What should a Chinese top-level design in STEM Education look like?
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COMMENT
https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01279-1 OPEN
What should a Chinese top-level design in STEM
Education look like?
Baichang Zhong 1 ✉, Xiaofan Liu1, Zehui Zhan1, Qingchao Ke1 & Fulai Wang2 ✉
STEM education has been extensively recognized by the Chinese government
and the public nationally. However, there is no consistent terminology for
1234567890():,;
naming STEM education in China, which leads to confusion about the use of
STEM label in practice. Meanwhile, STEM-related evaluation has not received
sufficient consideration by the Chinese government except for the Ministry of
Education. In addition, macro-regulation and policy support at the national level
in STEM education are limited, especially for vulnerable groups, contrasting with
the United States. In order to fully release the enormous potential in developing
science and technology, four approaches to reforming China’s STEM-related
actions are discussed: (1) China should develop a consensus terminology based
on national conditions as well as international communication. (2) China’s K-12
education should move forward along with four levels of STEM education and
gradually reach the corresponding thinking degrees. (3) A multi-party colla-
borative service mechanism should be established. (4) It is critical to establish a
school culture and environment that supports the integrated implementation of
STEM-related education, including targeted instruction and training for vulner-
able populations. In the future, a systematic top-level design is expected to
promote the development of Chinese STEM education.
1 School of Information Technology in Education, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China. 2 College of Art, Suzhou University of Science and
Technology, Suzhou, China. ✉email: zhongbc@163.com; wfl@usts.edu.cn
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COMMENT HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01279-1
S
Introduction STEM Education Research Center administrated by South China
ince the start of the twenty-first century, STEM (Science, Normal University.
Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education has Although there is no specific policy in the national level, the
been dedicated to meeting future workforce demands and Chinese government has encouraged relevant actions to make
reinforcing the nation’s core competitiveness in the global arena STEM education a new teaching model. For instance, the “13th
(Ritchie, 2019). Accordingly, STEM has risen to a national stra- Five-Year Plan for Educational Informatization” released by the
tegic level in major developed countries. For instance, as the Ministry of Education in 2016 claimed to develop new
origin of STEM education, US governments have long prioritized educational models such as makerspaces, interdisciplinary
STEM education (e.g., U.S. Department of Education, 2008; U.S. learning (STEAM education), and maker education” (Ministry
Department of Education, 2015). In addition, the Australian of Education of China, 2016). Subsequently, some provinces have
government has progressed from implementing STEM education also issued relevant plans to promote STEM education, such as
in certain states (e.g., Queensland) to establishing a national the “Jiangsu Provincial Basic Education STEM Curriculum
policy since 2013 (Australian Industry Group, 2013). Like many Guidance (Trial)” proposed in September 2018.
other nations, China has also embraced STEM education due to However, the Chinese government prefers to employ indigen-
industrial policies around innovation, creativity and entrepre- ous terminology in relation to STEM education. For instance, the
neurship since 2011 (Aziz and Rowland, 2018; Lyu et al., 2022). terms “New Engineering” (Ministry of Education of China, 2017),
Challenges such as insufficient capacity in fundamental indus- “New Liberal Arts” (Ministry of Education of China, 2021) and
tries, absence of major original innovations, and stagnation of key “New Teacher Training” (Ministry of Education of China, 2018)
technologies are weakening China’s global Competitiveness are frequently mentioned in higher education reform launched by
(Huang, Audretsch, and Hewitt, 2013). In this setting, high- Ministry of Education in China. Additionally, terms like
quality STEM education has become an essential means of cul- Comprehensive Practical Activities, Integration of Information
tivating scientific and technological talents with high-level Technology and Disciplines, Integration of Five Educational
thinking skills to highlight the connection between curriculum Fields (IFEF), and Interdisciplinary Education/Interdisciplinary
and labor market (Zhong et al., 2022). In the past decade, China Learning are frequently adopted in K-12 education (Zhong and
has made some headway in exploring the practical paths of STEM Liu, 2022). Some teachers and educational administrators are
education in response to the national and social demands (Dong easily confused by these similar concepts, which could lead to be
et al., 2020). However, many problems remain, typically repre- off-target with STEM education initiatives. Consequently, the
sented by the sharp contrast between the stagnation of STEM inconsistency of terminology risks leading to misuse of the STEM
education and the governmental emphasis on science and tech- label. Worse still, two important government departments (i.e.,
nology revitalization strategy. In this regard, the crucial causes Ministry of Science and Technology and the Ministry of Human
and approaches to break through these problems would be Resources and Social Security) in China have not yet considered
addressed in this article. adding STEM-related indicators to their census.
