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Section 2
Biographies
List of entries Dutschke, Rudi Kennedy, Charles
Kiesinger, Kurt Georg
Adams, (Gerry) Gerard Eanes, General António Kinnock, Neil
Adenauer, Konrad Eden, Anthony Kohl, Helmut
Andreotti, Giulio Eichmann, Karl Adolf Kreisky, Bruno
Arias Navarro, Carlos Engholm, Björn Krenz, Egon
Ashdown, Paddy Eppelmann, Rainer
Attlee, Clement Erhard, Ludwig Lafontaine, Oskar
Auriol, Vincent Erlander, Tage Lambsdorff, Otto Graf
Aznar López, José María Laval, Pierre
Fabius, Laurent Lemass, Sean Francis
Bahr, Egon Fini, Gianfranco Leone, Giovanni
Bahro, Rudolf Finnbogadóttir, Vigdís Le Pen, Jean-Marie
Balladur, Edouard Fischer, Joschka Lubbers, Ruud
Barre, Raymond Fitzgerald, Garret Lübke, Heinrich
Barzel, Rainer Foot, Michael
Bastian, Gerd [See: Kelly, Fraga Iribarne, Manuel Macmillan, Harold
Petra] Franco, Francisco de Maizière, Lothar
Baudouin, King of Belgium Major, John
Bérégovoy, Pierre Gaitskell, Hugh Makarios, Archbishop
Berlinguer, Enrico de Gasperi, Alcide Marchais, Georges
Berlusconi, Silvio de Gaulle, Charles Martens, Wilfried
Bevan, Aneurin Genscher, Hans-Dietrich Mauroy, Pierre
Bevin, Ernest Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry Mendès France, Pierre
Bildt, Carl Goldsmith, James Mitterrand, François
Blair, Tony González Márquez, Felipe Modrow, Hans
Bohley, Bärbel Grass, Günther Mollet, Guy
Böll, Heinrich Grimond, Jo Monnet, Jean-Marie
Bossi, Umberto Gysi, Gregor Moro, Aldo
Brandt, Willy Mussolini, Benito
Brundtland, Gro Harlem Hague, William
Haider, Jörg Ollenhauer, Erich
Callaghan, James Hallstein, Walter
Carrero Blanco, Luis Haughey, Charles Paisley, Ian
Carrillo, Santiago Havemann, Robert Palme, Olaf
Carstens, Karl Heath, Edward Papandreou, Andreas
Chaban-Delmas, Jacques Herzog, Roman Pétain, Marshal [See: Vichy
Chirac, Jacques Heuss, Theodor regime*]
Churchill, Winston Heym, Stefan Pflimlin, Pierre
Ciampi, Carlo Hitler, Adolf Pöhl, Karl Otto
Constantine II of Greece Home, Lord Pompidou, Georges
Cosgrave, Liam Honecker, Erich Poujade, Pierre-Marie
Cossiga, Francesco Hume, John Prodi, Romano
Coty, René
Craxi, ‘Bettino’ (Benedetto) Jenkins, Roy Rau, Johannes
Cresson, Edith Jospin, Lionel Robinson, Mary
Juan Carlos, King Rocard, Michel
Debré, Michel Rohwedder, Detlev
Delors, Jacques Karamanlis (Caramanlis),
Dewar, Donald Konstantine Salazar, Antonio
Dini, Lamberto Kekkonen, Urho Santer, Jacques
Duncan Smith, Iain Kelly, Petra Scalfaro, Oscar
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via free accessList of entries
Scharping, Rudolf Spaak, Paul-Henri Thorpe, Jeremy
Scheel, Walter Spring, Dick Tindemans, Léo
Schmid, Carlo Springer, Axel Trimble, David
Schmidt, Helmut Steel, David
Schönhuber, Franz Stoiber, Edmund Ulbricht, Walter
Schröder, Gerhard Stoph, Willi
Schumacher, Kurt Strauss, Franz Josef de Valera, Eammon
78 BIOGRAPHIES
Schuman, Robert Suárez González, Adolfo,
Smith, Iain Duncan [See: Duke of Waldheim, Kurt
Duncan Smith, Iain] Wehner, Herbert
Smith, John Thatcher, Margaret von Weizsäcker, Richard
Soares, Mário Thorez, Maurice Wilson, Harold
Soustelle, Jacques Thorn, Gaston Wörner, Manfred
List of entries
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via free accessBiographies
Related entries are listed at the end of West of the Northern Ireland Assembly
an entry by ‘[See also: . . .]’. An asterisk from 1998.
indicates a cross-reference to Section 1, [See also: Hume; Irish Republican
‘Events, groups and developments’. For Army*]
example, the entry for Auriol, Vincent
has at the end ‘[See also: de Gaulle;
Adenauer, Konrad
Vichy regime*]’. The entry for de Gaulle
is in this section; that for Vichy regime Chancellor of the Federal Republic of
is in Section 1. Germany 1949–63; leader of the
Christian Democratic Union (CDU)
1950–66. Adenauer was born in Cologne
Adams, (Gerry) Gerard
in 1876. He studied law and economics,
Leader of the Northern Ireland party then practised law in Cologne. He joined
Sinn Féin (Ourselves). Born in the the Catholic Centre Party in 1906, and
Falls Road area of Belfast in 1948, was elected to the Cologne city council
Adams was a founder member of the in 1908, becoming Lord Mayor in 1917,
Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association an office he filled until 1933. In the
and a member of the Belfast Housing Weimar Republic he was elected to the
Action Committee. He joined the Prussian legislature. He was dismissed
Republican movement in 1964. In from his offices by the Nazis, and was
March 1972 Adams was interned in twice imprisoned by them. Appointed
Long Kesh under suspicion of terrorism Lord Mayor of Cologne in 1945 by the
but was released in July 1972 to take US occupation authorities, when the
part in secret talks between the UK British took over the administration of
Secretary of State for Northern Ireland the region, they dismissed Adenauer for
and the Irish Republican Army (IRA). non-co-operation. He was active in
He was rearrested in 1973 and tried to founding the CDU in the British zone of
escape from the Maze Prison. After his occupation, and became Chairman of
release in 1977, he was charged in the Parliamentary Council (1948–49)
1978 with membership of the which met in Bonn to draft the Basic
Provisional IRA but released after seven Law (the provisional constitution for the
months through lack of evidence. Federal Republic). He was elected by
Vice-President of Sinn Féin 1978–83, the Bundestag as the first federal
he became President of the party in Chancellor in September 1949, and led
1983. He was elected MP for Belfast his party to victory in the federal
West 1983–92 and again from 1997. In elections in 1953, 1957 and 1961.
