Denver Youth Violence Prevention Needs Assessment - City of Denver October 1, 2020
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Denver Youth Violence Prevention
Needs Assessment
City of Denver
October 1, 2020
Sheila M. Huss, PhD
CU Denver, School of Public AffairsTable of Contents
Acknowledgements....................................................................................................................................... 4
Executive Summary....................................................................................................................................... 6
Background ............................................................................................................................................... 6
Findings ..................................................................................................................................................... 6
Opportunities for Action ........................................................................................................................... 8
Efforts Underway .................................................................................................................................. 8
Recommendations .............................................................................................................................. 10
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................. 10
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 11
What is a Needs Assessment? ................................................................................................................ 11
Methodology........................................................................................................................................... 11
Review and Analysis of the Literature on Youth Violence .......................................................................... 12
Overview and Effects of Youth Violence ................................................................................................. 12
Theoretical Perspectives, Risk Factors, and Protective Factors .............................................................. 15
Personal Factors .................................................................................................................................. 16
Environmental Factors ........................................................................................................................ 18
Summary of Section ............................................................................................................................ 23
Responses to Youth Violence: Strategies, Policies, and Programs and Best Practices ........................... 24
Promoting Family Environments......................................................................................................... 24
Quality Education ................................................................................................................................ 25
Connect Youth to Caring Adults and Protect Community Environments ........................................... 28
Lessen Harm and Prevent Future Risk ................................................................................................ 30
An Integrated Approach to Youth Violence ........................................................................................ 31
A Statistical Overview of Youth Violent Offending in Denver..................................................................... 36
Overview ................................................................................................................................................. 36
Important Definitions and Data Limitations ........................................................................................... 36
2015 through 2019 Youth Violent Crime Trends: Suspect and Arrestee Data ....................................... 37
2020 (January through May) Youth Violent Crime Trends: Suspect and Arrestee Data ........................ 46
Non-Primary Data Analysis of Root Causes of Youth Violence in Denver .................................................. 51
A Statistical Overview of Youth Suicide in Denver ...................................................................................... 52
CBOs’ Programs and Services Related to Youth Violence Prevention ........................................................ 53
Assessment Methodology: Surveys and Interviews ............................................................................... 53
2Survey Results ......................................................................................................................................... 54
Interview Results..................................................................................................................................... 56
Summary ................................................................................................................................................. 68
Current Efforts and Opportunities for Action ............................................................................................. 68
Efforts Underway in Denver.................................................................................................................... 69
YVPAT Strategies ................................................................................................................................. 69
Suicide Prevention Initiatives.............................................................................................................. 72
Opportunities for Action ......................................................................................................................... 74
Expand the Youth Violence Prevention Inventory to Include Community-Based Programs.............. 75
Expand on Current Data Collection Process to Support Community Asset Mapping......................... 76
Create a Tool Kit for CBOs to Promote Enhanced Collaboration with the City .................................. 77
Youth Violence Prevention Program Evaluations ............................................................................... 77
Adapt the City’s Funding Structure Where Possible to Support Community-Based Efforts .............. 78
Create and Maintain a Youth Violence Prevention Website .............................................................. 78
Environmental Scan, Neighborhood Managers, and the Institutionalization of the YVPAT .............. 78
Include Support Services for High-Risk Populations ........................................................................... 79
Create a Centralized and Accessible Site to Access Youth Violence Data .......................................... 80
Work with Denver Public Schools to Implement and/or Enhance School-Based Programs that can
Prevent Youth Violence....................................................................................................................... 80
End Notes .................................................................................................................................................... 81
3Acknowledgements
Writing this needs assessment has been the most rewarding project of my professional life. My initial
exposure to this project was a result of my friend and colleague Callie Rennison recommending me for
it. Callie, I appreciate your confidence in me and cannot thank you enough for connecting me with
CityCenter. Nolbert Chavez and Jessi Zemetra were instrumental in setting up the initial meetings and
securing the contract that finalized my opportunity to do this needs assessment. Nolbert and Jessi,
thank you for your work in getting the project started and for taking an interest in how things were
going throughout the year. I also would like to extend my gratitude to the Dean of the School of Public
Affairs, Paul Teske, for giving me the go-ahead to participate in this project, to Elizabeth Pae for helping
with the administrative end of things, and to Toula Wellbrook for taking the time to talk to me about
this work and feature it in school publications.
Throughout the year, I had the pleasure of connecting with so many wonderful city employees.
Everyone was easy to work with and willing to share whatever information they had that could help me
with the needs assessment. Elise Reifschneider, thank you for taking the time to meet with me and
share your knowledge about human trafficking. Nicole Monroe, thank you for helping me with the
survey data. Dr. Daniel Read, it was a pleasure to attend meetings with you—thank you for offering your
suggestions and spending time working through the inventory information with me. Dr. Lisa Piscopo,
your knowledge of Denver’s children is incredible. Thank you for your willingness to share the
information you had and your responsiveness throughout the year. Kwon Atlas, I was impressed with
your charisma and the connections you had to so many people involved in youth violence prevention
work. I appreciate the time you took to help me with some of my interviews! Christine Wyckoff, I know
you were very busy and still made time to talk to me about what data would be useful and then put the
information together in a user-friendly format—I am grateful for all of your help. Cindy Laub, thank you
for taking the time to meet and provide me with your analyses. Rick Padilla, I am at a loss for words.
