ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK - REVIEW: OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE
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July 2022 REVIEW: OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK
TRAFFIC REPORT
ABOUT US
TRAFFIC is a leading non-governmental
contents
organisation working globally on trade in wild
page 4
animals and plants in the context of both
biodiversity conservation and sustainable Abbreviations and Nomenclature
development.
Reproduction of material appearing in this report
page 8
requires writtenpermission from the publisher. RECOMMENDATIONS
The designations of geographical entities in this
publication, and the presentation of the material, page 10
do not imply the expression of any opinion EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
whatsoever on the part of TRAFFIC or its supporting
organisations concerning the legal status of any
country, territory, or area, or of its authorities,
page 12
or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or
boundaries. INTRODUCTION
Purpose and Objectives 14
ABOUT Partner
Methodology and Limitations 15
The United States Agency for International
Development (USAID) works to end extreme
poverty and promote resilient, democratic societies
page 16
while advancing security and prosperity for
America and the world. USAID partnerships and Evaluating Supply Chain Risk Factors
investments save lives, reduce poverty, strengthen
democratic governance, and help people emerge
Game meat on sale in Dodoma Tanzania page 22
from humanitarian crises and progress beyond
assistance. Regulatory Contexts for Traceability
PROJECT LEADER
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
page 24
Any questions on this Review should be directed to
James Compton: james.compton@traffic.org Traceability mechanisms to consider for
trade chains in wild mammals and birds
Published by:
The authors would like to extend their appreciation to Nick Ahlers, Nga Bui,
TRAFFIC International, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
Markus Burgener, Qudra Kagembe, Francesca Marcolini, Melissa Matthews, page 30
SUGGESTED CITATION
Bryony Morgan, Teresa Mulliken, David Newton, Viet Anh Nguyen, Caitlin Case Studies: Wild animal supply chains managing for disease risks
Schindler, Julie Thomson, Stephanie von Meibom, and other TRAFFIC
OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD Australia’s kangaroo meat industry 31
colleagues for their expert inputs and reviews.
ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC
South Africa’s ostrich meat industry 40
DISEASE RISK (2022). Sam Campbell, Anastasiya
This Review was generously supported by the American People through France’s venison trade 44
Timoshyna, Glenn Sant, Duan Biggs, Alexander
USAID via the Wildlife Trafficking Response, Assessment, and Priority
Braczkowski, Hernan Caceres-Escobar, Karlina
Setting (Wildlife TRAPS) project, implemented by TRAFFIC in collaboration
Indraswari, James Compton, and Hubert Cheung.
with IUCN. The contents are the responsibility of the authors and do not
page 51
TRAFFIC, Cambridge UK.
Note: Case studies were prepared by DB, AB, HC-E,
necessarily reflect the opinion of USAID or the U.S. Government. Lessons for improving supply chain management and traceability
KI and HC of Resilient Conservation, at Griffith
We would also like to extend heartfelt thanks to Celia Abolnik, the
University’s Centre for Planetary Health and Food
Australian Government’s Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry,
page 54
Security, in collaboration with TRAFFIC.
Anel Engelbrecht, Amanda Fine, Tiggy Grillo, Douglas Jobson, Dennis King, Gaps and Opportunities
Richard Kock, the Marine Stewardship Council, Michael O’Leary, Pawin
© TRAFFIC 2022. Copyright of material published in
Padungtod, Ekta Patel, Joey Potgieter, ProFound, Stéphane Ringuet, Mark
this report is vested in TRAFFIC. page 58
Ryan, Fred Unger, and others working on reducing zoonotic disease risks
UK Registered Charity No. 1076722
associated with wild animal trade for their time, perspectives and insights. Annexes
Design
Thanks also to the team at Prophet for their research and analytical
Francesca Marcolini page 66
insights on Viet Nam’s wild animal trade chain structure.
Endnotes
ABBREVIATIONS NOMENCLATURE
AEMIS Australian Export Meat Inspection System
For this Review, the terms used are taken to have the following definitionsi, ii:
AI Avian Influenza
APC Aerobic Plate Count
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
Term Meaning
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
Control measure Any action and activity that can be used to prevent or eliminate a food safety hazard
CCP Critical Control Point or reduce it to an acceptable level.
CPTPP Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership Critical Control Point A step at which control can be applied and is essential to prevent or eliminate a
(CCP) food safety hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level.
CPW Collaborative Partnership on Sustainable Wildlife Management
Domesticated species Species bred in captivity and modified from their wild ancestors to make them
CSIRO Australia’s Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
more ‘useful’ to humans, who control their reproduction (breeding), care (shelter,
CTE Critical Tracking Events protection against predators) and food supply.
DAFF South Africa’s Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Farmed, captive-bred, In wild animal and plant trade, such terms designate management and production
or cultivated modes distinct from ‘wild-sourcing,’ with breeding and raising taking place in
DALRRD South Africa’s Department of Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development controlled conditions.
EC European Commission Hazard An agent (physical, chemical, or biological) with the potential to cause adverse
health effects.
EID Emerging Infectious Disease
Hazard Analysis and A system that identifies, evaluates, and controls hazards significant for food safety.
EU European Union
Critical Control Points
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(HACCP)
FSC Forest Stewardship Council Illegal wildlife trade Wildlife commerce in contravention of a relevant legal provision. These could
HACCP Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points include legislation or regulations related to one or more policy concerns: e.g.,
resource ownership or access rights; nature conservation; human or animal health
HPAI Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza protection; animal welfare; taxation or other fiscal provisions.
IGO Intergovernmental Organisation Monitor The act of conducting a planned sequence of observations or measurements of
control parameters to assess whether a CCP is under control.
