What Future for the Rubber Industry in Myanmar?
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What Future for the
Rubber Industry in Myanmar?
March 2014
The global demand millions of people pushed off their
land and deeper into poverty and
for land
the mass destruction of some of the
The world is currently witnessing the world’s last intact forests. This is
fastest-growing commercial pressure causing widespread loss of livelihoods
on land in history. The past decade and food insecurity among rural
has seen at least 49 million hectares communities, as well as irreversible
of land in developing countries environmental devastation.
leased out by global investors1
In South East Asia, large-scale
and agriculture is leading the way,
rubber plantations are one of the
accounting for approximately 79 per
main drivers of ‘land grabs’ and
cent of targeted investments.2 In a
deforestation. Land deals don’t
world experiencing food insecurity
need to happen this way – there is
and unprecedented resource scarcity,
significant evidence to show that
this interest in farmland is set to rise.
investing and supporting smallholder
This is especially true for developing
farmers brings lasting economic,
countries in which land deals are
social and environmental benefits.
often done under the guise of
‘national development’. The impacts Smallholder farming by its very nature
on the ground, however, have been means that there is less potential for
land conversion and therefore greater
maintenance of agricultural and wild
biodiversity. Studies have consistently
found that where smallholder farms
adopt integrated cropping systems
that promote biodiversity, both
livelihoods and the environment
benefit from a more resilient and
organically regulated system.3
Leaders across the world face a
choice in how their countries develop,
including the Myanmar government.
This paper aims to place Myanmar in
the wider context of this global ‘land
grab’. It focuses on the development
of the country’s rubber production
and makes recommendations for
how the sector could progress
Latex being collected from a rubber tree, also known as ‘tapping’. © Global Witness differently to bring greater benefits.
What Future for the Rubber Industry in Myanmar?
Background to political of the most important remaining
ecosystems in the world but harm an
reform in Myanmar and
already vulnerable population.
the impact on foreign
Areas with valuable natural resources,
direct investment
such as minerals, hydropower, oil
Myanmar is currently going through a and gas, have been targeted by both
political reform process which has the state and private investors.6 Now land
opportunity to chart a new course for itself is increasingly the commodity
the country after more than 60 years of choice for investors. As the peace
of civil war. Political and economic process continues and new rounds
policy changes have increased of ceasefire agreements are signed
foreign investment and private sector between the government and armed
involvement in the country. ethnic opposition groups, more
resource-rich areas will be opened
up to resource extraction fuelled by
foreign investment.
The negative risks that large-scale
land investments pose are great. The
majority of people in Myanmar live
in rural areas and rely on farmland
and forests for their daily needs and
livelihoods – they make up nearly
three-quarters of the population, or
around 40 million people.7 Poverty
is around twice as high in rural
than urban areas, accounting for
almost 85 per cent of total poverty
nationwide.8 Agriculture contributes
around one third of the country’s
The majority of Myanmar’s population rely on land and forests for its livelihoods. © iStock GDP and 15 per cent of total export
earnings.9 It also employs over 60 per
Officially, poverty reduction has cent of the nation’s labour force.10
been at the core of Myanmar’s
Myanmar is also one of the world’s
economic reform package. In
most ethnically diverse countries
particular, stimulating massive foreign
– ethnic minorities make up an
investment in agriculture is one of
estimated 30-40 per cent of the
the government’s main strategies to
total population and ethnic states
achieve poverty reduction.4
constitute 57 per cent of the total
The last ten years has seen domestic land area.11 Most of the people
companies in Myanmar investing living in these areas are subsistence
heavily in land.5 However, as the farmers practicing taungya – a form
country becomes more locked-in to of shifting cultivation practiced by
global markets, intensification of smallholder farmers predominantly
agricultural investment promoted in the uplands.12 Due to a host of
on such a large-scale could lead to a reasons, primarily related to on-
surge of foreign investment in land, going civil war, it is estimated that
bringing the same negative impacts at least one-quarter of all farmers
to Myanmar that it has elsewhere. in government-controlled areas
This could not only destroy one in Myanmar are now landless.13
2
What Future for the Rubber Industry in Myanmar?