Yours and Jack’s story is powerful, and I admire your decisions to honor your son by helping other youth.
The information you provided added a lot of value and really enhanced the comprehensiveness of the
needs assessment. It was a pleasure to connect with you. Kristin Bronson, thank you for welcoming me
onto the YVPAT and for making the connections I would need to successfully complete the project, and
thank you for defining the scope of work in such a meaningful way.
The most fulfilling part of the needs assessment came from my interviews with community-based
organizations in Denver that focus on youth violence prevention and intervention—Second Wind Fund,
Steps to Success, FAVA, GRASP, Project PAVE, Be Better Than Average, The Conflict Center, Safe Haven,
Life-Line Colorado, Kids Above Everything, Struggle of Love, and the McBride Foundation. I thoroughly
enjoyed connecting with all of you. I learned so much more than the “results” that are in this needs
assessment. You embody passion, commitment, activism, and “boots on the ground” that so many of
you spoke of. I loved your stories of the kids you have been able to help and of the ways you have been
able to help your communities endure challenges and tragedies. I deeply admire how, even when
resources are low, you adapt and connect and keep working to help your communities. I hope that this
needs assessment facilitates your work and that I have effectively portrayed our communication. You all
have inspired me to continue working in the area of youth violence. Thank you.
4Pat Hedrick, it has been a pleasure working with you. I enjoyed our meetings and conversations and
collaboration. Your feedback and suggestions and the connections you made for me were instrumental
in this needs assessment. I know how busy you are, and I appreciate the time you made to help me on
this project. Your commitment to the well-being of Denver’s youth is evident and contagious. Thank you
for making me feel welcome, and I hope our paths cross again.
And finally, to my husband John and my daughter Araina, I could not ask for a better family. You both
are wonderful and so supportive. You give me the freedom and encouragement to pursue meaningful
endeavors and help me out in ways that do not go unnoticed—the cups of tea, protein smoothies, extra
effort around the house, flexibility with family time…. I wouldn’t be who I am without you. Thank you
from the bottom of my heart.
5Executive Summary
Background
The city of Denver makes significant investments in city and community-led youth violence prevention
efforts annually. However, in 2019, Denver experienced an increase in youth violence rates, especially
gun-related violence despite these investments. In September, 2019, Denver Public Health released a
report entitled, “How Gun Violence Affects Youth in Denver” that highlighted the ripple effect of gun
violence and the level of impact that resonates beyond the individuals directly involved. In response,
Mayor Michael B. Hancock convened the Youth Violence Prevention Action Table (YVPAT) in December,
2019 and tasked the group with developing a strategic plan that better aligns existing city and
community-led youth violence prevention efforts. The strategic plan has been developed using a public
health approach, and it encompasses strategies that have been proven to enhance protective factors
and reduce the impact of risk factors. The YVPAT is made up of over 100 leaders and staff from city,
state, federal, and public agencies that are key partners in Denver’s efforts to prevent and reduce youth
violence. Moreover, the YVPAT aligned its priorities and mission with broader issues of equity. Explicitly,
its equity statement affirms:
“We recognize that the impact of living under social conditions that include discrimination in all
forms including race and ethnicity, gender, ability, age and identity has a direct effect on the
mental health and well-being of the entire community. Everyone has a part to play in reshaping
our society and community to be more socially just and equitable. Through our projects and
programs, the YVP Action Table will continue to highlight and raise the voices of those in our
community most affected by the epidemic of youth violence. We commit to have youth advisors
and racial diversity within our executive leadership to tackle youth violence as a public health
crisis, not just a public safety issue.”
More broadly, the YVPAT’s statement conveys: “Convened in 2019, the Youth Violence Prevention
Action Table (YVPAT) increases collaboration and information sharing among city agencies, community
organizations, and youth to address gaps and opportunities in youth violence prevention and
intervention efforts.” Indeed, part of this effort involves looking at youth violence in Denver, what
efforts are in place to prevent and intervene in youth violence in Denver and to determine the extent to
which those efforts reflect best practices, how well connected the organizations and their strategies are,
and how the city can help community-based organizations with their efforts to prevent youth violence.
That part of the effort took the form of the present needs assessment.
Findings
1. The YVPAT’s approach to addressing youth violence is consistent with best practices, but the
city will need to invest in support strategies to ensure the plan can be implemented and
sustained.
Based on an extensive review of the research on best practices to prevent youth violence, developing a
youth violence prevention plan using a public health framework likely will produce the greatest return
on investment. Implementing best practices requires using various sources of data that highlight
individual and community risk and protective factors that contribute to violence. Some data sources are
well-established, while others are under-developed, either with respect to data collection or stakeholder
accessibility (e.g., current data on youth suicide in Denver, human trafficking data).
6The YVPAT includes multiple agencies that are collecting vital data that will assist with identifying
populations and communities where violence may be more prevalent; their continued support of the
YVPAT is critical to the success of the youth violence prevention work. Denver also has a strong network
of city agencies and community-based organizations that can support primary, secondary, and tertiary
prevention strategies. In order to ensure long-term sustainability of youth violence prevention efforts,
the city should identify a lead agency to be responsible for implementing the plan in conjunction with
the YVPAT, including dedicating one or more staff positions to support the work.