1988 and 1993 he met with John Following coalition negotiations which
Hume, leader of the nationalist required of Adenauer that he resign the
Social Democratic and Labour Party chancellorship before the 1965 elections,
(SDLP), to discuss proposals for the and a series of governmental crises
future of Northern Ireland. He has (including the Spiegel Affair) which
been the key representative of the damaged his authority, he left the
nationalist Catholic community in chancellorship in 1963. He was elected
negotiations with the UK government. as federal Chairman of the CDU in 1950,
He has been member for Belfast when the CDU created an organisation
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via free accessAdenauer, Konrad Andreotti, Giulio
for the Federal Republic (having served as President of the Federation of
previously existed as zonal and Land Catholic Universities 1942–45. A member
parties). Adenauer was tempted to seek of the Christian Democrats (DC), he
the office of federal president in 1959, was elected to the Italian Constituent
but withdrew when he was assured that Assembly in 1945 and served in the
he could not extend the very limited Chamber of Deputies from 1946,
80 BIOGRAPHIES
powers of that office. His chancellorship becoming a life senator in 1992. In a
was marked by a search for the security ministerial career spanning four
of the Federal Republic through close decades, Andreotti had responsibility for
alliances with other West European many policy areas including the interior,
countries and with the USA, leading to finance, the treasury, defence, industry
the Federal Republic becoming an and commerce, the budget and
enthusiastic partner in the institutions of economic planning and foreign affairs.
European integration and NATO. The He was Chairman of the DC
Friendship Treaty between the Federal parliamentary party group 1948–72. In
Republic and France in 1963 was February 1972 he became Prime
another indication of this diplomatic Minister for the first time at the head of
policy. Adenauer was accused of being a single party interim government. He
insufficiently enthusiastic about then formed a coalition government of
promoting German reunification, and it the centre, but resigned in June 1973.
was under his leadership that the From 1976, Andreotti led a DC
Hallstein Doctrine was promulgated. The government with the support of the
Federal Republic became extremely Communist Party until the Communists
prosperous during Adenauer’s withdrew their backing in 1979. In July
chancellorship. As Chancellor, Adenauer 1989 he formed a five-party coalition
frequently experienced difficulties with which fell after the elections of 1992. In
his coalition partners, especially the 1993 he became embroiled in the
FDP. His authoritarian style similarly led Tangentopoli scandal: in 1993 his
to problems within his own party. immunity was lifted and in March 1995
Nevertheless, his undoubted success in he was charged with links to the Mafia
developing the new Federal Republic as (acquitted in 1999), with complicity in
a secure and prosperous democratic murder in November 1995, and with
state during the period of the Cold War, financial corruption.
and his active utilisation of the office of [See also: Tangentopoli*]
federal chancellor to promote his
policies, led commentators to apply the
Arias Navarro, Carlos
term ‘chancellor democracy’ to the
period of his leadership. Adenauer died General Franco’s feared head of security
in 1967. and Prime Minister of Spain 1973–76.
[See also: Basic Law*; chancellor Arias Navarro was born in 1908 in
democracy*; economic miracle*; Madrid and received a doctorate in law
German question*; Hallstein Doctrine*; from the Central University of Madrid.
Spiegel Affair*; Stalin Note*; Young He worked at the Ministry of Justice as a
Turks’ revolt*] civil servant before becoming a public
Adenauer, Konrad Andreotti, Giulio prosecutor in Malaga in 1933. He
supported the rebellion led by General
Andreotti, Giulio
Franco during the Spanish civil war and
Andreotti was Prime Minister of Italy was arrested by the republican
1972–73; 1976–79; and 1989–92. Born in government in 1936. He was freed by
Rome in 1919, Andreotti graduated in pro-Franco Falangist forces and joined
law from the University of Rome and Franco’s army. When Franco won the
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via free accessArias Navarro, Carlos Ashdown, Paddy
civil war, Arias Navarro was appointed Liberals had representation, and the
to a series of provincial governorships appointment of a Commission to
before becoming Director General of examine the case for some kind of
security in 1957, renowned for his harsh electoral reform, though it soon became
dealings with enemies of the regime. He clear that electoral reform would not be
was appointed Minister of the Interior in brought forward as Labour policy in the
81 BIOGRAPHIES
Carrero Blanco’s government of 1973. foreseeable future.
When Carrero Blanco was assassinated [See also: Blair]
by terrorists in December 1973, Arias
Navarro succeeded him as Prime
Attlee, Clement
Minister. He was faced with the difficult
task of promoting a gradual political Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
liberalisation to ensure a peaceful 1945–51; leader of the Labour Party
transfer of executive power from the 1935–55. Attlee was born in London in
failing Franco to King Juan Carlos. He 1883, and studied at Oxford University.
was reappointed by King Juan Carlos He became a lawyer, then a lecturer in
after Franco’s death in 1975 but the King social sciences. He served in the First
was critical of his slow progress in World War, and was then briefly mayor
democratising Spain. Arias Navarro of Stepney, in London. He became an
resigned in 1976 and retired from MP in 1922, and served as a junior
politics. He died on 27 November 1989. minister in the Labour governments led
[See also: Carrero Blanco; Franco; by Ramsay MacDonald in 1924 and
Juan Carlos, King; Spanish civil war*] 1929–31. As leader of the Labour Party
Arias Navarro, Carlos Ashdown, Paddy during the Second World War, he was
brought into Churchill’s coalition
Ashdown, Paddy
cabinet. After the general election of
Former leader of the British Liberal 1945 had taken place (but before votes
Democratic Party. Ashdown was born in had been counted, a delay because of
New Delhi in 1941. After a career as an the large numbers of votes from the
officer in the Royal Marines (1959–72), armed forces serving overseas), Attlee
work for the Foreign Office and a accompanied Churchill to the Potsdam
period in private industry, he entered conference, in case it turned out that
the House of Commons in 1983. He Labour would form a government after
became leader of the Liberal Democrats the election results were known.
in 1988, but resigned in 1999. He led Attlee’s Labour government introduced
the party to an astonishing electoral an ambitious programme of radical
success in 1997, when – thanks to a policies, particularly implementation of
successful electoral campaign focused welfare state provisions (including the
on ‘target’ seats and a clear identity as National Health Service) outlined in the
an anti-Conservative party – it acquired Beveridge Report, and nationalisation of
nearly fifty MPs, more than at any time public utilities such as the coal mines,
since the 1920s (though it had a slightly railways and gas and electricity supply,
lower vote-share in 1997 than in 1992). as well as policies to cope with
Ashdown had hopes that Blair would post-war reconstruction in a context of
invite him to take a cabinet post, as a severe austerity and adjustments of
symbol of cross-party co-operation, but Britain’s international status during a
the large size of Labour’s majority period when parts of the British Empire
dissuaded Blair from doing this. were seeking self-rule. Attlee died in
Ashdown did obtain the creation of a 1967.
