,
with five main shocks triggered along the axis of the Apennines [47] along a narrow belt ranging from
the Abruzzi to Campania regions. The seismogenic area inside Benevento province was the nearest
to Naples, and caused high levels of damage. The earthquake’s destruction covered a large region
(Figure 4), with an intensity I≥ IX MCS and more than 90 localities affected in Central and Southern
Italy, killing at least 60,000 people. In Naples, the earthquake resulted in 100 casualties. Damages
were widespread, many buildings were damaged and streets were blocked. Historical sources report
that damage occurred above all to the most important castles, fortresses, churches and monasteries
of the time (Appendix A Table A2). Great and serious damages were recorded in Naples (Figure 4).
In detail, collapses occurred in Castel Sant’Elmo, Castel Capuano and the churches of San Agostino,
San Pietro Martire, San Lorenzo, Santa Chiara, San Giovanni Maggiore, Santa Maria Maggiore alla
Pietrasanta, San Domenico and San Severino. Moreover, even the bell towers of San Agrippino and the
Cathedral fell down; the Certosas of San Martino and Monte Oliveto monasteries, located outside the
walls, were severely damage (Appendix A Table A2). The severity of the impact in the city of Naples
was estimated to be equal to VIII MCS [5,42,47].
Another devastating earthquake that affected the whole Campania region occurred on 5 June
1688, with its epicenter inside the Sannio area (Figure 5). This earthquake was characterized by an
epicentral intensity of I0 = XI MCS, presumably in the Cerreto Sannita and Civitella Licinio villages,
and a value of magnitude Mw = 7.06 and I0 = X on the basis of the Environmental Seismic Intensity
(ESI-07) scale [48]. The earthquake resulted in a high number of casualties, with some chronicles
reporting as many as 10,000 deaths. Moreover, many environmental effects such as fractures, landslides,
liquefaction phenomena and hydrological variations were observed that in some cases, together with
the diffuse damage to the housing stock, led to total relocation of some Apennines villages like Cerreto
Sannita [6,48]. The level of damage was very high throughout Naples (Figure 5), with a number
of deaths somewhere between 35 and 50 people. Chronicles have reported severe and widespread
damage, especially to the churches of the city (Appendix A Table A3). Of the church of San Paolo,
an anonymous contemporary source reported that “in the atrium below the Church of San Paolo dei
Teatini . . . the magnificent arch has dropped together with the large and ancient columns, which they
were said to form the famous temple of Castor and Pollux, only four left standing, but almost falling,
so far 19 people have been quarried from ruin”.
The collapse of the frames of some private buildings and damages to Castel Sant’Elmo, Castel
Capuano, Castel Nuovo, the fortress of Torrione del Carmine, the Sala del Tesoro and the Royal Palace
also occurred. The last revision proposed by the authors of DBMI15 [1] assigned a VIII MCS to Naples.
On 8 September 1694, a strong earthquake struck a wide area of Southern Italy between the
Campania and Basilicata regions. Unlike the 1456 and 1688 earthquakes, the epicentral area was located
between Irpinia and Basilicata (Figure 6), with I0 = X MCS, Mw = 6.73 and I0 = X ESI-07 [43,48,49].
The seismogenic source located in Campania and Basilicata, relatively more distant than the source
zones of the 1456 and 1688 earthquakes, caused a lower damage level in Naples (Figure 6), evaluated
as VII MCS. The number of deaths was considerable, about 6000 in total, although only one dead and
one wounded were reported in Naples. The earthquake caused moderate damage throughout the
Neapolitan urban fabric, with only a single collapse at Porta Nolana. Widespread damage occurred
to the ecclesiastical buildings (Appendix A Table A4), and more or less serious damages occurred to
the Cathedral and the churches of Girolamini, Santa Maria Maggiore, San Paolo Maggiore dei Teatini,
Santi Severino e Sossio churches, among others. Much damage to public buildings was observed,
including to Castel Nuovo (Maschio Angioino) and Castel Capuano. In the Royal Arsenal, seven
arches and its central pillars lanes were damaged, while the Real Presidio of Pizzofalcone, which was
already undergoing repairs, suffered damage to some walls that had to be reinforced with iron chains.
Moreover, the noble palaces of the Duke Carafa of Maddaloni, the Duke Carafa of Andria and of the
Duke Pignatelli of Monteleone suffered considerable damage.
