An Overview of the Economic Outlook: 2021 to 2031
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An Overview of the
Economic Outlook:
2021 to 2031 FEBRUARY | 2021
T
he 2020–2021 coronavirus pandemic The Economic Outlook
caused severe economic disruptions last for 2021 to 2025
year as households, governments, and busi- In CBO’s projections, which incorporate the assump-
nesses adopted a variety of mandatory and tions that current laws governing federal taxes and
voluntary measures—collectively referred to here as spending (as of January 12) generally remain in place
social distancing—to limit in-person interactions that and that no significant additional emergency funding
could spread the virus. The impact was focused on or aid is provided, the economy continues to strengthen
particular sectors of the economy, such as travel and during the next five years.
hospitality, and job losses were concentrated among
lower-wage workers. • Real GDP expands rapidly over the coming year,
reaching its previous peak in mid-2021 and surpassing
Over the course of the coming year, vaccination is its potential level in early 2025. The annual growth
expected to greatly reduce the number of new cases of of real GDP averages 2.6 percent during the five-year
COVID-19, the disease caused by the coronavirus. As period, exceeding the 1.9 percent growth rate of real
a result, the extent of social distancing is expected to potential GDP (see Figure 1).
decline. In its new economic forecast, which covers the • Labor market conditions continue to improve. As the
period from 2021 to 2031, the Congressional Budget economy expands, many people rejoin the civilian
Office therefore projects that the economic expansion labor force who had left it during the pandemic,
that began in mid-2020 will continue (see Table 1). restoring it to its prepandemic size in 2022.1 The
Specifically, real (inflation-adjusted) gross domestic unemployment rate gradually declines throughout the
product (GDP) is projected to return to its prepandemic period, and the number of people employed returns
level in mid-2021 and to surpass its potential (that is, to its prepandemic level in 2024.
its maximum sustainable) level in early 2025. In CBO’s
projections, the unemployment rate gradually declines • Inflation, as measured by the price index for personal
through 2026, and the number of people employed consumption expenditures, rises gradually over the
returns to its prepandemic level in 2024. next few years and rises above 2.0 percent after 2023,
as the Federal Reserve maintains low interest rates
CBO is using this economic forecast as the basis for and continues to purchase long-term securities.
updating its budget projections for 2021 to 2031. The • Interest rates on federal borrowing rise. The Federal
agency plans to release those budget projections later in Reserve maintains the federal funds rate (the rate that
February and a more detailed report about this forecast financial institutions charge each other for overnight
later this winter. The forecast incorporates economic and loans of their monetary reserves) near zero through
other information available as of January 12, 2021, as mid-2024 and then starts to raise that rate gradually.
well as estimates of the economic effects of all legislation The interest rate on 3-month Treasury bills closely
(including pandemic-related legislation) enacted up to
that date. 1. The labor force is the number of people age 16 or older in the
civilian noninstitutionalized population who have jobs or who
are available for work and are actively seeking jobs.
Notes: Unless this report indicates otherwise, all years referred to are calendar years. Federal fiscal years run from October 1 to September 30 and are
designated by the calendar year in which they end. Numbers in the text and tables may not add up to totals because of rounding.2 AN OVERVIEW OF THE ECONOMIC OUTLOOK: 2021 TO 2031 February 2021
Table 1 .