ILRI International Livestock Research Institute
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
IWT Illegal Wildlife Trade
KDE Key Data Elements
One Healthiii One Health is an integrated, unifying approach that aims to sustainably balance and
LPAI Low Pathogenicity Avian Influenza
optimise the health of people, animals and ecosystems.
MEDC Meat Export Data Collection system
It recognises that the health of humans, domestic and wild animals, plants, and the
MSC Marine Stewardship Council
wider environment (including ecosystems) are closely linked and interdependent.
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
The approach mobilises multiple sectors, disciplines and communities at varying
OIE World Organisation for Animal Health (name now changed to WOAH)
levels of society to work together to foster well-being and tackle threats to health
OPV On-Plant Veterinarian and ecosystems, while addressing the collective need for clean water, energy and
air, safe and nutritious food, taking action on climate change, and contributing to
QR code Quick Response code
sustainable development.
RFID Radio-Frequency Identification
SBC Social and Behaviour Change
SRA State Represented Authority or State Regulatory Authority
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
Risk The estimated probability and severity of adverse health effects following the
USAID United States Agency for International Development exposure to a hazard.
VPN Veterinary Procedural Notice Supply chain The entire stream from harvest (farming in some cases) to processing of a wildlife
or other product until it reaches the ultimate consumer.
WOAH World Organisation for Animal Health (formerly OIE)
Traceability The capacity to find information about where, how, and under what regulatory
WHO World Health Organization conditions a product was made.
WWF World Wide Fund for Nature Wet market A marketplace selling fresh meat, fish, produce, or other perishable goods (including
vegetables) as distinct from ‘dry markets’ that sell durable goods such as fabrics
and electronics.
4 OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK 5
Wild meat Meat from wild animals (see ‘Wildlife’ below). In some countries, the term bushmeat
is used to indicate illegally acquired wild (or wildlife-) meat, whereas wild meat can
also be game meat from licensed butcheries. This Review focuses on meat from
terrestrial wild animals, especially mammals and birds.
Wild species Non-domesticated wildlife species.
Wild sourced Wild animals, plants, fungi, or products collected or harvested from free-living (non-
captive) populations.
Wildlife In line with the IUCN definition: ‘Living things that are neither human nor
domesticated.’
Wildlife market A venue (physical or online) where wildlife trade is active.
Wildlife pet / Exotic pet A companion animal living with people that is generally thought of as a wild species
rather than a domesticated one.
Wildlife trade The local or domestic and international commerce in wildlife, inclusive of parts and
products derived from them.
Zoonotic disease / As defined by the World Health Organization (WHO):
Zoonosisiv
A zoonosis is any disease or infection that is naturally transmissible from vertebrate
animals or an animal reservoir to humans, either directly, or indirectly through a
vector or food-borne.
‘Zoonotic disease’ describes a disease that first originated in non-human animals,
even when the disease is no longer transmitted from animals but continues to
circulate within human populations.
i
https://www.fao.org/3/y1579e/y1579e03.htm
https://www.traffic.org/site/assets/files/12893/wildlife-trade-and-zoonotic-disease-lexicon.pdf
ii
iii
https://www.who.int/news/item/01-12-2021-tripartite-and-unep-support-ohhlep-s-definition-of-one-health
vi
https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/49880
Bushmeat Market
6 OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK 7
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on this review, these priority recommendations have emerged for those working to
improve wild animal supply chain management and traceability across various geographical
contexts. TRAFFIC welcomes opportunities for collaboration with cross-sectoral partners in
any of these steps:
Improve communication Governments improve communication and collaboration among
agencies working on public health, animal health, environmental Increase supply chain The exotic pet industry, zoo associations, and members of the
scientific research community involved in live wild animal trade
health, wildlife trade management and collaborating institutions pilot approaches to increase the transparency of their respective
and collaboration such as Customs and law enforcement agencies. Establishing One
Health working groups can help to formalise this cooperation in
transparency wild animal supply chains and share best practices with relevant
IGOs (e.g., the Quadripartite of WOAH, WHO, FAO, and UNEP, as well
countries where they are not already established. as the Secretariats of CITES and CBD) for dissemination to national
governments.
Identify and Government authorities, IGOs, NGOs, donor agencies, and experts
working in public health, animal health (inclusive of wildlife health),
food safety, natural resource management, law enforcement and Share global Governments with established regulations for wild animal trade
management, including measures to reduce disease transmission
address risks Customs collaborate to: risk, proactively share these frameworks and experiences with
• Establish minimum biosecurity standards for legal wild animal
trade;
experience the global community. This will support ongoing work by CITESvi
Parties to minimise the risk of future zoonotic disease emergence
• Identify and regulate different levels of risks, i.e., which forms associated with international wildlife trade.
of wild animal trade and consumption are unsafe, which ones
need special conditions, and which ones are safe in their
•
current state;
Test supply chain management and traceability approaches
Share agency resources Government agencies involved in food safety regulation to share
knowledge and resources with agencies working on wild animal
trade management.
across different wild animal trade systems, with adaptation
to context-specific risks for safety and sustainability. These
groups work closely with wild animal trade stakeholders to
implement more transparent practices and regularly monitor Apply guidelines National focal points for WOAH, working with inter-agency partners
across the One Health spectrum, to begin applying the Draft
and strengthen these practices through feedback loops, while Guidelines for Reducing the Risk of Disease Spillover Events at
sharing lessons learned via publicly accessible guidance Markets Selling Wildlife. At the time of publication, these Guidelines
materials. were being prepared by a WOAH Ad Hoc Group expert consultation
process and are expected to be made public in 2022.