The 26 July 1805 earthquake is also known as “the earthquake of Sant’Anna”, since it occurred
on the day dedicated to celebrating this saint. The epicentral area was located in the Molise region
(Figure 7), where at least 19 villages suffered almost complete destruction, with epicentral intensity
I0 = X MCS, Mw = 6.73 and I0 = X ESI-07 (Figure 7) [48,50]. According to official chronicles, 5573
people
Appl. died10,and
Sci. 2020, 68801583 were injured. There was widespread damage in Naples (Figure 8),10with of 29
collapses and deep fractures requiring shoring of housing. The damage level was equal to VII–VIII
MCS (Appendix A Table A1). The major damages were related to part of today’s historical center
In the following
(Appendix A Table A5) century,
[44]. the
Indeed,city of Naples
Castel was hit
Nuovo by twoAngioino),
(Maschio strong eventsthe that
big took placeofon
building 14
Regj
March 1702 and 29 November 1732; both these epicenters were located
Studj, the Reale Albergo de’ Poveri, the Gesù Vecchio Church and the buildings of the Prince of between the Irpinia and Sannio
areas,
Angri,with damageof
of Roccella, levels
Sangro,evaluated
of DucatodellahaveRegina
an intensities
and many of VI and VII
others MCS,
over respectively.
the district of Pizzofalcone
suffered serious damage. Moreover, some churches like the Cathedral, Sant’Agostino allaitZecca
The 26 July 1805 earthquake is also known as “the earthquake of Sant’Anna”, since occurred
and
on the day dedicated to celebrating this saint. The epicentral area
San Demetrio also suffered severe damages. The strong earthquake produced many environmental was located in the Molise region
(Figure 7), where atthe
effects throughout least 19 villages
whole area hit suffered
by the almost
quake,complete
especiallydestruction, with epicentral
in the epicentral area of the intensity
Bojano
0 =
Iplain,X MCS, Mw = 6.73 and
with surface faulting, fractures,I 0 = X ESI-07 (Figure 7) [48,50]. According to official
landslides and hydrological variations. In the Bay of Napleschronicles, 5573
people
and along diedtheand 1583areas
coastal wereofinjured.
Gaeta (inThere Latium) wasandwidespread damage (in
Sorrento peninsula in Naples
Campania), (Figure 8), with
located very
collapses
far from the andepicentral
deep fractures requiring
area, changes inshoring
sea levelofequivalent
housing. The to a damage
low-energyleveltsunami
was equal were toobserved
VII–VIII
MCS (Appendix A Table A1). The major damages were related to part of today’s historical center
[43,45,48].
(Appendix
In the A Table
20th A5) [44].
century, threeIndeed, Castel Nuovo
catastrophic (Maschio
earthquakes withAngioino),
I0 ≥ IX MCS the big building
occurred in oneofofRegj
the Studj,
main
the Reale Albergo
seismogenic zonesde’ Poveri,
located in the Gesù
SouthernVecchio Church Events
Apennines. and theon buildings of theand
23 July 1930 Prince of Angri,
21 August 1962of
Roccella, of Sangro, of Duca della Regina and many others over the district
occurred in Irpinia; the earthquake of 23 November 1980 occurred at the border between Irpinia and of Pizzofalcone suffered
serious
Basilicata. damage. Moreover, some churches like the Cathedral, Sant’Agostino alla Zecca and San
Demetrio
The 1930also suffered
earthquake severe damages.
struck The strongPuglia
the Campania, earthquake producedregions.
and Basilicata many environmental
The epicentral effects
area
throughout
was locatedthe whole the
between areanorthern
hit by theIrpinia
quake,andespecially
Puglia in the epicentral
regions, with I0 =area of the 6.67
X MCS, BojanoMwplain,
and Iwith
0= X
surface faulting,
ESI-07 scale fractures, landslides
[14,48,51–54]. The most damagedand hydrological
villages variations.
were located In along
the Bay theofaxis
Naples andApennines
of the along the
coastal areas of Gaeta (in Latium) and Sorrento peninsula (in
Chain, including Ariano Irpino, Lacedonia, Villanova del Battista, Scampitella, TrevicoCampania), located very far from andthe
epicentral
Aquilonia,area, withchanges
values of inIsea levelMCS.
= IX-X equivalent to a low-energy
The earthquake led to tsunami
the deathswere observed
of 1424 [45,48,50,51].
people, with 4624
In the
injured and20th
aboutcentury,
100,000three
beingcatastrophic
left homeless earthquakes with I0 ≥ IX MCS occurred in one of the main
in the aftermath.
seismogenic
In Naples, zones located in
widespread the Southern
damage occurred Apennines.
to housingEvents on 23inJuly
stock and, 1930 and
particular, four21 houses
Augustin1962the
occurred
Courts area in Irpinia;
collapsed theasearthquake
well as theof 23 November
Casanova Bridge,1980
withoccurred at the border
four casualties. betweenvalue
The intensity Irpiniain
and Basilicata.
Naples was VII MCS.
Figure 7.
Figure 7. Map
Map of
of the
the 1805
1805 MCS
MCS macroseismic
macroseismic intensity
intensity (modified from [1])
(modified from [1]) on
on the
the left;
left; isoseismal map
isoseismal map
of the
of the 1805
1805 Bojano
Bojano earthquake
earthquake (modified
(modified from
from [50])
[50]) on
on the
the right.
right.Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 6880 11 of 29
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 31
Figure
Figure 8.
8. Map
Map of
of damages
damages caused
caused in
in Naples
Naples by
by the
the 26
26 July
July 1805
1805 earthquake.
earthquake.