2. A quantitative review of crime data and qualitative interviews with community-based
organizations focusing on youth violence illuminate areas that warrant special attention.
Youth violence, particularly simple assault, comprises a significant amount of overall crimes committed
by young people in Denver, and while youth violence is diffused throughout the city, there are
neighborhoods that have persistent problems with it over time. Specific areas that the YVPAT should
consider when developing a strategic plan include:
a. 18-24-Year Age Range: While violent crime is not limited to this age group, this age group
accounts for a significant percentage of violent crime that occurs in the city.
b. Young Men of Color: Young boys and men of color are disproportionately represented in crime
data, as well as other data sets that look at risk factors that can be attributed to violence.
c. System and gang-involved youth: Youth involved in the juvenile justice system often experience
a higher number of risk factors that can lead to violence than their peers. Many of the young
people who are committing violent crimes have had prior contact with the juvenile justice
system. Statistically, gang violence does not seem to be as large of a problem as is often
assumed. However, the exposure to violence and access to weapons being in a gang provides
increases the probability that a youth will experience violence.
d. Domestic violence: Domestic violence, while not a statistically common crime involving youth, is
prevalent enough that the YVPAT should consider strategies that can help address it.
e. Gun-Related Crimes: Gun-related crimes, including possession of a gun and violent crimes
involving a gun, continue to be an area of concern. Juvenile gun possession filings (between the
ages of 10 and 18) have risen significantly each year since 2016.
f. Behavioral health needs of youth: Exposure to violence and the associated trauma that follows
can significantly affect a youth’s physical and emotional wellness and make youth even more
vulnerable to experience violence. The COVID-19 pandemic, followed by the civil unrest in
response to the death of George Floyd, created new challenges that have exacerbated this issue.
g. Communities with higher rates of risk factors: There are several communities in Denver that
experience a higher number of risk factors that can contribute to youth violence than other
Denver communities. Allocation and deployment of resources should be focused on areas of the
community where the risk factors for violence are more prevalent.
73. Denver has a strong network of community-based organizations working to reduce youth
violence, but there are opportunities to strengthen the collaboration between the city and the
CBOs.
Virtually all the community-based organizations’ efforts to prevent and intervene in youth violence are
not only rooted in research or evidence-based practices, but they are specific to the context of the
neighborhood or school in which they operate. Violence prevention efforts in Denver exist in both
prevention and intervention, and they are situated within all levels of the social ecology: individual,
relational, institutional, and structural. Some organizations carrying out violence prevention and
intervention work are well-positioned to continue their work, while others are facing challenges. Some
difficulties that organizations identified were: funding; not knowing where to access people, city
agencies, or resources; changes resulting from COVID-19; and lacking capacity (e.g., staff, space).
Organizations identified what has been going well in their relationships with the city and what could be
improved upon.
4. Youth violence prevention programs and strategies are somewhat siloed, resulting in gaps in
services, as well as missed opportunities to enhance efforts that are demonstrating success.
Through compiling the Youth Violence Prevention Program Inventory of city and state programs that the
YVPAT completed during this assessment, there are examples of strong cross-agency coordination;
however, there are still opportunities to improve the alignment of youth services in Denver. While
duplication of services is not widespread, there are some programs that serve similar populations of
youth but do not collaborate in their efforts. There are existing efforts led by city and/or community-
based organizations intended to address specific forms of violence, such as human trafficking, gang
violence, and suicide/self-harm, but these efforts tend to be loosely connected, and collaboration
between efforts is limited. The city currently is in the early stages of developing a youth violence
prevention framework and comprehensive plan that can serve as a conduit to connect efforts to
maximize the city’s return on investment.
Opportunities for Action
Efforts Underway
Consistent with a public health approach, the city is gathering information on the problem of youth
violence, including root causes of violence, and it is reviewing existing strategies that are in place to
address the problem. The city currently invests a significant amount of effort by multiple agencies to use
data sets beyond crime data to identify areas of the city that are more likely to experience violence. The
Denver Opportunity Index (DOI) was implemented by the Department of Public Safety and included
analyzing 142 census tracts for median household income, education levels, and social and health
factors, along with crime rates, to identify areas in the community with the highest and lowest
opportunities for success based on multiple indicators. The Office of Children’s Affairs (OCA) produces
an annual report (The Status of Denver’s Children: A Community Resource) which also digs deep into a
variety of data sets to help the city understand the challenges and opportunities faced by Denver’s
children and youth, including violence. Additionally, OCA is the lead agency for the city’s My Brother’s
Keeper (MBK) Initiative, which originated under former President Barack Obama and was established to
8improve outcomes for young men of color. OCA created the MBK Index Map, which is a statistical
aggregation of 12 different indicators by neighborhood showing where young men of color live and may
experience challenges to success; this Map facilitates the identification of specific locations in the city
where MBK programs and services would have the most impact.