Map supply chains Wild animal trade stakeholders map their respective supply
Integrate costs
chains to understand and mitigate risks to safety, sustainability, Businesses and associations with expertise in animal supply chain
and legality. This mapping could be either voluntary or required by management and traceability to explore the costs of adapting
government regulators. such systems to priority wild animal trade chains, emphasising
a systems-based approach and attention to the needs of less
regulated contexts. These experts could develop strategies in
Develop and disseminate Technology companies develop simple, low-cost digital tools
for improved supply chain management and traceability, and partnership with wild animal trade stakeholders to integrate these
costs along a particular trade chain to minimise any adverse effects
train developing country government partners in the use and
digital tools dissemination of these tools to wild animal trade stakeholders. on stakeholder livelihoods.
Support safer Experts in social and behaviour change (SBC) work with
government authorities and wild animal trade stakeholders to
Support measures Donor agencies and private sector partners financially support
small-scale trade chain actors in adopting traceability measures.
behaviours
assess the role of risky behaviours along these trade chains and
formulate SBC approaches to support the sustained adoption of financially
safer behaviours.
vi
https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/com/sc/74/E-SC74-16.pdf
8 OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK 9
This Review is supported by in-depth • Risks are higher where different
assessments of three established wild species come into contact with
animal trade systems where some degree each other (including contact with
of disease risk management is already in domestic animals and humans).
place:
In implementing traceability for legal wild
• Australia’s kangaroo meat industry animal trade chains, technological tools
like Apps may help gather and share
• South Africa’s ostrich meat industry
data, but more important is to map the
• France’s venison trade supply chain and implement consistent
monitoring and data gathering at crucial
Lessons from these systems and a
risk points, regardless of the tool used.
range of supply chain management
EXECUTIVE
and traceability tools from other trades While a complete list of
are examined for potential adaptation recommendations can be found in
to other wild animal trade contexts. the Recommendations chapter of this
SUMMARY
The focus in assessing each of these Review, a selection is presented here:
examples has concentrated on reducing
• Governments improve
health risks. However, parallel risks to
communication and collaboration
sustainability and legality also have the
among agencies working on public
potential to be reduced through a more
health, animal health, environmental
integrated approach to improved supply
health, wildlife trade management
The COVID-19 pandemic and the SARS-CoV-2 virus’s suspected chain management and traceability. A
and their implementing partners such
wild animal origins1, 2, 3 have spurred fresh consideration of how key assumption for this review is that the
as Customs and law enforcement;
more transparent and better managed a
to reduce zoonotic disease risks associated with wild animal
trade system is, the easier it would be to • Government agencies involved
trade. This Review assesses existing systems for managing and
identify and monitor potential risks and in food safety regulation share
tracing wild animal trade chains to determine best practices for weed out any illegal, unsustainable or knowledge and resources with
interventions that are context-specific to increase participation unsafe practices. agencies working on wild animal
and effectiveness. The guiding principle for these management trade management;
interventions is that where wild animal trade takes place, it When considering the variety of global
wild animal trade systems beyond this • Government authorities, donor
should be closely monitored to ensure legality and improve
Review’s case studies, there is a broad agencies, and experts working in
sustainability and safety4.
need for more coherent regulation and public health, animal health, food
monitoring. Trade in domestic livestock safety, natural resource management,
has comparatively well-developed law enforcement, and Customs
biosecurity measures for disease risk collaborate to test supply chain
reduction, and these measures can be management and traceability
adapted to wild animal trade to build approaches across different wild
on existing knowledge, regulations, and animal trade systems, and to
infrastructure. establish minimum biosecurity
standards for legal wild animal trade;
The potential for zoonotic disease
emergence in wild animal trade can be • Wild animal trade stakeholders map
more complex than in domestic livestock their respective supply chains to
trade due to the diversity of species in understand and mitigate risks to
trade. Several principles emerge to help safety, sustainability, and legality;
prioritise and reduce these risks5:
• Businesses and associations with
• The risk of zoonotic spillover to expertise in animal supply chain
humans tends to be higher via wild management and traceability
mammal and wild bird taxa; explore the costs of adapting such
systems to priority wild animal trade
• Trade in live animals presents the
systems, particularly in less regulated
highest risks compared to other wild
contexts.
animal products, followed by raw
meat; • Donor agencies and private sector
partners financially support small-
• Disease risks may be amplified
scale trade chain actors in adopting
along lengthy trade chains with more
traceability measures.
intermediaries;
Wild meat sold and cooked at a restaurant, Tanzania
INTRODUCTION
or carriers of potential zoonoses and which solutions.
interact with wild animals to amplify disease
spillover risk. Zoonotic transmission from The authors of this Review considered three
livestock occurs at a much higher rate than main use types for wild animal trade and
from wild animals, partly because of the consumption:
much higher numbers of livestock and their
COVID-19 has pushed governments, is ecologically sustainable, and is legal9.
much larger role in our food chains than wild 1. Wild animal meat
businesses, civil society organisations, and Traceability, therefore, can be used to
animals12 13. Traceability is already used in 2. Wild animal-derived medicines, and
individuals to rethink the risks and probability monitor and reduce risks of zoonotic disease
domestic livestock and poultry supply chains, 3. Live wild animals kept as pets or used for
of pandemics. In considering what measures emergence within wild animal supply chains.
suggesting such approaches could be adapted scientific research or display.
are needed to prevent future diseases with
to wild animal supply chains to minimise
pandemic potential, a critical approach is to
risks14. As noted in the Methodology & Limitations
manage human-animal interactions such as At the most basic level, traceability gathers
section, these three use types carry important
wild animal trade that may enable spillover data to answer “where” and “when” critical
Mapping a supply chain and its risk points, differences in their relative risks of zoonotic
of zoonotic diseases. events in the supply chain occur.