cabinet committee to deal with [See also: Beveridge Report*;
constitutional issues, upon which the Potsdam conference*]
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via free accessAuriol, Vincent Bahr, Egon
Auriol, Vincent Bahr, Egon
President of the French Fourth Republic Bahr was born in 1922 in Treffurt
1947–53. Auriol was born in the (Thuringia). He became a journalist,
Haute-Garonne in 1884. After studying and joined the West German Social
law, he practised as a lawyer, entering Democratic Party in 1957. Bahr was
82 BIOGRAPHIES
the Parliament of the Third Republic as given a leading foreign policy advisory
a Socialist deputy in 1914. He served as role during the grand coalition, serving
Finance Minister and Justice Minister in under Foreign Minister Brandt. When
1936–38. After internment as an Brandt became Chancellor in 1969, Bahr
opponent of Marshal Pétain and the became a senior negotiator of the
Vichy regime, he fled to Britain in 1942 agreements later embodied in the
and became associated with de Gaulle’s ‘Ostpolitik’ treaties with the USSR,
Free French group in London. After Poland and the German Democratic
representing France at the United Republic. Having been elected to the
Nations, then serving briefly as president Bundestag in 1972, he was appointed as
of the National Assembly, he was Minister without Portfolio 1972–74, and
elected as first President of the new Minister for Overseas Development
Fourth Republic in 1947. He died in 1974–76. He served as federal business
1966. manager (the equivalent of party
[See also: de Gaulle; Vichy regime*] general secretary) of the SPD 1976–81.
Auriol, Vincent Bahr, Egon [See also: Ostpolitik*]
Aznar López, José María
Bahro, Rudolf
Prime Minister of Spain since 1996.
Born in 1953 in Madrid, Aznar studied East German dissident and one of the
law at the University Complutense of founders of the German Green Party.
Madrid before working as a tax Bahro was born in Bad Flinsberg in
inspector. He joined the Alianza Popular 1935, and studied philosophy at the
(AP) in 1978 (the forerunner of the Humboldt University in Berlin. He was a
Partido Popular (PP)) and was elected member of the SED (the East German
to the Spanish Parliament in 1982. In communist party). Employed first in
1987 he was elected President of the journalism, then as an economist in a
autonomous community of factory, Bahro became increasingly
Castilla-León, a position he held until critical of the regime of the German
1989. He has been president of the PP Democratic Republic. This criticism,
since 1990. He re-entered Parliament in based on the conclusion that the ruling
1989. He became Prime Minister of party in the GDR had distorted true
Spain in 1996 following the general communism, was laid out in his book:
election that year, and again following The Alternative, which was published in
his party’s successes in the general West Germany in 1977. The decision to
election in March 2000. He played a publish led to his arrest and Bahro was
major role in modernising his party, sentenced to eight years’ imprisonment
enabling it to discard its Francoist in 1978 on grounds of anti-socialist and
legacy and bringing it electoral success. subversive activity, but under an
His leadership of the government has amnesty was then allowed to emigrate
been largely responsible for Spain’s to the Federal Republic of Germany in
economic growth in recent years. He 1979. There Bahro associated himself
survived a car-bomb attack by ETA with the nascent Green movement,
terrorists in 1995. helping to found the Green Party in
[See also: ETA*] 1980, and aligning himself with the
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via free accessBahro, Rudolf Barre, Raymond
fundamentalist wing of that party. His 1924. After studying political science and
Marxist and environmentalist beliefs led law at the University of Paris, he
him to resign from the party in 1985 in entered the civil service, became a
protest at the party’s failure to persist professor at Paris University, and joined
with ‘pure’ ecological policy positions. the EEC Commission as Vice-President
[See also: Realos and Fundis*] responsible for financial and economic
83 BIOGRAPHIES
Bahro, Rudolf Barre, Raymond affairs (1967–73). In 1976 he served
briefly as Minister for Foreign Trade in
Balladur, Edouard
Chirac’s government, before succeeding
Prime Minister of France 1993–95. Chirac in August 1976 as Prime Minister,
Balladur was born in 1929 at Smyrna in serving as his own Minister for
Turkey. He studied law at Economics and Finance until 1978. His
Aix-en-Provence and at the Paris ‘Barre Plan’ sought to deal with the
Institute of Political Studies and economic and currency problems facing
graduated from the National College of France. He became Prime Minister for a
Administration in 1957. In 1963 he second term following the general
joined the staff of Prime Minister election of 1978, but resigned in 1981
Pompidou to advise on social and following Mitterrand’s election as
industrial relations. He was part of President. He stood unsuccessfully as
Pompidou’s May 1968 crisis team, presidential candidate in 1988.
taking part in the Grenelle negotiations [See also: Chirac]
with the unions. When Pompidou
became President, Balladur worked for
Barzel, Rainer
him, becoming the Elyseé
Secretary-General in 1972. After Leader of the West German Christian
Pompidou’s death in 1974, Balladur Democrats 1971–73. Born in 1924 in
moved to the private sector. From 1980, East Prussia, Barzel qualified as a
Chirac often consulted him informally lawyer. He was elected as a Christian
on political and economic issues. Democratic candidate in the Bundestag
Balladur was elected a Deputy of the election of 1957. He served briefly as
National Assembly on the Adenauer’s Minister for All-German
Rassemblement pour la République Affairs (1962–63). On the death of von
(RPR) list in 1986. A supporter of Brentano in 1964, Barzel became leader
‘cohabitation’, he joined Prime Minister of the Christian Democrat parliamentary
Chirac’s cabinet as Minister of the party, retaining that post until he
Economy and Finance, taking resigned in 1973. Barzel was elected as
responsibility for the government’s party leader in 1971, was the
free-market programme. Re-elected in unsuccessful nominee for chancellor in
1988, Balladur worked to transform the the first ever ‘constructive vote of no
alliance between the RPR and the confidence’ in 1972 and was selected
Union pour la Démocratie Française as chancellor-candidate for the Christian
(UDF) into a moderate conservative Democrats for the 1972 Bundestag
grouping putting forward a single election. After resigning as party leader
presidential candidate. He was Prime and leader of the parliamentary party in
Minister of France 1993–95. 1973, he returned as Minister for
[See also: Chirac; Pompidou] Inner-German Relations in Kohl’s
cabinet in 1982, and became Chairman
of the Bundestag in 1983 (equivalent to
Barre, Raymond
the Speaker in the House of
Prime Minister of France 1976–81. Barre Commons), a post he retained until he
was born on the island of Réunion in resigned in 1984 because of his
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via free accessBarzel, Rainer Baudouin, King of Belgium
involvement in the scandal surrounding 1993 and was succeeded by his
the Flick Affair. brother, Prince Albert.