CBO’s Economic Projections for Calendar Years 2021 to 2031
Annual Average
2024– 2026–
2020 2021 2022 2023 2025 2031
Percentage Change From Fourth Quarter to Fourth Quarter
Gross Domestic Product
Reala -2.5 3.7 2.4 2.3 2.2 1.6
Nominal -1.2 5.6 4.5 4.3 4.4 3.8
Inflation
PCE price index 1.2 1.7 1.9 1.9 2.1 2.1
Core PCE price indexb 1.4 1.5 1.9 1.9 2.1 2.1
Consumer price indexc 1.2 1.9 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.4
Core consumer price indexb 1.6 1.5 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.4
GDP price index 1.3 1.9 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.1
Employment Cost Indexd 2.8 2.3 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.3
Fourth-Quarter Level (Percent)
Unemployment Rate 6.8 5.3 4.9 4.6 4.0e 4.3f
Percentage Change From Year to Year
Gross Domestic Product
Reala -3.5 4.6 2.9 2.2 2.3 1.7
Nominal -2.3 6.3 4.9 4.2 4.4 3.8
Inflation
PCE price index 1.2 1.6 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1
Core PCE price indexb 1.4 1.5 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1
Consumer price indexc 1.3 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.3 2.4
Core consumer price indexb 1.7 1.6 2.1 2.3 2.4 2.4
GDP price index 1.2 1.6 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.1
Employment Cost Indexd 2.9 2.1 2.6 2.9 3.1 3.3
Annual Average
Unemployment Rate (Percent) 8.1 5.7 5.0 4.7 4.2 4.1
Labor Force Participation Rate (Percent)g 61.7 61.9 62.1 62.0 61.9 61.2
Payroll Employment (Monthly change, in thousands)h -765 521 145 145 135 40
Interest Rates (Percent)
Three-month Treasury bills 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.4 1.7
Ten-year Treasury notes 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 2.0 3.0
Tax Bases (Percentage of GDP)
Wages and salaries 44.8 44.0 43.9 43.9 43.9 43.6
Domestic corporate profitsi 7.6j 7.9 7.5 7.7 8.2 8.0
Current Account Balance (Percentage of GDP) k -2.8j -2.9 -2.4 -2.0 -2.0 -2.2
Data sources: Congressional Budget Office; Bureau of Economic Analysis; Bureau of Labor Statistics; Federal Reserve. See www.cbo.gov/publication/56965#data.
GDP = gross domestic product; PCE = personal consumption expenditures.
a. Real values are nominal values that have been adjusted to remove the effects of changes in prices.
b. Excludes prices for food and energy.
c. The consumer price index for all urban consumers.
d. The employment cost index for wages and salaries of workers in private industry.
e. Value for the fourth quarter of 2025.
f. Value for the fourth quarter of 2031.
g. The labor force participation rate is the share of the civilian noninstitutionalized population age 16 or older that is working or actively seeking work.
h. The average monthly change in the number of employees on nonfarm payrolls, calculated by dividing the change from the fourth quarter of one calendar year
to the fourth quarter of the next by 12.
i. Adjusted to remove distortions in depreciation allowances caused by tax rules and to exclude the effects of changes in prices on the value of inventories.
j. Estimated value for 2020.
k. Represents net exports of goods and services, net capital income, and net transfer payments between the United States and the rest of the world.February 2021 AN OVERVIEW OF THE ECONOMIC OUTLOOK: 2021 TO 2031 3
Figure 1 .
The Relationship Between GDP and Potential GDP
Percent
6 Projected
Real GDP Growth
3
Real Potential
GDP Growth
0
In CBO’s projections,
the annual growth of
real (inflation-adjusted)
GDP exceeds that of real
−3
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 potential GDP until 2026
and then falls below it. The
output gap between real
Percentage of Potential GDP
GDP and real potential GDP
2
is positive for several years,
starting in 2025, before
Output Gap
moving back toward its
0 historical average.
−2
−4
−6
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Data sources: Congressional Budget Office; Bureau of Economic Analysis. See www.cbo.gov/publication/56965#data.
Real values are nominal values that have been adjusted to remove the effects of changes in prices. Potential GDP is CBO’s estimate of the maximum sustainable
output of the economy. Growth of real GDP and of real potential GDP is measured from the fourth quarter of one calendar year to the fourth quarter of the next.
The output gap is the difference between GDP and potential GDP, expressed as a percentage of potential GDP. A positive value indicates that GDP exceeds
potential GDP; a negative value indicates that GDP falls short of potential GDP. Values for the output gap are for the fourth quarter of each year.
The shaded vertical bars indicate periods of recession, which extend from the peak of a business cycle to its trough. The National Bureau of Economic Research
(NBER) has determined that an expansion ended and a recession began in February 2020. Although the NBER has not yet identified the end of that recession,
CBO estimates that it ended in the second quarter of 2020.
GDP = gross domestic product.4 AN OVERVIEW OF THE ECONOMIC OUTLOOK: 2021 TO 2031 February 2021
follows the federal funds rate. The interest rate on because of an ongoing, long-term slowdown in the
10-year Treasury notes rises gradually as the Federal growth of the labor force.