In addition to the city’s efforts, virtually all the community-based organizations’ efforts to prevent and
intervene in youth violence are not only rooted in evidence-based practices, but they are specific to the
context of the neighborhood or school in which they operate. Violence prevention efforts in Denver
exist in both prevention and intervention, and they are situated within all levels of the social ecology:
individual, relational, institutional, and structural. Some organizations carrying out violence prevention
and intervention work are well-positioned to continue their work, while others are facing more
challenges. Some difficulties that organizations identified were funding; not knowing where to access
people, city agencies, or resources; changes resulting from COVID-19; and lacking capacity (e.g., staff,
space). Organizations identified what has been going well in their relationships with the city and what
could be improved upon.
As a supplement to this report, the YVPAT completed a program inventory to catalog city and state
programs focused on preventing youth violence in Denver. A review of the inventory highlights
examples of cross-agency coordination; however, there are still opportunities to improve the alignment
of youth services in Denver. Some programs serve similar populations and may even offer similar
services, but could support and strengthen each program through more intentional collaboration.
Duplication of services does not seem to be widespread, but it would be beneficial for the city to look at
youth violence prevention and intervention programs and identify action steps to improve alignment to
get the largest return on investment possible.
In March 2020, a new public health issue in the form of the COVID-19 pandemic forced a drastic change
in the way we live; it also expanded the focus of the YVPAT. Then, in May 2020, the death of George
Floyd while in the custody of the Minneapolis Police Department led to demonstrations in cities across
the country with some of the demonstrations turning violent and destructive. In response, the YVPAT
formed working groups tasked with completing some short-term objectives that would take into
consideration the impact of these two additional issues on youth violence. The short-term action plan
included 26 tasks that the YVPAT completed or initiated to help address the impact of these additional
public health crises on youth.
Despite the challenges caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, and with support of community partners, the
city found ways to avoid cancelling programs for youth and piloted new programs that supported
community-led efforts. The Summer Youth Employment Program moved to a hybrid format that
incorporated a virtual work experience for youth. The city supported community organizations that
hosted Safe Zone events to provide youth with free, fun activities to keep them out of harm’s way (e.g.,
one event was a free movie in the park night that included music, food, and games). Safe Zone events
have taken place in other cities and have shown promise—Sacramento, for example, had a three-year
period with no youth homicides, which was attributed in part to its investment in Safe Zone activities.
Additionally, Denver awarded 17 CBOs with Youth Violence Prevention Micro-Grants, which served 400
youth and indirectly provided support to hundreds of families. These dollars helped ensure
9programming was available to young people at a time when services were desperately needed. A few
grantees noted that without funding from the city, they would not have been able to provide
programming as planned. Although this needs assessment emerged as part of the efforts of the YVPAT,
it is necessary to recognize that youth violence prevention efforts in Denver take place in a broader
context.
Notably, Denver’s efforts to address youth violence have gone beyond the local context and have
involved collaborations with national organizations, including Bloomberg & Associates and Cities United.
These organizations have provided technical support to Denver and have connected Denver with other
cities that have gone through the process of completing a comprehensive youth violence plan, which
has expanded Denver’s networks of partners. This aid also will be critical to helping Denver secure
outside funding to support the implementation of the strategic plan. The city, like all others, is facing an
uncertain financial future due to the impact of the pandemic and has had to make significant reductions
to the 2021 budget and may need to make cuts beyond 2021. The city is also exploring partnerships with
metro Denver municipalities and counties to identify opportunities to work together to prevent youth
violence. Although this needs assessment focuses on the local context of youth violence prevention in
Denver, the resources and opportunities at regional and national levels should not be ignored.
Recommendations
When selecting specific interventions, the YVPAT should consider several factors, including the needs
and perceptions of residents and businesses within the affected communities, the needs and
perceptions of youth violence prevention CBOs, the local context, and the cost of the intervention
relative to the potential return on investment. In fact, a few of the opportunities for action that have
been described would be better to implement earlier on than other interventions, as they are
intentionally for the purpose of taking an in-depth look at the local context of youth violence.
Opportunities also should look at existing efforts to ensure services are not being duplicated and identify
opportunities where resources can be leveraged between city and community agencies/organizations to
maximize their mobilization. Aligning similar efforts or simply connecting them will result in better use
of existing resources, which was one of the principal tasks given to the YVPAT. The YVPAT should also
consider more structural level problems like systemic racism; issues of class, gender, and sexuality
equity; unemployment; and divorce. Addressing these larger-scale problems likely will need to involve
stakeholders at the State level and possibly include changes to policies and laws, as well as more
informal dialogue, training (e.g., police, medical professionals, and others who interact with vulnerable
populations in the scope of their work). Lastly, the YVPAT should incorporate a set of strategies specific
to supporting and sustaining the strategic plan, as this work will require the collaboration of multiple
agencies. To ensure continuity in this collaboration, a lead agency should be identified by the city as
being responsible for continuing and supporting youth violence prevention efforts.
Conclusions
Summarily, based on the review of the literature around youth violence prevention, the city is taking
steps that have been proven to prevent violence. The city should continue to engage with existing
partners and stakeholders and work towards procuring non-city resources from philanthropic
organizations and the business community to support the youth violence prevention strategic plan.