[See also: Adenauer; constructive
vote of no confidence*; Flick Affair*]
Bérégovoy, Pierre
Barzel, Rainer Baudouin, King of Belgium
Prime Minister of France 1992–93.
Bastian, Gerd [See: Kelly, Petra]
84 BIOGRAPHIES
Bérégovoy was born in
Deville-les-Rouen in 1925. He left school
Baudouin, King of Belgium
at 16, becoming a manual worker who
King of Belgium 1951–93. Baudouin was eventually became Director of the
born in 1930 in Stuyvenberg, near national gas utility in 1978. A member
Brussels. Reflecting the divisions in of the French resistance, after the
Belgian society, his education was Second World War he joined the
conducted half in French, half in Socialist Party (SFIO), but broke with
Flemish. The reigning King Leopold’s the party over his opposition to the
clumsy attempts at intervening in Algerian War. A prominent member of
politics during the inter-war period various left-wing groups, Bérégovoy
caused resentment against the royal played a leading role in the Parti
family in Belgium, and, after the Socialiste (PS) as it consolidated
Second World War, they went into 1969–71. One of Mitterrand’s closest
exile in Switzerland. Leopold was only supporters, Bérégovoy managed the PS
allowed to return to the throne in 1950 co-operation with the Communist Party
on condition that his son Baudouin take (PCF). He failed, though, to revive the
on most of his powers, becoming 1972 electoral pact (the Joint
Prince Royal of Belgium and head of Programme for Government between
state. Leopold abdicated on 16 July the PS, PCF and left radicals) for the
1951 in Baudouin’s favour. Unlike his 1978 elections. Bérégovoy was
father, Baudouin was widely respected, campaign manager for Mitterrand in the
particularly for his scrupulously neutral Socialist presidential election victory of
dealings with the Flemish and Walloon 1981, and again in 1988. Under
(French-speaking) communities and for Mitterrand, he was appointed
his part in securing the country’s long Secretary-General of the President’s
transition to a federal state. His reign Office, the first in the Fifth Republic not
restored faith in the monarchy in to have been a senior civil servant. As
Belgium. The extent of his popularity Minister of Social Affairs and National
was revealed when he caused a Solidarity (1982–84), he improved the
potential constitutional crisis in April social security system and as Minister
1989. The Belgian Parliament had of Finance (1984–86), he modernised
passed legislation to legalise abortion, the financial markets and implemented
but Baudouin, childless and a staunch the Socialists’ policy of economic
Catholic, could not in good conscience austerity. After the 1988 campaign, he
sign the bill. The crisis was resolved returned as Minister of Finance under
through the co-operation of the the Rocard government, becoming
government: the Council of Ministers Prime Minister in 1992. When the PS
ruled that Baudouin was unfit to suffered a major defeat in the
govern, giving them the right to enact parliamentary election of 1993,
the abortion measure on their own Bérégovoy was replaced by Edouard
authority. The following day, Balladur. Bérégovoy was implicated in a
Parliament was convened and minor financial scandal concerning the
Baudouin’s royal powers were returned personal use of campaign funds.
to him in full. Baudouin died on 31 July Blaming himself for the Socialist Party’s
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via free accessBérégovoy, Pierre Berlusconi, Silvio
parliamentary defeat, he committed football club). In 1993 he formed the
suicide on 1 May 1993. populist, right-wing political movement
[See also: Balladur; Mitterrand; FI and began a full-time political career
Rocard; Resistance groups*] in 1994, leading his party to win the
Bérégovoy, Pierre Berlusconi, Silvio general elections of that year in alliance
with the separatist Northern League and
Berlinguer, Enrico
85 BIOGRAPHIES
far-right National Alliance. As Prime
Former leader of the Italian Communist Minister of this coalition government
Party (PCI). Berlinguer was born in (called the ‘Freedom Pole’) in 1994 he
Sardinia in 1922. He led the PCI at the broke with standard conventions of
height of its ‘eurocommunist’ phase. liberal democracy. The coalition
Since the Second World War, the PCI terminated through inter-party
had been marginalised in Italian politics disagreements at the end of 1994, and
through the successful tactics of its rival, Berlusconi became leader of the
the Christian Democratic DC. The PCI opposition. In 1996 he was charged with
had retreated into a stance of fraud, bribery of tax officials and illegal
fundamental opposition and alignment party financing and in 1998 was
with the Soviet Union. After the Soviet sentenced to over five years’
invasion of Hungary in 1956, though, the imprisonment for these offences. On 9
party adopted an independent, May 2000 various convictions on
eurocommunist position which aimed to charges of bribery were overturned on
achieve socialism within the existing appeal. He became Prime Minister
form of regime. Berlinguer in 1973 again following the general election in
adopted the strategy of ‘historic May 2001, when his party formed a
compromise’, aiming to establish the coalition with the Northern Alliance and
PCI as a mainstream party. The strategy Northern League.
culminated in the agreement in 1976 to [See also: Northern Leagues*]
tolerate DC Prime Minister Andreotti’s
coalition government, but was
Bevan, Aneurin
abandoned in 1980 after anticipated
electoral gains had failed to materialise. Minister of Health 1945–51 and Minister
Berlinguer died in 1984. of Labour 1951; deputy leader of the
[See also: Andreotti; eurocommunism*; Labour Party (1959–60). Bevan, son of a
historic compromise*] Welsh coalminer, was born in Tredegar
in 1897, and worked as a coalminer
from the age of 13. He became an
Berlusconi, Silvio
active trade unionist, leading the Welsh
Berlusconi, controversial politician and miners during the 1926 general strike.
businessman, leader of the Italian party He was first elected to Parliament in
Forza Italia (FI). He became Prime 1929 as an Independent Labour Party
Minister of Italy in 1994 and again in candidate. He joined the Labour Party in
June 2001. Born in Milan in 1936, 1931. He was frequently in trouble with
Berlusconi studied at the University of the party leadership because of his
Milan before embarking on a successful outspoken left-wing views, and was
business career. Starting with a building expelled briefly from the party in 1939
and property development business at and resigned as Minister of Labour in
the age of 26, his business empire 1951, along with Harold Wilson, over
came to span commercial TV, the Chancellor of the Exchequer Gaitskell’s
printed media, publishing, advertising, imposition of charges within the
insurance and financial services, National Health Service (of which Bevan
retailing and football (through AC Milan had been the principal founder in 1948).