Reserve reduces the pace of its asset purchases and
investors anticipate rising short-term interest rates Uncertainties in the
later in the decade. Economic Outlook
CBO’s projections reflect an average of possible out-
CBO’s projections of economic growth have been comes under current law. But these projections are
boosted by various laws enacted in 2020.2 Most recently, subject to an unusually high degree of uncertainty, and
in late December, the Consolidated Appropriations Act, that uncertainty stems from many sources, including the
2021 (Public Law 116-260), appropriated funds for course of the pandemic, the effectiveness of monetary
the remainder of fiscal year 2021, provided additional and fiscal policies, and the response of global financial
emergency funding for federal agencies to respond to the markets to substantial increases in public deficits and
public health emergency created by the pandemic, and debt. As a result, the economy could expand substantially
provided financial support to households, businesses, more quickly or more slowly than CBO projects. Labor
and nonfederal governments affected by the economic market conditions could likewise improve more quickly
downturn, among other measures. CBO estimates that or slowly than projected, and inflation and interest rates
the pandemic-related provisions in that legislation will could rise more rapidly or slowly as well. Also uncertain
add $774 billion to the deficit in fiscal year 2021 and is the impact of the pandemic on the economy over the
$98 billion in 2022.3 Those provisions will boost the longer term, including its effects on productivity, the
level of real GDP by 1.5 percent, on average, in calendar labor force, and technological innovation.
years 2021 and 2022, CBO estimates; the bulk of the
impact will occur in 2021. Comparisons With
Previous Projections
The Economic Outlook CBO currently projects a stronger economy than it did
for 2026 to 2031 in July 2020, in large part because the downturn was
In CBO’s projections, the economy continues to expand not as severe as expected and because the first stage of
from 2026 to 2031. Real GDP grows by 1.6 percent the recovery took place sooner and was stronger than
per year, on average (see Table 2). Real potential GDP expected (see Table 4 on page 7).4 GDP and employ-
grows slightly more rapidly (see Table 3). For most of the ment are projected to be higher and to be accompa-
period, the Federal Reserve allows inflation to remain nied by modestly higher inflation and higher interest
above its target level; the level of real GDP likewise rates than they were in CBO’s July projections. The
remains above the level of real potential GDP for several fact that the downturn was less severe and the recovery
years. Eventually, less accommodative policies on the part stronger than previously projected also changed the
of the Federal Reserve help push GDP back toward its projected pattern of growth: CBO’s current projec-
historical average relationship with potential GDP. tions of GDP growth are stronger, on average, for the
2021–2025 period than they were in July but weaker for
A mild increase in productivity growth causes poten- the 2026–2031 period.
tial output in CBO’s projections to grow more quickly
over the 2021–2031 period than it has grown since the CBO made those changes to its economic projections
2007–2009 recession. However, potential output still even though it expects social distancing to be more pro-
grows more slowly than it has grown since 1950, mainly nounced and to last longer than projected in July. The
projected effects of the Consolidated Appropriations Act,
2. See Congressional Budget Office, The Effects of Pandemic- 2021, played a part in improving the economic outlook.
Related Legislation on Output (September 2020), www.cbo.gov/
publication/56537.
4. For the July projections, see Congressional Budget Office,
3. Those provisions are contained in divisions M, N, and EE of the An Update to the Economic Outlook: 2020 to 2030 (July 2020),
Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021. www.cbo.gov/publication/56442.February 2021 AN OVERVIEW OF THE ECONOMIC OUTLOOK: 2021 TO 2031 5
Table 2 .
The Projected Growth of Real GDP and Its Components
Percent
Annual Average
2024– 2026–
2020 2021 2022 2023 2025 2031
Percentage Change From Fourth Quarter to Fourth Quarter
Real GDP -2.5 3.7 2.4 2.3 2.2 1.6
Components of Real GDP
Consumer spendinga -2.6 3.5 3.0 2.7 2.7 1.9
Business investmentb -0.1 6.9 1.2 1.8 3.2 2.4
Business fixed investmentc -1.3 5.9 3.0 2.1 3.1 2.5
Residential investmentd 13.7 4.8 -2.1 -1.7 -0.9 -0.5
Purchases by federal, state, and local governmentse -0.6 0.9 0.1 0.7 1.0 0.6
Federal 2.5 1.6 -0.8 -0.5 0.2 0.3
State and local -2.5 0.5 0.6 1.5 1.4 0.8
Exports -11.0 12.4 3.1 2.5 2.1 1.6
Imports -0.6 9.1 0.4 1.2 3.1 2.2
Contributions to the Growth of Real GDP (Percentage points)
Components of Real GDP
Consumer spendinga -1.8 2.4 2.1 1.8 1.8 1.3
Business investmentb * 0.9 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.3
Business fixed investmentc -0.2 0.8 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3
Residential investmentd 0.5 0.2 -0.1 -0.1 * *
Purchases by federal, state, and local governmentse -0.1 0.2 * 0.1 0.2 0.1
Federal 0.2 0.1 -0.1 * * *
State and local -0.3 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1
Exports -1.2 1.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2
Imports 0.1 -1.2 -0.1 -0.2 -0.4 -0.3
Data source: Congressional Budget Office. See www.cbo.gov/publication/56965#data.