Partnerships with local hospitals and universities would be a great way to develop and implement
10initiatives in a low-cost, mutually beneficial way. It would be a worthwhile use of the city’s resources to
invest in its CBOs and their youth violence prevention efforts. The details of how to make these
investments, maintain good relationships with organizations, and establish transparency and
accountability should continue to be worked out over time. The history and culture of Denver are
sources of pride for its residents, and in spite of differences, there is collective agreement and passion
for establishing and maintaining healthy, equitable communities where young people can thrive—and
so much investment financially, time-wise, and emotionally to make those things happen.
Introduction
What is a Needs Assessment?
A needs assessment is a type of evaluation that answers questions about social issues or conditions to
compare what is desired to improve upon a problem to what is in place. It is used to ascertain what gaps
exist substantively in current policies, programs, and practices, as well as operationally with respect to a
unit’s capacity to address a problem. It also can be used to identify barriers to design and
implementation of policies, programs, and practices and potential resolutions to those barriers.
The present youth violence prevention needs assessment examines conceptual and functional matters
related to Denver’s and its partners’ and organizations’ youth violence prevention efforts. The city of
Denver encompasses numerous organizations and agencies that deal with youth violence prevention; an
internal inventory of these agencies can be found in Appendix A. The needs assessment analyzes
opportunities for action of which the city can take advantage in its endeavors not only to prevent and
reduce youth violence, but to provide a place for its youth to flourish. This analysis is carried out in the
context of existing literature on youth violence prevention, quantitative data analysis, and qualitative
assessments of existing efforts and perceptions of organizational and youth’s needs. This needs
assessment is organized as follows:
I. Review and Analysis of the Literature on Youth Violence
II. A Statistical Overview of Youth Violence in Denver
III. Community-Based Organizations’ Programs and Services Related to Youth Violence
IV. Opportunities for Action in the city of Denver
Mayor Hancock assembled the YVPAT in response to concerns from Denver residents, including young
people, regarding youth violence. The purpose of the YVPAT is to look at how city efforts to prevent and
respond to youth violence could be improved while reflecting a public health approach, employing best
practices, and drawing on the knowledge and experience of Denver communities. Upon completion of
the strategic planning process, the YVPAT will issue a report that will include a set of recommended
strategies to the Mayor.
Methodology
The information contained in this report utilizes the following data:
1. Two crime data files collected and provided by the Denver Police Department (DPD). DPD
provided this data in mid-June, and it contained two files—one that included suspect/arrestee
data for 10 to 24-year-olds between January 1, 2015 and December 31, 2019 and another that
11included suspect/arrestee data for 10 to 24-year-olds between January 1, 2020 and May 31,
2020. DPD provided this data in mid-June, so its most recent data were through May.
2. Information from surveys that were administered to CBOs. Organizations completed this survey
in June and July.
3. Qualitative interview data from semi-structured interviews that were carried out with CBOs in
June and July.
A literature review and analysis were conducted for the purposes of: providing an overview of youth
violence (its forms, its breadth, and its implications), identifying causal explanations and risk and
protective factors, examining specialized forms of youth violence, and explicating strategies and best
practices for preventing and intervening in youth violence.
A number of semi-structured interviews were carried out with community-based organizations (CBOs) in
Denver that have missions related to youth violence prevention and/or reduction. Specifically,
interviews were conducted with the following organizations:
--Second Wind Fund
--Steps to Success
--Families Against Violent Acts (FAVA)
--Gang Rescue and Support Project (GRASP)
--Project PAVE
--Be Better Than Average
--The Conflict Center
--Safe Haven
--Life Line
--Kids Above Everything
--McBride Foundation
--Struggle of Love
Review and Analysis of the Literature on Youth Violence
Overview and Effects of Youth Violence
Youth violence is a major public health concern. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
defines youth violence as, “the intentional use of physical force or power to threaten or harm others by
young people ages 10 to 24.” The World Health Organization’s (WHO) definition of violence is broader
than the CDC’s. Importantly, it includes threatened or actual use of physical force or power against
oneself. Youth violence includes harmful behaviors like bullying, fighting, gang violence, weapon use,
inter-personal/domestic violence, suicidal behavior, and child and elder abuse and neglect. According to
CDC data, homicide is in the top five leading causes of death for every age group between one and 24,
and suicide is the second-most common cause of death for 10 to 14 and 15 to 24-year-olds. Over
350,000 juveniles in the United States are arrested for violent crimes each year.i Each day, an average of
1,400 10 to 24-year-olds are treated in emergency departments for non-fatal assault injuries,ii and in
2018, the CDC reported that a national survey of high school students revealed that 24% had been in a
physical fight within the past year and 16% had carried a weapon on one or more of the past 30 days.