The21
On 1930 earthquake
August 1962, astruck
violentthe Campania,ofPuglia
earthquake Mw =and6.15Basilicata regions. The
struck Campania, on theepicentral
border area was
between
located
the between
Sannio the northern
and Irpinia Irpinia
regions, withand an Puglia regions,
epicentral with of
intensity I0 =IXX MCS
MCS,[14,55].
6.67 MwThe I0 = X
andmost ESI-07
affected
scale [14,48,51–54].
towns were ArianoThe most Casalbore,
Irpino, damaged villages
Melito were
Irpinolocated along the axis
and Montecalvo of theinApennines
Irpino the province Chain,
of
including and
Avellino; Ariano Irpino,
Apice, Lacedonia,
Ginestra degli Villanova
Schiavoni,del Battista, Reino
Molinara, Scampitella,
and San Trevico
GiorgioandlaAquilonia,
Molara inwith the
values of Iof= Benevento.
province IX-X MCS. The Theearthquake
event wasled characterized
to the deathsbyof some premonitory
1424 people, with 4624shocks thatand
injured deterred
about
people from
100,000 beingstaying inside of
left homeless in their homes, ultimately reducing the number of deaths to only 17.
the aftermath.
In Naples,
the city widespread
of Naples, the earthquake
damage occurredresulted in five
to housing deaths,
stock and,only one of which
in particular, was a direct
four houses in the
consequence of collapse.
Courts area collapsed asMoreover,
well as thethere were collapses
Casanova in thefour
Bridge, with gutters of someThe
casualties. buildings
intensity andvalue
seriousin
damage
Naples was to the
VIIDuca
MCS.D’Aosta and Thaon de Revel dam, as well as to the Calata Villa del Popolo and
Vittorio
On 21Veneto
August docks.
1962,Minor damages
a violent earthquake Mw = observed
wereofwidely 6.15 struckinCampania,
the historicalon thecenter,
border and in the
between
Vomero
the Sannio hilly
andzone. The regions,
Irpinia intensitywith
values anassigned
epicentralto Naples
intensity were
of IXVI–VII
MCSMCS.[14,55]. The most affected
towns The
werefinal catastrophic
Ariano event to devastate
Irpino, Casalbore, Southern
Melito Irpino Italy over the
and Montecalvo pastin
Irpino 100theyears
provinceis known as the
of Avellino;
Irpinia-Lucania
and Apice, Ginestra earthquake, and it occurred
degli Schiavoni, on 23
Molinara, November
Reino and San 1980 (Figure
Giorgio la 1). It wasincharacterized
Molara the provinceby of
an I0 = X MCSThe
Benevento. (Figure
event 9),was
Mwcharacterized
= 6.9 and I = Xby ESIsome
[14,48,56]. It was felt
premonitory throughout
shocks Italy, from
that deterred southern
people from
Sicily
stayingininside
the South,
of theirtohomes,
Emilia ultimately
Romagna reducing
and Liguria the in the North,
number withtothe
of deaths only epicenter
17. between the
Campania
In theandcityBasilicata
of Naples, regions, which were
the earthquake the most
resulted damaged
in five deaths, regions.
only oneTheofnumber
which of was destroyed
a direct
homes was 75,000,
consequence whileMoreover,
of collapse. about 275,000there were seriously in
were collapses damaged.
the gutters Theof earthquake
some buildings led toanda serious
loss of
nearly
damage 3000 lives
to the andD’Aosta
Duca damageand to about
Thaon 800
devillages.
Revel dam,Castel Nuovo
as well di the
as to Conza,
CalataConza
Villadella Campania,
del Popolo and
Lioni,
VittorioSantomenna,
Veneto docks.San Mango
Minor sul Calore,
damages San Michele
were widely observed diinSerino and Sant’Angelo
the historical center, and dei Lombardi
in the Vomero
were almostThe
hilly zone. completely
intensitydestroyed. In Naples,
values assigned this event
to Naples were produced
VI–VII MCS. widespread and serious damages
(Figure
The9), reaching
final an intensity
catastrophic event toof devastate
VII MCS [56]. About
Southern 18,000
Italy overstability
the pastanalyses
100 yearswere carried
is known as out
the
throughout
Irpinia-Lucania the city, equal toand
earthquake, 80–85% of the on
it occurred entire housing stock.
23 November The most
1980 (Figure 1). damaged areas were
It was characterized
found
by an Iin0 =the
X old
MCS city (Appendix
(Figure 9), Mw = 6.9 A6)
A Table I = X ESI [14,48,56]. It was felt throughout Italy, from
and [5–7,56–58].
A residential
southern Sicily in the tower collapsed
South, to Emiliain the Poggioreale
Romagna area, where
and Liguria in the 52 people
North, withwere
the killed.
epicenter Among
betweenthe
most important
the Campania monumental
and buildings
Basilicata regions, seriously
which were the damaged by the earthquake
most damaged regions. The was the Reale
number Albergo
of destroyed
dei Poveri (one of the largest in Europe), where the infirmary, part of the refectory and some of the
surrounding rooms on the first and second floor collapsed [56].You can also read