Thankfully, China keeps investigating and absorbing interna-
Achievement and insufficient actions. Proudly, China has tional experience in recent years. For instance, in 2017, the NIES
gained significant theoretical and practical achievements in STEM released the “China STEM Education White Paper”. Meanwhile,
education in the past decade. Except the trend continued with the Education Management Information Center of the Ministry
international publication (Li, 2020), STEM-related topics abound of Education issued the “Report on the Development of STEAM
in diverse Chinese educational academic conferences and jour- Education in China”. Coincidentally, both reports took typical
nals, and scholars’ enthusiasm for STEM education has expanded countries (e.g., the US, UK, Germany, etc.) as examples to sort out
to all school stages (Fig. 1). Especially in primary and secondary the international background and trends of STEM education,
schools, substantial research and practical exploration have been then analyzed the current state of STEM education in China.
conducted. More importantly, the “China STEM Education 2029 Innovation
Meanwhile, various academic platforms have been established Action Plan”, presented in the “China STEM Education White
to promote STEM education. For instance, the “STEM Education Paper”, established a vision of STEM education for the following
Alliance of Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area” decade in response to China’s national conditions. Unfortunately,
was founded in 2016 by the China Education Information with the lack of national development strategies, social linkage
Industry Innovation Platform. Since its establishment, around 30 mechanisms, and faculty training guidelines, STEM curriculum
Greater Bay Area schools (including Guangzhou, Shenzhen, development and talent training in China are still in the initial
Hong Kong, and Macau, etc.) have performed STEM education stages. Meanwhile, cultural and social inclusion should be
practices to prepare for the future development of localized systematically incorporated into STEM education to diversify
curriculum. In the next year, the National Institute of Education science (Davis et al., 2020; Johnson, 2007). In this vein, the
Sciences (NIES), an academic institute affiliated to the Chinese significant opportunity gaps suffered by vulnerable groups (e.g.,
Ministry of Education, established the STEM Education Research ethnic minorities, low-income group, disabled, LGBTQ, etc.) in
Center. It undertakes four basic functions, including: (1) pursuing STEM programs or employment should be addressed
providing decision-making for the Ministry of Education; (2) (Chirikov et al., 2020; Forrester, 2020), which also requires
enriching the theoretical system of STEM education; (3) nation-level supports. Given that STEM education is a priority of
promoting the practice of STEM education; and (4) constructing educational and scientific reform with international consensus in
a collaborative mechanism for STEM education. As a new form of the twenty-first century, China deserves to do more. The disorder
research team, the SIG-MIE (Special Interest Group-Maker and of Chinese STEM-related actions urges a top-level design in the
Interdisciplinary Education) was launched in 2022 by the government level.
Information Technology Education Professional Committee of
China Association for Educational Technology. SIG-MIE aims to
continuously improve the local development of Maker education Challenges. Above, we have outlined the major problems of
and Interdisciplinary education through research design and STEM education in China. This section will explore the primary
iterative practice. Additionally, a large group of universities have contributors of the problems, which are also the fundamental
set up relevant research institutes and curricula, such as the challenges confronted by STEM education in China.