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via free accessBevan, Aneurin Bildt, Carl
In opposition, Bevan was the of Economic Affairs 1976–78 and with
standard-bearer of the left wing in the the cabinet office 1979–81. He joined
party, and his followers acquired the the executive committee of the
name of ‘Bevanites’, seeking to reduce conservative Moderate Party (MP) in
defence expenditure and expand social 1981 and was the party’s Chairman
services, though Bevan himself renounced from 1986 to 1999. He successfully led
86 BIOGRAPHIES
unilateral disarmament in a speech at the moderate coalition in the elections
the party conference of 1957. He sought of 1991 and replaced Social Democrat
the party leadership in 1955, but was Carlsson as Prime Minister. Sweden
defeated by Gaitskell. He died in 1960. was renowned for the highly developed
[See also: Gaitskell; Wilson] welfare state which had been promoted
Bevan, Aneurin Bildt, Carl under Social Democratic rule, but Bildt
stood for rolling back the state,
Bevin, Ernest
reducing taxation and government
Trade union leader and Labour Party interference in private enterprise. He
minister during and after the Second also pressed for Sweden to join the
World War. Bevin was born in Somerset European Union (EU). He became EU
in 1881, and became a trade union peace envoy to the former Yugoslavia
official, then creator and in 1995 and acted as High
General-Secretary (1921–40) of the Representative of the International
Transport and General Workers’ Union Community in Bosnia and Herzegovina
(a federation of numerous smaller 1995–97. He was Vice-Chairman of the
separate trade unions). Bevin was a International Democrat Union 1989–92
leading organiser of the general strike in and Chairman 1992–99. In 1999 he was
1926. In 1940 Churchill invited him to appointed Special Envoy of the
join the all-party war cabinet, as minister Secretary-General of the United Nations
responsible for employment and to the Balkans.
national service. Attlee selected him as
his Foreign Secretary in the Labour
Blair, Tony
government of 1945–51, during which
period he coped capably with the many British Prime Minister since 1997 and
challenges of post-war diplomacy and leader of the British Labour Party. Blair
the Cold War. He was regarded as a was born in Edinburgh in 1953, studied
stalwart of the moderate centre of the at Oxford University and qualified as a
Labour Party, attracting the scorn of lawyer. He entered Parliament in 1983,
left-wingers as a result. Bevin died in and was appointed to a shadow cabinet
1951. position responsible for employment
[See also: Attlee; Churchill] policy by Neil Kinnock in 1988; he later
became opposition spokesman for
home affairs. On the death of John
Bildt, Carl
Smith, he became a candidate for the
Prime Minister of Sweden, 1991–94 and party leadership in 1994, and was
international statesman. Bildt was born elected by a large margin. In the period
in 1949 in Halmstad. He studied at the between his election as leader and the
University of Stockholm and was general election in 1997, Blair made
Chairman of the Confederation of radical changes to the organisation of
Liberal and Conservative Students the party, making it a more centralised
1973–74 and of the European and efficiently managed organisation,
Democratic Students 1974–76. He and improving dramatically its public
worked as an adviser on policy relations performance. He also did all
co-ordination for the Swedish Ministry he could to rid the party – which he
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via free accessBlair, Tony Bohley, Bärbel
referred to as ‘new Labour’ – of those
Bohley, Bärbel
aspects of its policy likely to arouse
distrust among uncommitted voters; this Campaigner active in the citizen
involved the abandonment of Clause movement during the fall of the GDR
Four of the party’s constitution, which regime. Bohley was born in Berlin in
committed the party to nationalisation 1945. She became an artist in the GDR.
87 BIOGRAPHIES
of ‘the means of production and Her activities as a peace campaigner
exchange’. Labour’s overwhelming brought her into conflict with the
victory (in terms of seats, though not in authorities, leading on two occasions to
terms of vote-share) in the 1997 election her arrest and then to her expulsion
made Blair’s position as leader totally from the GDR. Pressure from her
secure, despite continuing criticism from associates in West Germany led to
a minority of socialists within the party. revocation of that expulsion. During the
In government, he has introduced a period of crisis for the communist
number of major constitutional changes, regime in Autumn 1989, Bohley was
ranging from the introduction of elected among those instrumental in founding
assemblies for Scotland and Wales and New Forum, the best known of the
a directly elected mayor for London to new groups which tried to provide a
removal in stages of the hereditary structure for discussion within the
peers from the House of Lords. His burgeoning citizen movement. The pace
government’s economic policies, of events in the GDR in 1989–90 tended
implemented by Gordon Brown as to force the citizen movement to the
Chancellor of the Exchequer, have been margins of the political process, and
conservative and have produced large Bohley became an opponent of the
public sector surpluses. He has made rush to reunification, arguing for a ‘third
statements expressing commitment to way’ which would produce a
European integration and favours democratic but socialist form of state
eventual British membership of the within the GDR.
European currency project, provided [See also: reunification of Germany*]
economic conditions permit this. Blair Blair, Tony Bohley, Bärbel
has been criticised for seeking to
Böll, Heinrich
exercise control over the party at the
expense of democratic choice by German author and political
members, in matters such as selection campaigner. Böll was born in Cologne
of the candidate for mayor of London in 1917. After the Second World War
and leadership of the Labour Party he became renowned for his novels
group in the Welsh Assembly. He has and short stories, dealing with life in
also diluted several conventional the Nazi period, the war and the
practices connected with cabinet post-war years. He was awarded the
government, such as using cabinet Nobel Prize for Literature in 1972. Böll’s
meetings less than his predecessors, fame enabled him to publicise his
and he attends the House of Commons views on political matters such as the
very infrequently. He led his party to radicals’ decree and what he regarded
another sweeping general election as the revival of militarism in the
victory in 2001. He played a significant Federal Republic of Germany. His
international role in the diplomatic and commitment to the protection of the
military developments following the 11 persecuted was demonstrated by his
September 2001 attack by terrorists on welcome to Solzhenitsyn when that
New York. author left the Soviet Union in 1974.
[See also: Kinnock; Smith; Clause Böll died in 1985.