Even considering these distressing statistics, self-reports have shown that the prevalence of youth
violence was much higher and more serious than official statistics show.iii For example, with regard to
12gun violence, according to Loeffler and Flaxman (2017), no more than one-fourth to one-third of illegal
firearm discharges are reported to the police.iv
The burdens of youth violence are disproportionately bore by certain groups of people and specific
places. Boys are substantially more likely than girls to be involved in violence,v and according to UNICEF
(2017), risky and violent behaviors were the top two causes of death worldwide for boys from zero to 19
years old.vi Adolescents and young adults are considered a high-risk age group. Adolescent violence is
the third leading cause of death among 15 to 24-year-oldsvii viii and the second leading cause of death
among youth 10 to 24 years old.ix Among 10 to 19-year-olds, suicide was the second leading cause of
death, with 42% being caused by guns, and homicide was third, with 87% caused by guns.x
With respect to race and ethnicity, violence is a leading cause of fatalities for minority youth ages 15 to
34.xi Homicide is the second leading cause of death for Hispanic and Latino youthxii xiii and the leading
cause of death among Black adolescent males and females between the ages of 10 and 24.xiv xv xvi xvii
Youth, especially Black males, in under-resourced urban areas are victims of violence at
disproportionately high rates. For many urban youth, violence is not an isolated event, but rather part of
a series of experiences that occur in many settings, including homes, schools, and neighborhoods.xviii
Black males between 14 and 24 comprise one percent of the population, yet they constituted 15% of
homicide victims and 27% of homicide offenders. In a similar vein, Black youth are 16% of the
adolescent population, but they are almost 50% of adolescents who are arrested for murder and 42% of
those arrested for violent crime.xix The demographic picture of violence indicates that individual
characteristics like sex, age, race and ethnicity, and urban/non-urban area interact across multiple traits,
with young, Black males in urban areas being especially prone to violence in many contexts.
While many definitions of violence focus on actions/behaviors, the WHO’s definition also references
effects: “…that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm,
maldevelopment, or deprivation.”xx The ramifications of violence in general and youth violence in
particular are numerous and illuminate the wicked nature of the problem—wicked meaning that
violence is intertwined with many other problems, none of which can be solved independently. The
effects of youth violence are well-documented and demonstrate the importance of prioritizing youth
violence on the policy agenda. Notably, the causes and effects of violence are inter-related and often
constitute forms of violence, themselves. Because violence tends to be stable over the life course, it is
important to address it early.
Outcomes of youth violence are short-term and long-term and include: physical health problems,
psychological manifestations, behavioral issues, compromises to institutional and community well-
being, and economic costs. Impacts on physical health include disabilities,xxi xxii risk of injury,xxiii xxiv xxv xxvi
and sustained physiologic brain changes that affect long-term health and behaviors.xxvii Violence is a
DSM-qualifying trauma that contributes to the onset and continuation of mental health problems.
Indeed, violence has been linked to emotional states, including shock, anger, rage, sadness, and self-
hate.xxviii Other mental health implications include: feelings of depression,xxix xxx hopelessness,xxxi xxxii
fear,xxxiii xxxiv and vulnerability;xxxv xxxvi nightmares and flashbacks;xxxvii PTSD;xxxviii xxxix and self-harmxl and
suicidal threats and attempts.xli xliiThe behavioral consequences of youth violence are many—exposure
to intimidation and threats;xliii substance use;xliv xlv xlvi weapon carrying (for self-protection and/or status
enhancement);xlvii xlviii violent victimization;xlix l violentli lii liii liv and criminallv acts, including the
development of an adult criminal careerlvi and crimes that lead to incarceration.lvii lviii
13Beyond individual ramifications, youth violence affects institutions within communities and
communities as a whole. Specifically, within schools, youth violence impedes learning; creates fear
among students, teachers, and staff; lowers academic achievement; and may violate students’ rights.lix lx
It affects the use of healthcare resources,lxi harms families,lxii lxiii lxiv lxv and disrupts a range of services,lxvi
including social services.lxvii lxviii More broadly, youth violence generates fear and distrust and restricts
freedom of movement.lxix It reduces productivitylxx and contributes to disinvestment in communities,lxxi
lxxii
the latter of which is associated with neighborhood poverty and disorganization.lxxiii
Economic costs also are exorbitant. Productivity and healthcare costs range from $14 billion to over $18
billion.lxxiv According to Kondo et al. (2017), the medical and work loss costs of firearms injuries, alone,
were over $48 billion. Other economic costs associated with youth violence include welfare and criminal
justice services,lxxv including increased taxes to pay for law enforcement and criminal justice
expenses;lxxvihigher insurance premiums;lxxvii and reduced property values.lxxviii lxxix lxxx lxxxi lxxxii lxxxiii
Summarily, the cost of youth violence is immense. It encompasses monetary expenses, the loss of
function and health, diminished quality of life, and the loss of life—in short, youth violence “undermines
[the] fabric of society.”lxxxiv
Youth violence, including its causes and effects, are neither randomly nor proportionately distributed
across sub-groups, time, or space. Insofar as youth violence resembles epidemics with respect to
frequency, relative geography, concentration, contagion/spread, immunity, and exposure,lxxxv it may be
best contextualized as a public health problem. Indeed, a public health approach advances the study of
youth violence beyond a criminal justice issue, facilitating a focus on root causes—risk and protective
factors—at multiple levels and on policy implications involving stakeholders from multiple sectors.
Another value of a public health lens is that it allows for more resources and types of resources to be
deployed to address the problem. Historically, it has been the case that when an issue was defined as a
health problem, public funds were used to remedy it.lxxxvi For example, in the late 1800s, advocates
brought attention to child abuse, but it was not until doctors labeled it a problem that public funds were
allocated to address it. More recently, trauma centers as a healthcare intervention for violence
prioritized the downstream effects of violence. Even in the early 1960s, advocates tried to shift the
conceptualization of violence and worked to have it declared a public health issue, arguing that it does
not contribute to well-being.lxxxvii In 1996, the WHO stated that violence is a “major global public health
issue.”