2 HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2022)9:261 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01279-1HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01279-1 COMMENT Fig. 1 The number of empirical studies on STEM/STEAM covered in different school stages from 2011 to 2021 (data extracted from CNKI). STEM topics abound in diverse Chinese educational academic conferences and journals covering all school stages. Especially in primary and secondary schools, substantial research and practical exploration have been conducted. The dilemma of cultural conflict and international exchange. As indifferent, even highly hostile. Just as Harris (2010) underscored, we all know, the concept of STEM education has initiated from multiculturalism, moral relativism, political correctness, toler- the US with the intention of resolving concerns such as the ance, and even intolerance are common consequences of technological competitiveness and manufacturing woes, and its disparities in facts and values. In this sense, the clash of evolution was determined by multiple factors such as national civilizations between diverse countries may impede the interna- economy, politics and culture. With the backing of the entire tional exchange and cooperation of Chinese STEM education. To society, the US has established an integrated and comprehensive avoid the disaster, understanding and respecting mutual cultures model for STEM education development, which has propelled is crucial, but crossing barriers across civilizations is equally reforms in curriculum, evaluation, teacher education, and higher important. Hence, China’s indigenous cultural complex should education (Ross et al., 2022). Historically influenced by traditional not mean fewer international collaborations. Confucian culture, Chinese educational systems have typically advocated teacher-directed learning rather than the student- Discipline-centrism entrenched in K-12 education, along with centered learning emphasized in the US (Davis et al., 2020; Lyu underdevelopment of technology and engineering education. et al., 2022). Given this, a direct copy of the US model in China Despite the widespread recognition of STEM education, there are may not reach desired effects. Actually, it has generated many still several barriers in implementing STEM education in Chinese problems including misusing the STEM label, which indicates the schools. Some scholars claimed that STEM education is not a demand for a localized STEM education paradigm tailored to the meaningful concept, as the STEM contents are already covered in national conditions and educational characteristics. diverse curricula in China such as mathematics, science and Since 1949, China has undertaken eight educational reforms to technology courses (Wan, 2020). However, these courses are learn from the international community. As brilliant as the essentially discipline-centric, rather than the interdisciplinary political, economic and military achievements have been, integration that STEM education addresses. Although China’s education has also made great strides. This is evidenced by the K-12 education curriculum reform has also advocated the para- outstanding performance of Chinese students in the PISA tests. digm shift from the current over-emphasis on discipline-based Indeed, China has also been pursuing its own educational curriculum to the integrated curriculum, the effect is limited. One paradigm and development path. Especially in this new era, of the leading causes lies in the lack of scaffold on how to inte- China is demanding more independent and autonomous grate the curriculum, specifically, what is the anchor for inte- educational concepts, methods and ideas. Consequently, an gration? How to represent and assess the objectives and increasing number of educational researchers and practitioners effectiveness of integration? seek localized STEM-related terminology. The development of STEM education’s concern on interdisciplinary integration STEM education is deeply rooted in sociocultural and political needs to be triggered substantially by engineering practice, which contexts (Zeidler, 2016). As an ancient civilization with a splendid will naturally involve multi-disciplinary knowledge and thinking history and dazzling culture, China stresses the adoption of styles. Accordingly, engineering education deserves to be localized terminology and actions, exhibiting a strong indigenous considered as a platform for connecting knowledge across cultural complex (like Oedipus complex). Whereas, referring to disciplines. The visual artifacts produced by engineering practice Huntington’s “The Clash of Civilizations” (Samuel, 1993), nations could inspire and sustain students’ sense of learning motivation with diverse cultures are most likely to be alienated and and achievement, more importantly, promote their future HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | (2022)9:261 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01279-1 3
COMMENT HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01279-1
STEM Education Levels Thinking Degrees
Discipline Extended Abstract
L4 STEM Education 4.0 D4
-Integrated Structure
L3 STEM Education 3.0 Interdisciplinary Relational Structure D3
L2 STEM Education 2.0 Multidisciplinary Multstructure D2
L1 STEM Education 1.0 Discipline-Centered Unistructure D1
Fig. 2 Four levels of STEM education and their corresponding thinking degrees. STEM education 1.0 to 4.0 correspond to four levels of integration:
Disciplinary, Multi-disciplinary, Interdisciplinary, Discipline-Integrated. The thinking degrees corresponding to each type of integration are unistructural,
multi-structural, relational and extended abstract thinking.
development. Unfortunately, the K-12 education in China failed Chinese saying goes, a soundly speech only goes after a right
to promote engineering education in the long run. Similarly, the name. That is, only by establishing a consensus terminology can
science and technology education also received insufficient the related work and international exchange be facilitated. In
development. All of these impede the implementation of STEM order to differentiate from the conventional spelling of STEM, the
education in the primary and secondary schools in China. term “STEM-related” will be used later to refer to Chinese STEM
education and action.