Four*] [See also: nazism*; radicals’ decree*]
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via free accessBossi, Umberto Brandt, Willy
Member until 1957, then again from
Bossi, Umberto
1969 to 1992. He was elected to the
Leader of the Italian party, the Berlin city legislature in 1950 and
Lombardy League, then of the Northern became lord mayor of West Berlin in
League. Born in 1941 in Varese, Bossi 1957, a post he held until 1966, including
studied at Pavia University. He the period of the erection of the Berlin
88 BIOGRAPHIES
co-founded the Lombardy Autonomy Wall. He was chancellor-candidate of
League in 1982 and has led the party the SPD in the federal elections of 1961
(which changed its name to Lombardy and 1965. After a period as Deputy
League) since 1984. He was elected as Chancellor and Foreign Minister in the
a Senator in 1987 and has been leader grand coalition (1966–69), Brandt was
of the Federation of Northern League again chancellor-candidate of his party
Movements from 1989. In 1991 he in 1969, and because after that election
played a leading part in creating the the FDP preferred to ally with the SPD
Northern League from five regional rather than the CDU, Brandt was elected
parties, and became its leader. He as Chancellor. He pursued a very active
served as minister responsible for policy of improvement of relations with
reform and devolution in Berlusconi’s the Soviet Union, the GDR and other
coalition government in 1994, one of East European states, in contrast to the
five Northern League ministers in that policies of the Adenauer government.
government. Personal and political Having survived the first ever
disagreements between Bossi and constructive vote of no confidence in
Berlusconi led to the break-up of that the Bundestag in 1972, Brandt led his
coalition at the end of 1994. In 1995 he party to victory in the Bundestag election
called for the secession of the northern later that year. He resigned as
area of Italy to form a new state called: Chancellor in 1974 following the
‘Padania’. He rejoined Berlusconi in the Guillaume Affair, but remained as party
new coalition formed in 2001. In 1995 leader. He had been awarded the Nobel
he was sentenced to five months’ Peace Prize in 1971 for his Ostpolitik
imprisonment for libel and eight achievements, and went on to take an
months’ for illegal party financing. active role in several international
[See also: Northern Leagues*] organisations, including the Socialist
Bossi, Umberto Brandt, Willy International. He served for a period as
a Member of the European Parliament,
Brandt, Willy
and was Chairman of the Independent
Chancellor of the FRG 1969–74 and Commission on International
leader of the SPD 1964–87. Brandt (born Development Issues (the Brandt
as Herbert Frahm) was born in Lübeck Commission) which produced reports
in 1913. He joined the SPD in 1930, and on the North–South divide and other
then the Socialist Workers’ Party – ‘third world’ issues. Brandt died on
which had broken away from the SDP – 9 November 1992.
in 1931. When Hitler came to power in [See also: Adenauer; Hitler; Berlin
1933 Brandt fled to Norway, assuming Wall*; Guillaume Affair*; Hallstein
the name ‘Willy Brandt’ which he was Doctrine*; Ostpolitik*; Spanish civil war*]
to retain after the war, and spent the
war in that country and Sweden,
Brundtland, Gro Harlem
studying history and law and working as
a journalist, reporting for a time on the Norwegian Prime Minister
Spanish civil war. Having rejoined the February–October 1981; 1986–89;
SPD in 1947, Brandt was elected to the 1990–96 and leading international
Bundestag in 1949 and remained a politician. Born in Oslo in 1939,
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via free accessBrundtland, Gro Harlem Callaghan, James
Brundtland studied medicine at the Minister. The Labour government lost its
Universities of Oslo and Harvard. She small majority due to defeats in
acted as a consultant to the Norwegian by-elections, and Callaghan had to
Ministry of Health and Social Affairs negotiate with, first, the Liberals, then
1965–67, was medical officer for Oslo the Scottish and Welsh Nationalists and
city health department 1968–69 and Northern Irish MPs, to retain a majority
89 BIOGRAPHIES
Deputy Director of Oslo’s school health over the Conservative opposition. He
service in 1969. Minister of the was Prime Minister during the ‘winter of
Environment 1974–79, she was discontent’ when strikes plagued the
deputy leader of the Labour Party British economy. That, and his
1975–81 and leader of the parliamentary misjudgement concerning the timing of
party group 1981–92. In 1981, she the general election, are generally held
became Norway’s first woman Prime to have contributed to the heavy defeat
Minister. During her first two periods in of his party in the 1979 general election.
office, she introduced several He continued as party leader and thus
controversial economic reforms to as leader of the opposition only until
reduce Norway’s budget deficit. She 1980, when he was replaced by
became active internationally as a Kinnock. He became a member of the
leading spokeswoman on the House of Lords in 1980.
environment, the equality of women, [See also: Gaitskell; Kinnock; Wilson;
and international co-operation. Her Lib–Lab pact*; winter of discontent*]
report as Chair of the UN World
Commission on the Environment and
Carrero Blanco, Luis
Development (1987) established the
concept of sustainable growth. She was Prime Minister of Spain June–December
a leading figure in the 1995 UN 1973. Carrero Blanco was born in
womens’ conference in China, and was Santona in 1903. He graduated from the
appointed Director-General of the WHO Spanish naval academy, becoming an
in 1998. A pro-European, she was ensign in 1922, a lieutenant in 1926 and
unable to mobilise the majority of later a submarine commander. He
Norwegians to agree to entry of the EU, joined the staff of the naval academy in
but remains a popular leader. 1934 and in 1966 was promoted to
Brundtland, Gro Harlem Callaghan, James admiral. He joined the Nationalist navy
during the Spanish civil war and in 1939
Callaghan, James
became Franco’s chief of naval
British Prime Minister 1976–79. operations. He was appointed
Callaghan was born in Portsmouth in Under-Secretary to the presidency of the
1912. He became a civil servant, and government in 1941 and became
was elected to the House of Commons Vice-President of the Parliament, the
in 1945. He failed in his attempt to be Cortes, in 1942. In 1951 he joined
elected as Labour Party leader in 1963, Franco’s cabinet and was a trusted
following the death of Gaitskell. He was adviser throughout the 1950s and 1960s,
appointed as Chancellor of the serving as Deputy Prime Minister from
Exchequer, Home Secretary and Foreign 1968, and was viewed as the likely
Secretary by Wilson in the period successor to Franco. He favoured
1964–76 (one of the few politicians ever changes in the regime which would
to hold all three of these leading restore the monarchy, though he did
ministerial positions). Following Wilson’s not favour political reform of a
resignation in 1976, Callaghan was democratic type. In 1973, when a new
elected as party leader and thus constitution was introduced in Spain,
became Wilson’s successor as Prime Franco kept the presidency, but handed
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via free accessCarrero Blanco, Luis Carstens, Karl
his powers as head of government to single term as federal President, during
Carrero Blanco. On 20 December 1973 which he became noted for his plan to
Carrero Blanco was killed in a walk – in stages and accompanied by
car-bomb attack, believed to have been local citizens – the length of the Federal
carried out by ETA, the Basque Republic from the Danish border to the
separatist organisation. His death made Lake of Constance. He died in 1992.