Methodologically, there are four general steps to a public health approach: define and monitor the
problem and implement strategies to prevent and intervene, identify risk and protective factors,
develop and test the effectiveness of the prevention and intervention strategies, and ensure the
adoption of effective strategies.lxxxviii Substantively, a public health approach involves community
collaborations across multiple sectors in reducing risk factors and/or enhancing protective factors—in
this case, risk and protective factors associated with violent behavior and victimization among youth. A
public health approach to youth violence prevention is developmental in nature, addressing risks from
birth to young adulthood and aligning prevention and intervention strategies1 across different social
1
Prevention programs typically target general populations of youth, while intervention programs (also termed
secondary and tertiary prevention) are directed at youth who have exhibited one or more risk factors. The terms
are used separately throughout this needs assessment, but meaningful distinctions are only made when warranted
(e.g., if a program is designated as an intervention program for high-risk youth).
14contexts (e.g., family, school, and community), recognizing that these contexts may have differential
effects at various phases of youth’s lives.lxxxix Notably, a public health methodology can be used in a
number of different agencies and organizations. Likewise, given the complexity in and overlap between
public health and other approaches (e.g., family services, education, criminal justice) to youth violence,
it makes sense to address the problem using multi-agency and organizational strategies. Now that the
problem of youth violence, including its nature, its scope, and its effects, has been summarized (and will
be described for the city of Denver specifically), it is necessary to look at theoretical frameworks and the
risk and protective factors that emerge from them. Understanding risk and protective factors for youth
violence prevention facilitates comprehensive, evidence-based policies, which are crucial for improving
the quality of life for young people, their families and peers, and the communities in which they live.
Theoretical Perspectives, Risk Factors, and Protective Factors
There are numerous theories and less developed, but still scholarly, explanations of youth violence.
Theories that persist over time and research that ends up being published tend to have at least mixed, if
not full support. Yet, existing explanations are so voluminous and substantively different that
independently examining them would not yield a cohesive conceptual basis for preventative and
intervention strategies, nor would it produce a systematized set of policy recommendations. The socio-
ecological model is ideal, because it is consistent with a public health approach and integrative,
encompassing risk and protective factors at multiple levels, making theoretical space for many different
explanations. It facilitates answers to questions related to juvenile violence prevention and intervention
regardless of the level at which the questions are asked (e.g., ‘how can the rate of juvenile violence in
the city of Denver be reduced?’ or ‘how can juvenile violence in [schools or neighborhoods] be
prevented?).
Youth violence is best treated in a multi-faceted manner that incorporates risk and protective factors at
multiple ecological levels.xc Risk and protective factors occur at multiple levels of youth’s social ecologies
and thus, may be best understood within the framework of a socio-ecological model.xci xcii A
comprehensive risk and protective factors-based approach to youth violence is essential because these
features of individual, institutional, and social life constitute precursors to violence that can be changed
as a result of the complementary prevention and intervention programs.xciii xciv It may be the case that
the more risk factors that exist across social ecologies, the higher the likelihood of involvement in risky
behaviors, one of which is violence.xcv Beyond a simple additive effect, youth violence is determined by a
number of risk factors acting togetherxcvi with the insufficient presence or absence of protective
factors—it is imperative to understand risk and protective factors as co-occurring, cumulative, and even
competing.xcvii Regardless of whether violence is being considered at the individual or community level,
it typically has a long developmental trajectoryxcviii involving certain kinds and ratios of risk factors.xcix
Indeed, the nesting of risk and protective factors across ecologies and relationships is complex—
understanding youth violence involves going beyond the simple presence and absence of risk and
protective factors.c Generally, there are two types of risk and protective factors, personal and
environmental.ci Personal risk and protective factors include biological (e.g., male sex), psychological,
attitudinal, and behavioral, and environmental factors include general/non-specific attributes, family,
school, relational (including peer-related), and community/neighborhood.
15Personal Factors
Intrapersonal risk and protective factors involve biological attributes (e.g., sex, race), psychological
factors, and attitudes and behaviors. Although individual factors are not connected directly to other
people, institutions, or social structures, the social ecological perspective emphasizes that risk and
protective factors at any level do not operate in a vacuum. They influence, are influenced by, and
interact with other factors at the same and different levels. It is well-established that males are more
prone to engage in violent behavior than females throughout the life course. Policies related to changing
biological aspects of individuals’ identities are neither desirable, nor feasible, so the remainder of this
section will focus on individual risk and protective factors, exclusive of biological attributes.