The loss of attraction of talent and girls in STEM education. In Considering China’s national conditions and theoretical origin,
2018, four Chinese regions (i.e., Beijing, Shanghai, Jiangsu, and IFEF may have the potential to promote STEM-related education,
Zhejiang) took the PISA (Programme for International Student which has undergone a historical evolution from “Three
Assessment) test, and earned the first place in reading, mathe- Educational Fields” to “Four Educational Fields” and then to
matics, and science literacy. Whereas in terms of the career “Five Educational Fields” (Zhong and Liu, 2022). On the one
expectations, PISA results indicated that 15.1% of Chinese boys hand, IFEF echoes the macro-level educational policy of “Five
and 9.1% Chinese girls intended to enter science and engineering Educational Fields” (The CPC Central Committee and State
professionals in the future, compared to 26% (male) and 14.5% Council, 2019), which is essentially a repositioning of the
(female) in OECD, and 27.8% (male) and 10.4% (female) in the educational goal—cultivating a whole person. On the other hand,
US (OECD, 2019). IFEF belongs to an interdisciplinary education paradigm, which
This depressed result is not only represented in the PISA test. organically integrates moral, intellectual, physical, artistic, and
Moreover, in 2018, a team from Nanjing Normal University labor education.
conducted a survey on technology literacy among K-12 students
sampled from eight Chinese provinces and municipalities (Zhang Move forward along with four levels of STEM education. STEM
et al., 2018). Results indicated that only 2.06% of students were education prioritizes higher-order thinking development, but the
willing to work in engineering professionals, compared to 75.25% abstract nature of thinking makes it too complicated to be pre-
of students preferring a career related to the role of teacher, cisely assessed. Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome
doctor, or actor. Besides, there are two notable phenomena: First, (SOLO) is an assessment method based on the presumed com-
the gender balance is severely lopsided, with only 0.36% girls with plexity of the underlying cognitive skills developed by Biggs and
intentions to be involved in engineering careers. Second, the Collins (1982). It classifies students’ observed learning outcomes
students’ willingness to be engineers were substantially decreased into five degrees: pre-structural, unistructural, multi-structural,
from primary school to junior school, which implies a negative relational structural, and extended abstract (Biggs and Collis,
tendency on STEM career expectations when growing up. This 1982).
might lie in the shortage of technology and engineering education From a spatial model perspective, the integration of STEM
in China’s K-12 education, resulting in students’ poor compre- education may occur at different levels including Disciplinary,
hension on technical engineering professionals. Multi-disciplinary, Interdisciplinary, Trans-disciplinary (Vasquez
et al., 2013). Similarly, we could consider incorporating SOLO
Reform into STEM education to identify students’ thinking levels in
To be STEM or not. The term STEM might be substituted, but it is addressing real-world problems. Since students have a certain
urgent to determine a new consensus term. From the rebranding accumulation of disciplinary knowledge (i.e., unistructure), they
of SMET to STEM, then progressing through STEAM to STEMx, naturally go beyond the pre-structural thinking. Thus, the distinct
STEM education in the US has undergone a distinct evolutionary levels of STEM education are positioned depending on the latter
trajectory, which indicated that the rules of STEM education were four thinking degrees (Fig. 2).