which is the foundation for implementing disease transmission, while specific wild
traceability, offers a data-driven approach animal trade chains have further variations
Wildlife trade includes domestic and • Tracing moves from the end-consumer
to assess the supply chain’s safety in risk. The traceability and supply chain
international commerce in a wide range backwards along the supply chain to
and transparency and inform policy management lens allows regulatory decisions
of terrestrial, marine, and freshwater wild the producer and, where relevant, the
recommendations. From a zoonotic disease to be evidence-based and context-specific
species of fauna, flora, and fungi. This Review producer’s suppliers to mitigate risks
perspective, different forms of wild animal to promote successful implementation and
focuses on trade in wild animals and parts before they become problematic.
trade present different types and levels of risk; disease risk reduction.
and products derived from these animals, • Tracking, in contrast, moves forward
reducing these risks therefore calls for diverse
particularly terrestrial wild mammals and along the supply chain from source to
birds, based on the relatively higher risk of consumer and can be used to find and
zoonotic disease transmission from these recall risky products after a problem is
taxonomic groups6 7. Globally, the diversity discovered.
FIGURE 1
of species, trade systems, and national Generic wildlife supply chain showing interfaces at which pathogens have been documented.
legal contexts involved in wild animal trade A traceability system captures the type and *NB: Local holding is also an important source point needing to be managed for potential disease risk (in possibly unsanitary conditions)
requires interventions that are both focused volume of products traded and the actors and slaughtering of wild specimens can occur at any point up until the end-user. Source: Dr. John Berezowski, adapted from Stephen C,
and adaptive. Supply chain management and involved in any transactions. When the volume Berezowski J et al. (2021). (Link in footnote15)
traceability are assessed as tools for improving of goods changes, this can serve as a red flag
transparency and reducing disease risks that unauthorised products may have been
across different trade systems and contexts. mixed with the authorised products. A red flag
enables an investigation at the point where it’s
Traceability enables better understanding of raised or at any previous points10.
a supply chain by monitoring critical points in Information in a traceability system may
the chain to gather data on where, how, and allow full access to all users or be limited to
under what regulatory conditions a product authorities to monitor, comply, and preserve
was made. A traceability system may focus on confidential business information.
a particular aspect of production, such as the
legality or sustainability of product sourcing,
fair treatment of the supply chain’s workers, Traceability is sometimes conflated with
production quality (e.g., organic, halal, etc.), and certification. A certification scheme can
monitoring for health risks, as is the focus of document and market a supply chain’s
this Review. adherence to a social or environmental
standard, which often relies on being able to
Monitoring for health risks commonly focuses trace the supply chain. However, certification is
on food safety concerns like contamination an additional step on top of traceability, and is
and spoilage8, but in domestic and wild animal therefore not a required step in tracing a supply
supply chains, the need to also monitor for chain. Certification can incur a high cost that is
emerging zoonotic diseases is increasingly not feasible for smaller businesses11.
apparent. There is a growing need to ensure
the trade in wild animals carries minimal A holistic approach to pandemic prevention
risk of emerging infectious diseases (EIDs), will need to also consider livestock as hosts
12 OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK 13
PURPOSE METHODOLOGY
AND OBJECTIVES AND LIMITATIONS
The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 brought for sanitary control measures and animal This review was conducted through primary in contrast, tend to be highly processed
increased attention to the potential zoonotic and human health and safety requirements; and secondary research using multiple and therefore carry fewer risks of zoonotic
disease risks associated with trade in wild methods. Primary components included pathogen transmission to consumers
animals. As a result, the Wildlife TRAPS Project, 3. Review current options for traceability individual and group discussions with supply compared with meat, but may still have
a long-standing partnership between USAID, data management tools that are simple and chain management experts and stakeholders. important risks when production involves live
TRAFFIC and IUCN, refocused its objectives on affordable: Secondary elements focused on a desk- animals and unprocessed animal parts. Lastly,
finding solutions to prevent future pandemics based literature review of online reports since human interactions with live wild animals
by improving the safety and sustainability of a. Consider which tools could best be and publications from NGOs, IGOs, national are an important risk interface, there is a need
legal wild animal trade. In tandem with efforts adapted to managing less regulated government authorities, scientific journals, and to further investigate live wild animal trade
to support policy and regulatory reform, wild animal trade chains in a developing media outlets. A bibliography for the literature chains for exotic pets, display, and scientific
this is being addressed through two main country context; review is included in Annex II. research. This Review found the most available
workstreams: references related to wild meat trade compared
4. Document and assess case study The authors note three main limitations of to the other use types, hence its focus.
1. Supply chain management and traceability examples of wildlife trade chains already this Review. Whereas this Review was initially
to reduce risks and improve transparency from practising coordinated supply chain intended to consider wild animal supply chain A third limitation was in bridging the gap
source to consumer in legal wild animal trade management and traceability with a focus on management through the three lenses of between lessons learned from established
chains; and health risk reduction: safety, sustainability, and legality, one limitation supply chain management mechanisms in
2. Social and behaviour change (SBC) to direct was that the examples reviewed focused highly regulated trades, and the situation of
consumers and stakeholders in wild animal a. Gather best practices and lessons primarily on health risks and mitigation wild animal trade in less developed countries.