90 BIOGRAPHIES
political reform in Spain more likely.
[See also: Franco; ETA*]
Chaban-Delmas, Jacques
Carrero Blanco, Luis Carstens, Karl
A leading Gaullist figure in post-war
Carrillo, Santiago
French politics and Prime Minister of
Leader of the Spanish Communist Party France 1969–72. Born Jacques Delmas
(CP), 1960–82 and of the United in 1915 in Paris, he studied law and
Communists (UC) since 1985. Born in politics and worked as a journalist for
1915 in Gijón, Carrillo became leader of the Radical Socialist economic daily
the United Socialist Youth in 1936. L’Information before fighting in the
Having close links to the Italian Italian campaign. From 1941 to 1943 he
Communist Party, Carillo tried to worked in the Ministry of Industrial
introduce their ideas of Production and joined the resistance,
eurocommunism to his party, with afterwards adopting ‘Chaban’, his
some success. A member of the resistance pseudonym, as part of his
Congress of Deputies from 1977, he was surname. He became the national
expelled from the Communist Party in military delegate of de Gaulle’s
1985, becoming President of the United provisional government and was closely
Communists in the same year, a party involved in the liberation of Paris. After
which became absorbed in the PSOE. a brief association with the Radical
He left politics in 1993, and has since Party, in 1947 he joined the Gaullist
published his memoirs and several Rassemblement du Peuple Français
other books. (RPF). He served as Minister of Public
[See also: eurocommunism*] Works, Transport and Tourism; Minister
of State and Defence Minister. Following
the upheavals of 1968, in 1969
Carstens, Karl
Pompidou appointed Chaban-Delmas as
CDU politician and President of the Prime Minister to try to stabilise the
Federal Republic of Germany 1979–84. situation. Chaban-Delmas formed a
Carstens was born in Bremen in 1914. government which included two
He studied law and political science in members of the social democratic
Germany, France and the USA. After opposition. He promised his government
service in the army in the Second would create a ‘new society’ in France,
World War he practised law and served setting out to reduce the inequalities
the Bremen government. He followed and rigidity of French society through
this with a period as a professor progressive social measures including
combined with diplomatic service. He more effective collective bargaining and
was appointed as State Secretary, first in the liberalisation of government,
the Defence Ministry in 1967, then in the particularly in public sector
Chancellor’s Office from 1968 to 1969. broadcasting. However, Chaban-Delmas’
He was elected to the Bundestag in initiative failed to integrate the more
1972, and became parliamentary leader hard-line Gaullists and the parties of the
of the Christian Democrats in 1973 until left. Pompidou increasingly came to see
his election as President of the Chaban-Delmas as irresponsible and in
Bundestag in 1976. He then served a danger of alienating conservative
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via free accessChaban-Delmas, Jacques Chirac, Jacques
support for the party. Relations between Chirac resigned. Chirac then became
President and Prime Minister party leader of the new Gaullist
deteriorated and in 1972 Pompidou was Rassemblement pour la Republique
furious when Chaban-Delmas called (RPR), a post which he held until 1994.
(and won) a parliamentary vote of He was elected mayor of Paris
confidence on his own initiative. Six (1977–95), an important power base.
91 BIOGRAPHIES
weeks later, the President dismissed After his resignation as Prime Minister,
him. Chaban-Delmas at first appeared to Chirac worked to undermine Giscard. In
be consolidating his position as a future the presidential elections of 1981, he
leader of the Gaullist party, but in the split the right by standing against
presidential election of 1974 he lost Giscard, consolidating his reputation for
heavily to his rival, Giscard d’Estaing, being divisive and ambitious. During
and withdrew to his provincial Mitterrand’s first presidency, Chirac was
stronghold of Bordeaux, allowing Chirac effectively leader of the opposition in
to take over leadership of the Gaullists. France. When the right won a narrow
He continued to figure large in majority in the parliamentary elections
parliamentary politics (he was three of 1986, Mitterrand called on Chirac to
times President of the National form a ‘cohabitation’ government to
Assembly), but did not regain a party work in tandem with his Socialist
leadership role. presidency. France’s poor economic
[See also: Chirac; de Gaulle; Giscard performance during Chirac’s
d’Estaing; Pompidou; resistance premiership (1986–88) hampered him in
groups*] the presidential race of 1988, again won
Chaban-Delmas, Jacques Chirac, Jacques by Mitterrand. Chirac finally succeeded
in his ambition to become President in
Chirac, Jacques
1995. He resumed a Gaullist foreign
Prime Minister of France 1974–76; policy in launching nuclear testing at
1986–88 and President of France 1995–. Mururoa and through adopting a
Chirac was born in 1932 in Paris and Eurosceptic stance. His economic policy
studied at the Paris Institute of Political had two central but conflicting aims: to
Studies. After active service in Algeria, fight unemployment and to reduce the
he graduated from the National College budget deficit. Chirac’s popularity
of Administration in 1959. During the plummetted during his first year as
early part of his political career, Chirac President, but he was able to shift
was appointed to Prime Minister much of the blame for his policies onto
Pompidou’s staff and forged close links his Prime Minister, Juppé. He made a
with him. His ministerial career spanned political blunder by calling an early
employment (1967–68); finance general election, which the Socialists
(1968–71); relations with Parliament (at won, forcing Chirac to govern in
which he was not judged a success, cohabitation with Prime Minister Jospin.
having little interest in Parliament) [See also: Giscard d’Estaing;
(1971–72); agriculture (1972–73; Mitterrand; Pompidou; Algerian conflict*]
1973–74) and the interior (1974). He
was instrumental in Giscard d’Estaing’s
Churchill, Winston
nomination as Gaullist presidential
candidate in 1974 and was rewarded by British Prime Minister 1940–45 and
Giscard with the post of Prime Minister. 1951–55. Churchill was born at
Giscard and Chirac soon clashed Blenheim Palace in 1874. He took up a
personally and over policy and in 1976, military career after training at
following Giscard’s refusal to dissolve Sandhurst military college. He was
the Parliament and hold fresh elections, elected to Parliament as a Conservative
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via free accessChurchill, Winston Ciampi, Carlo
in 1900, but switched to the Liberal constitutional reform was pursued. After
Party in 1906, and held various his term as Prime Minister he served as
ministerial posts, including Home Minister of the Treasury and the Budget
Secretary and First Lord of the in the d’Alema government (1996–98).