neither carved in stone nor a tree without roots. They were, and Specifically, STEM Education 1.0 can be defined as the
are still, socially constructed (Lyons, 2020). In this vein, STEM discipline-centered learning of S, T, E, and M knowledge to
education must collide and merge with the nation’s indigenous develop students’ unistructural thinking. Comparatively, STEM
ideology, cultural contexts and social settings in the process of Education 2.0 is the multi-disciplinary learning in thematic
internationalizing education. As Germany, a major European projects, which aims to cultivate students’ multi-structural
economy, has localized the US-style STEM as MINT (Mathe- thinking. STEM Education 3.0 is the interdisciplinary learning
matik, Informatik, Naturwissenschafe and Technik) to produce a that focuses on the concepts and methods beyond the knowledge
high-quality integrated workforce (Zendler, 2018). Additionally, to foster students’ relational thinking. STEM Education 4.0 is the
Korea has introduced the concept of Integrated Human Resource discipline-integrated learning that emphasizes systematic think-
Education to strengthen national competitiveness in science and ing beyond concepts and methods to promote students’ extended
technology (Hong, 2021). Why, in this regard, does China not abstract thinking. Owing to the culture of discipline-centrism
consider developing a consensus terminology based on national aforementioned, most primary and secondary schools in China
conditions as well as international communication? Just as an old have difficulty to implement STEM-related education above the
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Fig. 3 The USERS framework for collaborative STEM education development. Starting from the Clastotype including US, UE, and SE, the USERS
framework ultimately points to a relatively complete collaborative ecology for STEM-related education. In this way, all parties support and influence each
other, make up for deficiencies, and drive STEM-related education forward in a dynamic and balanced manner.
3.0 levels. However, staying at the first two levels is not enough. as the establishment of a multi-party collaborative service
Students’ thinking training should start from unistructure, then mechanism. Specifically, endeavors can be performed in the fol-
progress to multiple and relational structure in the process of lowing two aspects. First, removing barriers between schools and
scientific inquiry, laying a solid basis for the development of communities, and continuously strengthening the cooperation
extended abstract thinking. among schools, families, government, universities, enterprises,
Notably, the spatial model described above, while commonly etc., as well as forming a home-school-society collaborative
adopted in STEM education integration, has limitations in education mechanism. Second, removing administrative barriers,
capturing the challenges in practice, particularly the imprecision and constantly seeking common interests among various
of disciplinary overlap and the blurring of disciplinary interac- departments, as well as establishing a collaborative management
tions. In this regard, Tytler et al. (2021) proposed a temporal mechanism. In this respect, the USERS (University-School-
model as a valuable addition to spatial models, which informs Enterprise-Regional teacher development center-Society) frame-
teachers supporting students’ learning and application of work for STEM educational collaboration proposed by authors
disciplinary knowledge in and across different time scales. This could be utilized as a reference (Fig. 3) (Zhan et al., 2022).
does provide an ideal option for reducing challenges of STEM As shown in Fig. 3, US, UE, and SE are the common status of
education advancement. STEM-related collaboration in China, generally headed by
In general, the above STEM education framework is universal, universities or enterprises. The three models are generally
so it is equally applicable to STEM-related education such as applicable to the initial stage of STEM educational collaboration.
aforementioned IFEF. Given that IFEF is a new framework that However, it may only be instilled in a one-way manner to
requires the integration of theoretical constructions and practical practitioners, which cannot assure regular implementation
innovations, the following elements are indispensable for its throughout primary and secondary schools. Only when uni-
practice: (1) Integrating Goal: developing well-rounded talents; versities and Enterprises are involved (i.e., USE model, a
(2) Integrating content: developing featured curriculum of IFEF; metaphor referring to making use of STEM education), can the
(3) Integrating resources: creating a synergistic ecology of regular development of STEM-related education in K-12 schools
resources for IFEF; (4) Integrating teaching: constructing an be more secure. Despite this, USE model cannot greatly
innovative teaching model of IFEF; (5) Integrating evaluation: contribute to the long-term development of STEM-related
evaluating comprehensively students based on whole person. education due to its limited resources. Therefore, specialized
Consequently, when applying the aforementioned framework to agencies under government instruction such as the regional
IEFE, the relationship between the integration levels of the five teacher development centers should play an important role based
elements and the corresponding thinking degrees should be on USE. Thus, the USER model, a metaphor for user-center,
carefully considered. refers to regional teacher development centers coordinating
university experts, enterprise forces, and K-12 teachers to take
A single tree does not make a forest. A set of systematic proposals actions to meet the schools (user)’s needs for STEM-related
and promotion plans are expected to be launched by Chinese education. Whereas, judging from the current status of regional
governments. The development of STEM education is a society- teacher development centers, there are still limitations in foresight
wide matter, which involves multiple sectors (e.g., public and and coordination. To encourage the holistic development of
private sectors, enterprises and institutions), funding, and policies STEM-related education, it is vital to enlist the support of the
(Sunami, 2015). In this manner, only social cohesion will allow entire society and association. Therefore, the USERS model
for the construction of the cooperative pipeline. Just like another referring to the metaphor for multi-user connection should be
old Chinese saying, “A single tree does not make a forest”. developed.