trade toward safe, sustainable, legal products learned; (‘safety’). Differential factors could include less
and practices. b. Identify key actors (government, non- government capacity for monitoring animal
government, private sector, and standard- In drafting this Review, the authors considered health linked to wildlife trade, in conjunction
Foundational research was conducted via holding organisations) for: three major categories of wild animal use: wild with varying levels of regulation, compliance
a situation analysis of SBC messaging on i. Risk mitigation at critical points in animal meat, wild animal-derived medicines, and enforcement for wild animal trade. The
wild animal trade and zoonotic disease risks, supply chains; and live animals kept as pets or for display or selected case studies provide a starting
published in December 202116, and this Review ii. Influence and willingness to engage; scientific research. A second limitation of this point for assessing wild animal supply chain
on supply chain management and traceability. Review is that its case study examples focus management, but in relation to the great
Both publications will support the planning 5. Analyse lessons learned from relevant mainly on trade chains for wild animal meat. diversity in global wild animal trade systems,
of pilot interventions in countries engaged by wildlife supply chain management and These wild meat trade chains include live they represent only a part of the overall
TRAFFIC and its partners. traceability initiatives to date; animals early in the chain and meat products situation. Efforts to address these limitations
at the consumer end. Food production is a included in-depth discussions with experts
The primary objectives of this Review are to: 6. Determine gaps and opportunities: particularly relevant use type based on the and stakeholders regarding the less regulated
varying risks of pathogen transmission from wild animal supply chains throughout Asia and
1. Review criteria for evaluating risks in wild a. Outline priorities for pilot projects to handling live animals, meat processing, and Africa and experts in animal and human health.
animal supply chains, especially risks to reduce zoonotic disease risks meat consumption. Food safety is a well- A list of individuals interviewed can be found in
human and animal health and safety; explored lens for traceability and disease risk Annex III.
7. Recommend what could be adapted or reduction. Wild animal-derived medicines,
2. Examine current national and international better implemented and enforced to mitigate
policy and regulatory contexts of traceability risks of zoonotic disease transmission in
for trade in wild animal products, particularly wild animal supply chains.
Photo caption title
14 OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK 15
FIGURE 2
The risk of zoonotic disease emergence and spillover can be assessed as a function of three dimensions: hazard, vulnerability, and exposure.
Each of the three dimensions has three to four sub-variables, resulting in a composite risk score. Source: WWF (see link in footnote 18)
Bats>Primates>Rodents>Small
carnivores>Antelopes>Birds
>Reptiles>Amphibians
Taxa being traded
Hazard Live / Raw / Cooked
State of the product
Cramped vs Spacious
Single species vs Multi-species
Captive conditions
Present / absent
Hygiene rules
Absent / Weak / Flawed / Strong
Risk of disease Governance capacity
emergence Vulnerability Absent / Moderate / High standard
Hygiene facilities
Basic hygiene measures during meat processing
Monitoring & Never / Rarely / Occassionally / Regularly
surveillance
International / Rural to urban /
Local / Roadside
EVALUATING SUPPLY
Length of trade chain
Exposure Pre-domestic Yes / No
animals present
CHAIN RISK FACTORS
Rural / Urban
Market locality
The diversity of legal wild animal trade b. Have they been known to carry zoonotic In carrying out this type of qualitative risk iv. Mixing live wild and domestic species
in different countries calls for informed, diseases in the past? assessment, WWF recommends several increases the risk of transmission at any
context-specific solutions. In assessing the c. How many different species are involved? foundational principles to keep in mind19 : point in the trade chain, but especially in live
suitability of supply chain management and d. Are the animal products in trade alive, raw, i. Mammals and birds are the highest animal markets;
traceability interventions to improve the safety cooked, or a mixture of these? risk taxa for disease spillover to humans, v. Weak governance and poor market
and sustainability of a particular wild animal e. Under what conditions are the animals especially bats, rodents, and primates; infrastructure increase risk:
supply chain, it is important to evaluate the being kept? ii. Live animals pose a greater risk for a. Africa and Asia have a large informal
risks specific to the species, product or form in disease emergence than dead animals. food sector that is not regulated and does
trade, and the number and type of transaction 2. Vulnerability: Smoked, dried, fermented, and frozen not follow central government legislation
points that involve human-animal interfaces a. Are there hygiene rules at the market? carcasses have not been shown to transmit on hygiene;
from source to end-user. b. How good is the government’s capacity to pathogens; vi. The most vulnerable people include:
fairly enforce policies, rules and regulations? iii. Longer trade chains carry greater risks a. Hunters in the forest who come into
A February 2021 report by the World Wide c. What is the standard of washing facilities and more chances for viral amplification: contact with live animals;
Fund for Nature (WWF) on “Assessing risk in processing facilities and markets? a. Some animals, such as Malayan b. Food handlers living near, or working in,
factors for viral disease emergence within d. How often does disease testing, pangolins, showed no sign of coronavirus live animal markets;
the wildlife trade” 17 groups the potential risks surveillance, monitoring and evaluation take when seized in their country of origin20, but c. Staff and customers in contact with
of zoonotic spillover and disease emergence place? contained coronaviruses closely related caged live animals in a restaurant;
within three categories, with several questions to SARS-CoV-2 when seized at the end of vii. Varying effects of market size on risk:
to guide assessment: 3. Exposure: their trade route21. Farmed rodents and a. Small rural markets risk exposure to small
a. How long is the supply chain? porcupines in Viet Nam already had avian numbers of people but may have poorer
1. Hazard: b. Were any of the species taken from a and bat coronaviruses at the farm level, hygiene oversight;
a. What is the animal species’ phylogenetic deforestation frontier zone? but the presence of these coronaviruses b. Big urban markets risk exposure to
proximity to humans? c. Is it a rural or an urban market? increased 10-fold at the restaurant level at more people but may have stricter hygiene
the end of the trade chain22; monitoring and enforcement23.