Real values are nominal values that have been adjusted to remove the effects of changes in prices.
GDP = gross domestic product; * = between zero and 0.05 percentage points.
a. Consists of personal consumption expenditures.
b. Comprises business fixed investment and investment in inventories.
c. Consists of purchases of equipment, nonresidential structures, and intellectual property products.
d. Includes the construction of single-family and multifamily structures, manufactured homes, and dormitories; spending on home improvements; and brokers’
commissions and other ownership transfer costs.
e. Based on the national income and product accounts.6 AN OVERVIEW OF THE ECONOMIC OUTLOOK: 2021 TO 2031 February 2021
Table 3 .
Key Inputs in CBO’s Projections of Real Potential GDP
Percent
Projected Average
Average Annual Growth Annual Growth
Total, Total,
1950– 1974– 1982– 1991– 2002– 2008– 1950– 2021– 2026– 2021–
1973 1981 1990 2001 2007 2020 2020 2025 2031 2031
Overall Economy
Real Potential GDP 4.0 3.2 3.2 3.2 2.4 1.7 3.1 1.9 1.7 1.8
Potential Labor Force 1.6 2.5 1.6 1.2 1.0 0.5 1.4 0.4 0.3 0.4
Potential Labor Force Productivity a 2.3 0.7 1.6 2.0 1.4 1.2 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.4
Nonfarm Business Sector
Real Potential Output 4.1 3.5 3.5 3.7 2.7 1.9 3.4 2.1 2.0 2.1
Potential Hours Worked 1.4 2.3 1.7 1.2 0.2 0.5 1.3 0.4 0.3 0.3
Capital Services b 3.8 3.7 3.5 3.9 2.8 2.3 3.4 2.3 2.2 2.2
Potential Total Factor Productivityc 1.9 0.8 1.1 1.6 1.6 0.8 1.4 1.1 1.1 1.1
Contributions to the Growth of Real Potential Output
(Percentage points)
Potential hours worked 0.9 1.5 1.2 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.3 0.2 0.2
Capital input 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.3 0.9 0.7 1.1 0.7 0.7 0.7
Potential total factor productivity 1.9 0.8 1.1 1.6 1.6 0.8 1.4 1.1 1.1 1.1
Total Contributions 4.0 3.5 3.4 3.6 2.7 1.9 3.3 2.1 2.0 2.1
Potential Labor Productivityd 2.6 1.2 1.7 2.4 2.4 1.4 2.1 1.8 1.7 1.7
Data source: Congressional Budget Office. See www.cbo.gov/publication/56965#data.
Real values are nominal values that have been adjusted to remove the effects of changes in prices. Potential GDP is CBO’s estimate of the maximum sustainable
output of the economy.
The table shows compound annual growth rates over the specified periods. Those rates are calculated from the fourth quarter of the year immediately preceding
each period to the fourth quarter at the end of that period.
GDP = gross domestic product.
a. The ratio of potential GDP to the potential labor force.
b. The services provided by capital goods (such as computers and other equipment) that constitute the actual input in the production process.
c. The average real output per unit of combined labor and capital services, excluding the effects of business cycles.
d. The ratio of potential output to potential hours worked in the nonfarm business sector.February 2021 AN OVERVIEW OF THE ECONOMIC OUTLOOK: 2021 TO 2031 7
Table 4 .