Consequently, the implementation of STEM-related education Overall, starting from the separate models including US, UE,
necessitates the in-depth integration of diverse resources, as well and SE, the USERS framework ultimately points to a
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Table 1 Interdisciplinary learning requirements for different learning stages in National Curriculum Standards for Compulsory Education (MOE, 2022).
Curriculum Chinese Mathematics English Physical Science Information Physics Chemistry Biology Geography History
education technology
Learning stage
Grade 1–2 Apply Learn N/A Five Three One N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
COMMENT
interdisciplinary mathematical interdisciplinary interdisciplinary interdisciplinary
knowledge to knowledge and topics are topics are offered: topic is offered:
conduct daily accumulate offered, such as “Recognizing the Digital Device
observations mathematical “Little Special Materials Around Experience.
and records. experience. Forces”, “Do It You”, “Are Plants
Yourself”, etc. ‘Alive’?” and
“Different
Seasons”.
Grade 3–4 Apply Apply Build Five One One N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
interdisciplinary interdisciplinary structured interdisciplinary interdisciplinary interdisciplinary
knowledge to knowledge to knowledge in topics are topic is offered: topic is offered:
design and address English offered, such as Make a Compass. The Mystery of
participate in mathematical practical “Heroic Youth”, Data Coding.
campus problems. activities. “Be a Young
activities. Worker”, etc.
Grade 5–6 Apply Apply Conduct Five Three One N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
interdisciplinary interdisciplinary English interdisciplinary interdisciplinary interdisciplinary
knowledge to knowledge to practical topics are topics are offered: topic is offered:
jointly design enhance activities offered, such as “The Movement of Small Systems
activities and mathematics based on real “The Wise Little a Car”, “Designing Simulation.
share their application problems. Soldier”, “The and Building a
learning skills. Crafty Little Bridge” and “The
outcomes Craftsman”, etc. Big Dipper”.
through
multimedia.
Grade 7–9 Apply Apply Conduct Five Three One Three Combining Three Conduct Conduct
interdisciplinary interdisciplinary project- interdisciplinary interdisciplinary interdisciplinary interdisciplinary chemistry’s interdisciplinary interdisciplinary interdisciplinary
knowledge to knowledge to based topics are topics are offered: topic is offered: topics are fundamental topics are activities based activities based
write and share address real learning offered, such as “Making a New Connected offered: “Physics knowledge with offered: “Model on geographic on history
experimental mathematical around a “Loyal Measuring Tool for Intelligent and Daily Life”, experimental Making”, “Plant content. content.
reports. problems in specific Guardians of the Liquid Density”, Design. “Physics and content to Cultivation and
project-based English topic. Motherland”, “The Nutrient Engineering conduct Animal
learning. “Glorious Organ of Green Practice”, and interdisciplinary Husbandry”, and
Workers”, etc. Plants - the leaf” “Physics and activities. “Fermented
and “The Harm of Social Food
Long-Term Mobile Development”. Production”.
Phone Usages”.
Note: N/A means that the curriculum is not scheduled in the learning stage.
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comprehensive collaborative ecology for STEM-related education. the potential for further establishment of STEM-themed educa-
Anchored by the USERS framework, the importance of co- tional programs.
development cannot be overemphasized, it will represent the Additionally, there is an urgent need to create an inclusive
views of different stakeholders, and avoid single voice dominates culture in STEM education to diversify science (Daehn and
the actions. In this way, all parties support and influence each Croxson, 2021; Zaman, 2021; Zellmer and Sherman, 2017). Going
other, make up for deficiencies, and drive STEM-related forward, China government should advocate a focus on
education forward in a dynamic and balanced manner, towards vulnerable groups, by extending STEM-related programs through
a higher level as shown in Fig. 2. The “Theory and Practice targeted instruction and training, to promote their interest and
Research on Collaborative Innovation of STEM Education in engagement in STEM-related learning, and help them actively
Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area” is a typical work in an environment free from bias and discrimination.