16 OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK 17
FIGURE 3
A proposed hazard hierarchy of species in trade. Source: WWF (see link in footnote24)
Mixed wild and
domestic species
Bats, Rodents,
Apes & Macaques
Other primates,
Skunks,
Rabbits, Hares, Mongooses, Pigs,
Ungulates, Small Water birds
Large carnivores, carnivores
Song birds,
Birds, Reptiles Pangolins,
Armadillos, Shrews
Tree shrews &
Opossums
Amphibians
Invertebrates
INTERGOVERNMENTAL GUIDANCE Streetside vendor selling chicken and pork meat in Hanoi, Viet Nam
FOR RISK EVALUATION
In evaluating risks along the supply chain, the In December 2020, the Tripartite organisations
Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement (the World Health Organization (WHO),
EVALUATING RISKS AT THE NATIONAL
for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP) the Food and Agriculture Organization of
recommends identifying which areas of the the United Nations (FAO), and the World
trade are disease risk-free versus which areas Organisation for Animal Health (formerly OIE,
have higher risk levels to tailor monitoring
efforts25. This allows limited budgets and staff
recently renamed WOAH)) released their Joint
Risk Assessment Operational Tool27, which
LEVEL: VIET NAM
capacity to be applied where they can be most provides guidance on how to set up a zoonotic
effective. Priority monitoring points may also disease risk self-assessment at the national
In Viet Nam, TRAFFIC has conducted an mapped alongside the relevant government
look for bottlenecks of compliance activity in level. This kind of scientific framework enables
initial trade chain analysis of wild animals and authorities that have jurisdictional oversight
the supply chain, such as crucial processing or the development of sound risk management
their products used for meat and attributed at each stage in the trade chain, as well as
collection points. The USAID-funded Targeting policy and communications, bringing together
medicinal benefits (i.e., formal and informal the relative risks of potential zoonotic disease
Natural Resource Corruption26 (TNRC) project cross-sectoral expertise from the animal
traditional medicine use). The research transmission at each point in the chain. This
provides a helpful example for mapping the health, human health, and environmental
focused on six groups of animals commonly understanding allowed the researchers to
various risk points along the length of a wild health communities for a holistic One Health
traded for these uses in Viet Nam, which are assess opportunities for targeted interventions
animal supply chain. The risk lens for this response. Even beyond the wild animal trade,
known to carry zoonotic pathogens: bats, rats, to reduce zoonotic disease risks along the
TNRC work was in mapping corruption, but the no product or supply chain can be guaranteed
macaques, pangolins, civets, and birds. This trade chain. The initial analysis and findings
approach can easily be adapted to mapping 100% safe, but a robust risk assessment
national-level qualitative analysis drew from are now being validated by the same group of
disease risk points. allows risks to be managed to an acceptable
30 in-depth interviews conducted with wildlife experts. Once the research is finalised, it will
standard.
trade experts and stakeholders in Viet Nam. serve as a foundation for designing projects
to improve the safety and sustainability of
From the interviews, the researchers mapped legal wildlife trade in Viet Nam and will provide
the trade chain from source (either from the a model for similar trade chain mapping and
wild or from captive farming facilities) to interventions in other countries where TRAFFIC
consumer. Sections of the trade chain are works.
Photo caption title
18 OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK 19FIGURE 4
Map of Viet Nam’s wild animal trade chain for meat and medicinal uses. Includes notes on the government authorities responsible at each
stage in the trade and qualitative estimates of the relative risk of zoonotic disease transmission from a wild animal to a human at each stage.
Following this expert elicitation, risk pathways would need to be further evaluated based on types of species in trade, magnitude of trade,
human behaviours and practices, hazard identification and zoonotic disease surveillance, and other contextual factors at different points in
the trade chain. Source: TRAFFIC and Prophet, based on expert interview responses
Transport
SELLING/
SOURCING PROCESSING DISTRIBUTION CONSUMPTION
SERVING
PRIMARY
ACTORS
LEGAL STREET RESTAURANTS SOCIAL MEDIA/ TRADITIONAL
MIDDLEMEN/ MARKET E-COMMERCE MEDICINE SHOPS URBAN DWELLERS RURAL DWELLERS
HUNTERS/ BUTCHERING SITES “GHOST” BUSENESSES
TRADER SELLERS
POACHERS
MIDDLEMEN/
TRADER
INDIVIDUAL
SENDERS
FARMERS
BLACK MARKET SELLERS
TRAFFICKING
SYNDICATES
SECONDARY
ACTORS
FREIGHT CUSTOMS FREIGHT
RESPONSIBLE FORWARDERS EMPLOYEES FORWARDERS
AUTHORITIES
COURIER/ MULES
BORDER GUARDS MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICE
(MINISTRY OF DEFENSE) JUSTICE (MINISTRY OF PUBLIC SECURITY) MARKETS CONTROL DEPARTMENT MINISTRY OF HEALTH MARKETS CONTROL DEPARTMENT MINISTRY OF HEALTH TRAFFIC POLICE MINISTRY OF HEALTH
BORDER GUARDS VIETNAM CUSTOMS
(MINISTRY OF TRADE) (MINISTRY OF DEFENSE) (MINISTRY OF FINANCE) (MINISTRY OF TRADE) (MINISTRY OF PUBLIC SECURITY)
TRAFFIC POLICE FOREST PROTECTION MINISTRY OF
TRAFFIC POLICE TRAFFIC POLICE
(MINISTRY OF PUBLIC DEPARTMENT AGRICULTURE TRAFFIC POLICE
(MINISTRY OF PUBLIC SECURITY) (MINISTRY OF PUBLIC SECURITY)
SECURITY) AND RURAL (MINISTRY OF PUBLIC SECURITY)
DEVELOPMENT
MEDIUM Depends on live/raw
LOW TO Depends on method
POTENTIAL HIGH Live contact & species HIGH Live contact & many HIGH Live contact & selling
TO HIGH vs. processed HIGH of consumption
DISEASE mixing in transport animals in one place in populated areas
RISK Photo caption title
20 OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK 21REGULATORY CONTEXTS
wild-harvested seafood, particularly seafood potential to carry over systems developed
sourced from developing countries. Thus far, for livestock. For instance, in 2013 New
there are fewer examples of traceability for Zealand extended its cattle identification and
FOR TRACEABILITY
terrestrial wild animal products, hence the traceability requirements to deer .