Psychological Risk and Protective Factors
A number of psychological risk factors have been identified, perhaps among the more serious ones
being psychopathic traits. Psychopathic traits are a form of a personality pathology that have been
associated with a small group of youth who are at risk for earlier onset, more frequent, and more
persistent violent offending.cii Identifying these youth could make a difference in rates of violent
offending, as they tend to be responsible for a disproportionate amount of violent delinquency and also
are more likely to reoffend.ciii Psychopathic traits are both inherited and influenced by environmental
factors, including poor nutrition, exposure to toxins, had injuries, and others.civ cv Given the role of
environmental factors in the expression of psychopathic traits, a “…multi-level social-ecological
approach encompassing parenting, family, and school-based intervention, potentially even community-
based strategies” is recommended.cvi
A number of personal qualities and emotions have been identified as risk factors for youth violence,
including hostility,cvii anger,cviii cix cx shame,cxi impulsivitycxii cxiii cxiv and hyperactivity and attention issues,cxv
and feelings of hopelessness.cxvi The pathways between personal qualities and various emotions and
youth violence are better developed in some areas than others. Some studies have found that low
intelligence (academic achievement and/or IQ scores) is associated with physical aggression, violent
offending, and violent recidivism. It is possible that youth with low intelligence may lack problem-solving
skills, making it challenging for them to opt for non-violent responses in a contentious situation. It also
may be the case that juveniles with low intelligence lack the ability to understand other people
(empathy).cxvii Negative emotionality, especially anger and low self-control, in adolescents is associated
with “lashing out,” which may be manifested in aggressive or violent behavior. Anger that occurs too
quickly, too frequently, too intensely, or that is too long in duration may cause a lapse in emotional
regulation that leads to violence. Shame may operate in a similar manner as anger in that both can
come from self-derogation as a consequence of participating in an activity and getting results that cause
shame or frustration and anger. Hostility against women, measured as an aggressive attitude, has been
identified as a risk factor for sexual violence committed by adolescents. Finally, children who have poor
executive functioning and cognitive deficits have been found to be more physically aggressive than
children who do not have poor executive functioning and cognitive deficits. Executive functions
constitute a cognitive process that, by definition, are responsible for behavioral control. Psychologists
have emphasized the role of emotions in the etiology of violence and aggression for decades, positing
that experiences, strain, and other factors contribute to emotional responses and that certain emotions
are more prone to lead to violence. Prevention and intervention programs rooted in addressing
intrapersonal risk factors should focus on the making non-violent responses cognitively accessible,
teaching empathy, and developing problem-solving and conflict resolution skills.
16Just as several individual factors have been identified as risk factors, other intrapersonal dimensions
have been distinguished as protective factors, reducing the likelihood of youth violence. Some of the
individual-level protective factors include emotional self-efficacy,cxviii low anxiety,cxix and resilience.cxx
Self-efficacy is defined as “one’s sense of competence and confidence in performing behaviors to
achieve an outcome.”cxxi Emotional self-efficacy is one aspect of the larger concept that is related to
individuals’ ability to cope with strain in ways that avoid negative emotions or regain one’s typical
emotional state. Lower levels of emotional self-efficacy among adolescents have been associated with
aggressive and violent behaviors, along with other risky and harmful activities.cxxii cxxiii cxxiv Notably,
emotional self-efficacy may be gender and/or race-specific.
Two facets of identity also have been recognized as protective factors in youth violence, one being a
prosocial identity and the other being ethnic identity. Na and Paternoster (2019) explained that a
prosocial conception of oneself impacts decisions (e.g., to develop relationships with others who are
prosocial; to get involved with conventional institutions like family, school, and employment) that
reduce the likelihood of violence and delinquency. One’s identity is “…the engine of the desistance train,
where the role of human agency is critical.”cxxv Theoretically, creating a conceptualization of one’s self as
prosocial is consistent with a symbolic interactionist lens. Put simply, symbolic interactionism ascertains
that the self is constructed from the interaction between a person and his/her interactions with
others—a person acts; people respond to the action; the person interprets the responses and behaves
in accordance with others’ perceptions.cxxvi The importance of interactions within the socio-ecological
model is illuminated—while one’s identity is intrapersonal, it is shaped through exchanges with others
(which often occur within institutions), and it affects decisions at the relational, family, and institutional
levels.
Ethnic identity is a psychological awareness of one’s ethnic group membership, and it includes the
values and beliefs of one’s group.cxxvii Ethnic identity, for the most part, is associated with positive
outcomes, including non-violence in contentious situations, but it can be group and context-specific. For
example, one piece of research found that when both ethnic identity and self-efficacy were high, Asian
American adolescents partook in more fighting, but Latinos engaged in less fighting.cxxviii Comprehensive
youth violence prevention strategies, particularly ones that target non-White individuals or
communities, should consider the importance of developing an ethnic identity, but do so in the context
of a comprehensive approach that extends beyond intrapersonal risk and protective factors.
Attitudinal Influences
Many individual level risk and protective factors for youth violence involve attitudes. Specifically and
with respect to risk factors, aggressive and violent attitudes in general and hostility toward women and
rape-supportive attitudes in particular have been associated with a higher likelihood of violence and
sexual violence among adolescents.cxxix cxxx cxxxi Adolescent norms and beliefs about violence may be
connected to their environments—if youth exist in environments where safety, social support, and
resources are low or uncertain, they could be more likely to favor immediate outcomes over future-
oriented decisions.cxxxii More concretely, when kids are brought up in low-income, urban communities,
situational violence may be necessary (or perceived to be necessary) to attain physical and emotional
needs.cxxxiii
Conversely, having a future orientation (future optimism) is a protective attitudinal factor.cxxxiv
Importantly, coping strategies that are future-oriented could be a form of “motivational capital” for
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