case applying the USERS model, which was approved as a major
project in the “14th Five-Year Plan” of the China Association for Conclusion
Educational Technology. This project will link university research STEM education has enormous potential in developing science and
teams, primary and secondary school teachers, as well as relevant technology, which has been extensively recognized by the Chinese
administrative personnel in the Greater Bay Area to further government and the public. However, Chinese STEM education is
conduct theoretical and practical explorations. challenged by multiple factors, mainly reflected in the following
three aspects: (1) There is no consistent terminology for naming
A roadmap to STEM education. While schools are vigorously STEM education in China, which leads to the misuse of STEM label
developing STEM education, the fundamental role of school edu- in practice. (2) STEM-related evaluation has not received sufficient
cation should be addressed. It is critical to establish a school culture consideration by the Chinese government except for the Ministry of
and environment that supports the integration of STEM-related Education. (3) The macro-regulation and policy support for STEM
education. Since rich and diverse educational resources are essential education at the national level are limited, especially for vulnerable
for effective STEM education, dedicated STEM-related curriculum groups, contrasting with the United States. In this regard, the crucial
and tool development are required in the school setting (Zaman, causes are speculated as follows: (1) The dilemma of cultural conflict
2021). Particularly, according to the strengths and characteristics of and international exchange. (2) Discipline-centrism entrenched in
its own region, school, and discipline, each school should develop K-12 education, along with underdevelopment of technology and
and employ diverse curriculum resources, including infrastructures, engineering education. (3) The loss of attracting talent and girls in
environment, software resources, etc. Besides, faculty training is also STEM education.
crucial. Educators must be well versed in STEM-related pedagogy Coupled with the above obstacles and root causes, the fol-
and their subject matter expertize. For this, it is vital to construct lowing endeavors are suggested: (1) China should develop a
research and learning communities beyond individual-level training consensus terminology based on national conditions as well as
programs (Jho et al., 2016). Only in this way, experienced teachers international communication. (2) China’s K-12 education should
and experts in relevant fields could work together in communities to move forward along with four levels of STEM education and
discuss, reflect, and explore teaching practices, setting up role models gradually reach the corresponding thinking degrees. (3) A multi-
for sustaining STEM-related professional development (Zellmer and party collaborative service mechanism should be established. (4)
Sherman, 2017; Singer, 2009). It is critical to establish a school culture and environment that
Last but not least, the Chinese education sector has to launch supports the integrated implementation of STEM-related educa-
relevant curriculum guidelines, resource building programs, teacher tion, including targeted instruction and training for vulnerable
training plans, evaluation programs, etc. Previously, engineering populations. In brief, a top-level design is the first step and the
and technology have long been given lower priority in China’s most critical part to advance STEM education in China, at pre-
curriculum, while other countries have delved further. For instance, sent. Nevertheless, the perspectives presented in this paper are a
the “Next Generation Science Standards” promulgated by the US in conceptual vision, which is not a definitive solution, but rather a
2013 proposed to incorporate interdisciplinary concepts into K-12 starting point for a productive conversation about what STEM
science education (NGSS Lead States, 2013). In addition, the education in China should or could look like.
“STEM Roadmap—A Framework for Integrated STEM Education”
(Johnson et al., 2015) established by the US formulated an overall
framework and curriculum roadmap for STEM-related education Data availability
covering all learning stages. However, there is a dearth of explicit All data are available in the main text or the references.
involvement from other curricula. Notably, China recently released
the “National Curriculum Standards for Compulsory Education Received: 17 May 2022; Accepted: 25 July 2022;
(MOE, 2022)”, which specified that interdisciplinary learning
should account for at least 10% of the total class hours in each
curriculum (MOE, 2022). The content analysis revealed that each
curriculum employed varied degrees of interdisciplinary themed
activities at each stage (Table 1). The Mathematics curriculum, for
instance, requires students in grades 1–2 learn mathematical References
Australian Industry Group (2013) Lifting our science, technology, engineering and
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