As illustrated by the Viet Nam wild animal Mandatory traceability systems are
trade chain mapping, understanding the implemented by governments, such as
structure and steps in the chain for animals requiring permits to export products of a
and products from consumer to source is an particular species. Voluntary traceability
essential step in evaluating and managing systems are often implemented by private
the risks of that chain28. This next section sector actors to ensure product quality, align
assesses the different regulatory contexts in with companies’ values, and capitalise on
which traceability may operate. business incentives for product traceability29.
Traceability systems operate within two
primary contexts: mandatory and voluntary.
Factory for the production of sausages
REGULATIONS AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL REGULATIONS AT THE INTERNATIONAL
Traceability is an important tool for monitoring
risks across different wild animal trade types,
Historically, Canada and the United States
have had less government-led traceability
LEVEL
whether for food, medicine, pets, display, or and more reliance on voluntary industry-led
research. Existing traceability practices for traceability. China has rapidly accelerated its The Parties to the Convention on International interested countries. Proposed sanitary
domesticated livestock make food traceability government-led traceability requirements over Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) have measures and their legal basis should also be
a helpful starting point to understand the past decade but still lags behind European assessed the context in which traceability publicly available and open for public comment 39.
regulatory contexts. The responsibility for countries32. The European Union (EU) countries should be considered as a tool for greater
implementing and monitoring food traceability stand out as having the world’s strongest and monitoring of a supply chain and have Under the CPTPP, importing countries can
requirements may be carried out by national most transparent food safety and traceability offered guidance to Parties in the use of audit exporting countries’ authorities and
governments, local governments, or industry practices, both for domestic products and traceability systems37. A review38 that assessed inspection systems and conduct on-site
associations. National systems for mandatory imports33. EU legislation requires that all food the complexity of CITES-listed species in inspections of facilities if appropriate. In the
livestock identification and traceability and feed products be traceable; importers international supply chains and the technical case of an audit, the auditing party should
proliferated in the late 1990s and early must be able to identify the exporting entity in difficulties in dealing with wild animal allow the audited party to review and comment
2000s in response to the spread of bovine the product’s country of origin, and businesses products across taxonomic groups concluded on the findings before taking action. Exporting
spongiform encephalopathy, or ‘mad cow must be able to locate both one step back traceability needed to be crafted to the needs countries must notify importing countries in
disease’30. Where industry-led programmes along the supply chain (towards the source) of each particular supply chain. the following situations:
are prevalent, these typically precede the and one step forward (towards the final • A significant sanitary risk related to an
establishment of government-led traceability consumer)34. The CPTPP chapter on Sanitary and exported good
systems. Food traceability systems are less Phytosanitary Measures offers regulatory • Urgent national changes in animal health
common in developing countries where food Beyond the EU, national food traceability guidance for international supply chains. For that may affect trade
security remains an issue; access to sufficient requirements tend to be limited to specific international trade, sanitary measures must be • Substantial changes in the status of a
quantities of food is prioritised over concerns commodities. Japan and Norway, for equivalent between exporting and importing regional pest or disease
for the food’s quality31. example, require tracing for animals and countries. Each country should conduct a risk • New scientific findings that would affect
animal products, but few other foods and assessment based on scientific data, using the regulatory response
In comparing those countries that are furthest commodities have mandatory traceability35. both quantitative and qualitative information. • Significant changes in food safety or
along in the development of food traceability Globally, traceability requirements for livestock This risk analysis should be documented disease management/control/eradication
systems, several notable features emerge. are much more evolved than traceability for for public review and comments by other policies that affect trade40
22 OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK 23VOLUNTARY SYSTEMS to human health, and risks as the likelihood
and severity of health effects these hazards
prioritise appropriate mitigation measures
would provide a practical foundation; however,
could cause44. Animal health, both in testing adaptations would be needed to account for
Voluntary traceability systems are often in voluntary traceability systems, as shown animals and animal products for pathogens, the variations between different wild animal
implemented by the private sector to enhance via organic farming standards. Organic is also an important component of HACCP45. trade contexts.
and standardise companies’ own sourcing and standards were initially developed by the Hazards, risks, processes, and actors along
production practices and market these good private sector, but some were later regulated by the supply chain are analysed to identify and Basic steps for application of HACCP in a
practices to consumers. Examples for wild- governments to help improve their reach and manage the critical control points for ensuring supply chain include49:
sourced animals and plants include the Marine public credibility, as is the case in the European product safety. Developed in the 1960s, HACCP 1. Describe the product: its composition, any
Stewardship Council (MSC) and FairWild. Union and the United States41. A potential is widely used for food production and other treatments, its durability, storage conditions,
These two systems, MSC for seafood and disadvantage of government involvement in industries where health safety is critical, etc.