CBO’s Current and Previous Economic Projections for Calendar Years 2020 to 2030
Annual Average
Total,
2020 2021 2022 2020–2024 2025–2030 2020–2030
Percentage Change From Fourth Quarter to Fourth Quarter
Real GDPa
January 2021 -2.5 3.7 2.4 1.7 1.7 1.7
July 2020 -5.9 4.8 2.2 1.0 2.1 1.6
Nominal GDP
January 2021 -1.2 5.6 4.5 3.5 3.9 3.7
July 2020 -5.7 6.2 4.1 2.5 4.2 3.4
PCE Price Index
January 2021 1.2 1.7 1.9 1.7 2.1 1.9
July 2020 0.4 1.3 1.7 1.4 1.9 1.7
Core PCE Price Index b
January 2021 1.4 1.5 1.9 1.7 2.1 1.9
July 2020 0.6 1.3 1.7 1.4 1.9 1.7
Consumer Price Indexc
January 2021 1.2 1.9 2.2 2.0 2.4 2.2
July 2020 0.4 1.6 2.0 1.7 2.2 2.0
Core Consumer Price Indexb
January 2021 1.6 1.5 2.2 2.0 2.4 2.2
July 2020 1.0 1.5 1.9 1.7 2.2 2.0
GDP Price Index
January 2021 1.3 1.9 2.0 1.8 2.1 2.0
July 2020 0.2 1.3 1.8 1.5 2.0 1.8
Employment Cost Indexd
January 2021 2.8 2.3 2.8 2.7 3.3 3.0
July 2020 1.7 2.6 2.3 2.4 3.0 2.7
Real Potential GDPa
January 2021 1.8 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.7 1.8
July 2020 1.6 1.5 1.8 1.7 1.8 1.8
Continued8 AN OVERVIEW OF THE ECONOMIC OUTLOOK: 2021 TO 2031 February 2021
Table 4. Continued
CBO’s Current and Previous Economic Projections for Calendar Years 2020 to 2030
Annual Average
Total,
2020 2021 2022 2020–2024 2025–2030 2020–2030
Annual Average
Unemployment Rate (Percent)
January 2021 8.1 5.7 5.0 5.6 4.1 4.8
July 2020 10.6 8.4 7.1 7.7 4.8 6.1
Interest Rates (Percent)
Three-month Treasury bills
January 2021 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.2 1.4 0.9
July 2020 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 1.0 0.6
Ten-year Treasury notes
January 2021 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.3 2.8 2.1
July 2020 0.9 0.9 1.1 1.2 2.6 2.0
Tax Bases (Percentage of GDP)
Wages and salaries
January 2021 44.8 44.0 43.9 44.1 43.7 43.9
July 2020 44.3 43.8 43.7 43.8 43.7 43.8
Domestic corporate profits e
January 2021 7.6f 7.9 7.5 7.7 8.1 7.9
July 2020 7.5 7.4 7.7 7.7 8.2 8.0
Data sources: Congressional Budget Office; Bureau of Labor Statistics; Federal Reserve. See www.cbo.gov/publication/56965#data.
GDP = gross domestic product; PCE = personal consumption expenditures.
a. Real values are nominal values that have been adjusted to remove the effects of changes in prices.
b. Excludes prices for food and energy.
c. The consumer price index for all urban consumers.
d. The employment cost index for wages and salaries of workers in private industry.
e. Adjusted to remove distortions in depreciation allowances caused by tax rules and to exclude the effects of changes in prices on the value of inventories.
f. Estimated value for 2020.February 2021 AN OVERVIEW OF THE ECONOMIC OUTLOOK: 2021 TO 2031 9 This document is one of a series of reports on the state of the economy that the Congressional Budget Office issues each year. In keeping with CBO’s mandate to provide objective, impartial analysis, this report makes no recommendations. CBO consulted with members of its Panel of Economic Advisers during the development of this report. Although those advisers provided considerable assistance, they are not responsible for the contents of this report. Robert Shackleton wrote the report. Leigh Angres, Christina Hawley Anthony, Sebastien Gay, Theresa Gullo, Deborah Kilroe, John McClelland, and Mia Williams provided helpful comments. The economic forecast and related estimates were prepared by Aaron Betz, Yiqun Gloria Chen, Erin Deal, Daniel Fried, Edward Gamber, Ronald Gecan, Mark Lasky, Junghoon Lee, Michael McGrane, Jaeger Nelson, Sarah Robinson, Jeffrey Schafer, John Seliski, Robert Shackleton, and Christopher Williams. Many other analysts at CBO contributed infor- mation about the pandemic and the effects of actions taken in response to it. Erin Deal and Sarah Robinson fact-checked the report. The writing of the report and the preparation of the forecast were supervised by Jeffrey Werling, John Kitchen, Robert Arnold, and Devrim Demirel. Mark Doms, Jeffrey Kling, and Robert Sunshine reviewed the report. Benjamin Plotinsky was the editor, and Casey Labrack was the graphics editor. The report is available on CBO’s website (www.cbo.gov/ publication/56965). CBO continually seeks feedback to make its work as useful as possible. Please send any comments to communications@cbo.gov. Phillip L. Swagel Director
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