Admiralty, a post he resigned following From 1998 until 1999 he was Chairman
the failed Dardanelles military landings of the IMF Interim Committee and has
92 BIOGRAPHIES
in 1915. Churchill served in the army in been a member of numerous economic
France until, in 1917, Lloyd George institutions. In 1999 he was elected
appointed him Minister for Munitions. President of Italy.
Changing back to the Conservatives in [See also: Tangentopoli*]
1924, Churchill was Chancellor of the
Exchequer 1924–29. His critical attitude
Constantine II of Greece
towards the Baldwin and Chamberlain
governments’ appeasement policies Deposed King of Greece. Born in 1940
towards European dictators aroused near Athens, Constantine studied law at
hostility towards him among the more Athens University and received military
orthodox members of his party, but training 1956–58. He won a gold medal
when the Second World War in the Rome 1960 Olympic Games for
commenced, he accepted office as First yachting. When his father King Paul I
Lord of the Admiralty again. The died in March 1964, he succeeded to
downfall of Chamberlain in 1940 left the the throne. Constantine had a tense
way open for Churchill to become relationship with the left-wing Prime
Prime Minister and lead an all-party Minister Georgios Papandreou and
national government. After the war, this dismissed him in 1965. This launched a
government broke up, and in the period of civil disorder and a vacuum in
general election of 1945 Churchill, government culminating in a military
despite the accolades given him for his coup on 21 April 1967. Constantine had
leadership in the war, was heavily little choice but to accept the military
defeated by the Labour Party. He dictatorship which was imposed after
returned as Prime Minister in 1951, but the coup. He called for a return to a
was by then ageing and unwell. He was democratic civil regime, but, when an
persuaded to retire in 1955. He attempt in 1967 to topple the military
remained an MP until 1964. He was government failed, he was forced to
awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature leave Greece for Rome, then London.
in 1953, and was made a Knight of the Constantine was formally deposed on 1
Garter in that same year. On his death June 1973. The abolition of the Greek
in 1965 he was given a state funeral. monarchy was confirmed by popular
Churchill, Winston Ciampi, Carlo referendum in December 1974. In 1994
Constantine was deprived of his Greek
Ciampi, Carlo
citizenship and the property he owned
Italian Prime Minister 1993–94. Born in in Greece was nationalised.
Livorno in 1920, Ciampi studied at the [See also: Papandreou; Colonels’
University of Pisa, and, after serving with coup (Greece)*]
the Italian army 1941–44, joined the
Bank of Italy in 1946 and pursued a
Cosgrave, Liam
career as a research economist. He was
Governor of the Bank of Italy 1979–93, Leader of the Irish Fine Gael (FG) party
after which he was asked to form a 1965–77; Prime Minister of Ireland
‘government of technocrats’ in order to 1973–77. Cosgrave was born in 1920 in
restore confidence in the collapsing Templeogue, County Dublin. His father
parliamentary institutions while was William T. Cosgrave, President of
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via free accessCosgrave, Liam Cossiga, Francesco
the Executive Council of the Irish Free and when Moro was murdered in May
State 1922–32. Liam Cosgrave studied in 1978, Cossiga resigned. In 1979 he
Dublin and Kings Inns and was called to agreed to form a coalition government
the Bar in 1943, becoming a Senior and immediately introduced legislation
Counsel in 1958. In 1943 he was elected to curb terrorism. He resigned as Prime
to Parliament as a representative of the Minister in March 1980 in the face of a
93 BIOGRAPHIES
FG. He acted as Parliamentary Secretary vote of no confidence, but immediately
to the Prime Minister and to the Minister formed another coalition government of
for Industry and Commerce 1948–51. In Christian Democrats and Socialists. He
1956, as Minister for External Affairs, he resigned again in October 1980 when
led the first Irish delegation to the his economic plan to support the value
United Nations General Assembly. In of the lira was defeated in Parliament.
1965 he was elected leader of the FG He was President of the Italian Senate
and in 1973 became Prime Minister at 1983–85 before being elected President
the head of an FG–Labour coalition. He of the Republic 1985–92. He was
was respected as a moderate leader implicated in the corruption crisis which
who tried to ease tensions between the engulfed the Italian political elite in the
Republic of Ireland and Northern early 1990s and resigned early in 1992.
Ireland, although his attempt to promote [See also: Moro; Tangentopoli*;
compromise through the Sunningdale terrorism*]
Agreement of December 1973 met with
little success. In 1977 the National
Coty, René
Coalition government was defeated by
the Fianna Fail (FF) and Cosgrave As President of the Fourth French
stepped down both as Prime Minister Republic 1954–59, Coty guided the
and as leader of the FG. He retired from peaceful transition between the Fourth
politics in 1981. and the Fifth Republics. Coty was born
Cosgrave, Liam Cossiga, Francesco in Le Havre in 1882 and studied law at
the University of Caen. He was elected
Cossiga, Francesco
to the National Assembly in 1923, sitting
Prime Minister of Italy 1979–80; with the left Republican party group.
President of Italy 1985–92. Cossiga was From 1935 to 1940 he was a member of
born in 1928 in Sassari, Sardinia, and the Senate, and was amongst those
received a law degree from Sassari who supported the transfer of powers to
University in 1948. He joined the Pétain. After the Second World War he
Christian Democrats (DC) in 1945, led the Independent party group in the
becoming a provincial secretary 1956–58 National Assembly and was Minister for
and a member of the party’s national Reconstruction and Town Planning
council 1956–85. In 1958 he was elected 1947–48. In the presidential election of
to the Chamber of Deputies. He was 1953, it took seven days of negotiations
Under-Secretary of State for Defence and thirteen ballots before Coty, an
1966–70 and Minister for Public outsider who entered the field only on
Administration 1974–76. As Minister of the eleventh ballot, emerged as
the Interior 1976–78 in the cabinet of President. Aware of his shaky mandate,
Aldo Moro he had to deal with an he worked to restore the dignity and
upsurge in urban violence and political unity of the parliamentary institutions,
terrorism. In April 1977, his offices were exercising his powers with restraint and
bombed by radicals. In March 1978 adopting a conciliatory stance towards
Cossiga took charge of the investigation the Communist Party. In 1958, when
into the kidnapping of Aldo Moro. He France faced a crisis over Algerian
refused to negotiate with the terrorists independence and the threat of military
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