FairWild for plants, have the potential to be voluntary standards is that the standards need such as pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. 2. Identify the product’s intended use by the
adapted to trade in wild terrestrial mammals to be agreed upon by a more diverse set of It is endorsed by FAO, WHO, and national end consumer
and birds but are not currently used as such, stakeholders and become more challenging to government authorities such as the United 3. Map the supply chain, from primary
hence both are explored further in Annex I. revise42. States Food and Drug Administration46. production to end-use, and cross-check this
Governments can also play an important role mapping with experts and stakeholders
HACCP has been broadly applied to 4. List all potential hazards along the supply
international livestock trade, and its principles chain and consider what control measures are
TRACEABILITY
could be similarly applied to improve the needed
management of wild animal trade47. The 5. Determine the Critical Control Points
nature of HACCP enables evidence-based, 6. Set a quantifiable limit for compliance at
MECHANISMS TO
context-specific solutions for disease risk each Critical Control Point that allows time for
reduction. For example, when used to control corrective action before the limit is breached
foot and mouth disease in cattle, HACCP has 7. Establish a monitoring system for each
CONSIDER FOR TRADE
empowered local stakeholders to engage Critical Control Point
in risk management while preserving their 8. Establish corrective actions
livelihoods48. It is important to note that HACCP 9. Establish verification procedures to ensure
CHAINS IN WILD
focuses on reducing risks from known hazards that the HACCP system is working effectively,
rather than reducing risks from unknown novel such as product testing or internal audits
pathogens. Using the Critical Control Point 10. Establish documentation and record-
MAMMALS AND BIRDS
approach to identify potential risk points and keeping.
This next section moves from the potential blockchain technology was considered for its
regulatory contexts for traceability to potential to ensure that supply chain data is
assessing specific methods and tools that both accessible and free from unauthorised
could be adapted for use in different wild modifications. Mobile applications for
animal trade systems. The Hazard Analysis capturing supply chain data were likewise
and Critical Control Points (HACCP) system reviewed for accessibility, practicality, and
was studied for its role in mitigating health potential affordability.
risks in food supply chains. The use of
ASSESSING AND ADDRESSING
SYSTEMIC RISKS: HACCP
HACCP is a leading international set of prevention along the supply chain from primary Animal transporter truck
principles for assessing and mitigating the production to final consumption43.
health safety issues of a particular product The system considers hazards as pathogens
and its supply chain. HACCP focuses on or chemicals with the potential to cause harm
24 OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK 25IMPROVING DATA INTEGRITY: FIGURE 5
Numerous forms of data can be shared via traceability. Source: Alistair Douglas
BLOCKCHAIN
Once a set of principles for disease risk
monitoring and management is in place,
the transparency and traceability of supply
chain data and make the data difficult to
Blockchain
an important next step is to ensure that the tamper with because the database itself technology
data gathered remains both accurate and is fully decentralised. Whereas traditional is an increasingly
accessible across the supply chain. Blockchain databases may rely on one location and popular tool
technology is an increasingly popular tool administrator, identical copies of a blockchain to secure and
to secure and disseminate supply chain database are stored on multiple computers disseminate
traceability data. across a network. Before any new information supply chain
can be added to the database, a majority of traceability data.
Blockchain is a distributed digital ledger that computers throughout the network must verify
can store data of any kind. Its best-known the data’s legitimacy50. This verification can
use is for cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, help to flag incorrect information to enable
H3 PARAGRAPH TITLE
but it has a range of other applications, prompt investigation of any fraudulent activity
including monitoring supply chains. Using that might pose risks to the supply chain’s
blockchain technology can help to improve safety, sustainability, and legality.
Case study – The Fishcoin Project51
Building on the mFish initiative of the US State actors in the trade should pay for the costs of
Department, mFish-Trace is a multilingual data collection and storage and who should
blockchain-based traceability system that own the data. When the Fishcoin Project
rewards fishers for inputting data with Fishcoin developers first released their mFish.co54
tokens. These tokens can then be redeemed
for mobile top-ups; other goods and services
traceability application, there was no incentive
for fishers to share their data despite the App GUIDING CONSUMERS: STANDARDS
FOR TRACEABILITY
may be added as token redemption options being free to use. Tokens now reward the
in the future. The Fishcoin system shows that fishers for their data, and the fishers choose
blockchain technology does not need to be how the data is shared. A project led by
expensive or consume substantial electricity, Herriot-Watt University is exploring how
To improve and standardise product rely on third-party auditing to verify the supply
as with Bitcoin. The base system uses the sensors on fishing nets can further support
traceability and market this traceability to chain data collected, audits can be prohibitively
Stellar52 blockchain, which costs a fraction of the cost of traceability. These sensors enable
consumers, certification schemes like the expensive without a critical mass of sales.
a cent per transaction, and the Trace Protocol precision fishing while simultaneously
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and Fair Such voluntary standards have thus far faced
behind Fishcoin is blockchain system agnostic. gathering data for climate change research.
Trade have proliferated in recent decades57. barriers to adoption in developing countries,
The Fishcoin Project developers simplified the Fishcoin tokens pay for this technology, so
Their easily recognisable, widespread labels particularly for small-scale producers58 59.
application’s coding to allow it to operate on a consumers who are willing to pay a premium
can be a valuable guide to conscientious Recognising these challenges, standards such
2G cellular network53. for climate-smart seafood support the cost,
consumers searching for products with added as MSC and FairWild (both covered in more
and it does not fall solely on fishers55.
value for sustainable sourcing, workers’ rights, detail in Annex I) have introduced programmes
The business model for traceability is
and other production concerns. for producers to gradually progress towards
sometimes lacking, as it is often unclear which
certification over their first several years of
Large-scale certifications, however, tend to engagement.
favour big producers. For certifications that
Although blockchain can facilitate tracing collaboration among actors along the chain.
a supply chain, enabling faster and more To effectively trace the whole supply chain,
reliable data sharing, it is not a one-size-fits-all actors should first share information using the
solution. More important to traceability than same data model56. This initial commitment
implementing advanced technology is to close to collaboration, if successful, can serve as an
information gaps in the supply chain through entry point to the adoption of blockchain.
improved management practices and closer
26 OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK OPTIONS FOR MANAGING AND TRACING WILD ANIMAL TRADE CHAINS TO REDUCE ZOONOTIC DISEASE RISK 27You can also read