In addition to this, about half of security and poverty reduction. Finally, far from bringing progress this
the household farms which do the resilience of rubber trees, their agricultural investment model risks
exist in these areas are less than long life-span (30-40 years) and year- exacerbating poverty levels and
5 acres, which is below minimum round tapping ensure a long-term increasing deforestation.
subsistence levels.14 Landlessness stable income for farmers.19 Total rubber acreage in Myanmar has
is therefore already a serious and
However, two patterns of expansion now reached 1.43 million acres24 and
growing problem throughout Myanmar ranks ninth in the world,
in Myanmar have emerged. Over the
Myanmar.15 Now the threats to according to the Myanmar Rubber
past decade, a new ‘non-traditional’
land tenure, forests and ecosystems Planters and Producers Association
frontier area is being targeted for
could increase because of the (MRPPA), in terms of rubber
plantation development. This has
Myanmar government’s policies to production. The majority of exports
been led by the government which
expand agribusiness in which rubber go to China. According to MRPPA,
has helped expand the country’s
cultivation is central. nearly two-thirds of the total rubber
rubber sector through partial
agricultural liberalisation. Official cultivated comes from Mon State.25
Asia’s natural rubber But production levels of rubber across
policy has shifted from relying on
boom: is Myanmar the small-scale farmers to reach national the country are low considering the
‘final frontier’? agricultural production quotas to area of rubber planted. This is partly
using private companies to achieve due to the poor quality of the rubber
South East Asia has experienced
national targets.20 As such, rubber trees and tree management which
a rapid growth in the production
has now expanded into northern has resulted in low productivity. It is
of natural rubber over the past
Myanmar in Kachin State and also due to agricultural concessions
decade, with Myanmar no exception.
northern and eastern Shan State. often being a significant source
Demand is likely to increase, with the
Large-scale plantations are sweeping of ‘conversion timber’ which may
International Rubber Study Group
across the hills in areas that were result in some companies simply
(IRSG) predicting that by 2020,
formerly taungya fields.21 Secondly, abandoning the concession following
global demand for natural rubber will
in the past few years, new areas forest clearance.26
outpace supply by as much as 1.4
million tonnes – equivalent to a 10 are being targeted by large-scale
per cent gap.16 rubber concessions, this time near
to where smallholder rubber farms
Rubber has been cultivated in
already exist, reducing their access
Myanmar since the early 1900s,
to land and natural resources. This
primarily in Mon State.17 Such
can already be seen in areas such as
‘traditional’ rubber growing areas
Rakhine State, Mon State, Kayin State
mostly comprise smallholder rubber
and northern Tanintharyi Region.22
farms which have provided sustainable
livelihoods to local communities. In both models of expansion, these
These smallholders have been able to concessions are allocated in areas
make a lucrative living from rubber- that the government has defined as
tapping all year round for several ‘wastelands’, often in the uplands.
reasons. Firstly, is the fact that these But far from being wastelands, the
small farms are owned and operated areas, in fact, are often farmed by
by families themselves, providing local households as taungya plots.
self-employment but resulting in As a result, large-scale rubber
low labour costs. Secondly, rubber concessions are threatening the
plantations are profitable, even when livelihoods of local farmers by
international prices are relatively low undermining food security and access
because they entail such low costs and to natural resources in forests and
workloads during the tapping phase.18 farmland.23 With the suspension of
The income earned from selling the sanctions and Myanmar opening up Across South East Asia, latex is known as
latex in turn contributes to both food for the first time to global investors, ‘white gold’. © iStock
3
What Future for the Rubber Industry in Myanmar?
Tenure security provided under
Myanmar law is weak. This is partly
because the Government retains
ultimate ownership of all land, and
can rescind land use rights if the
conditions of use are not met.27 It
also results from the fact that, unlike
some other countries, collective and
customary tenure rights are not
fully recognised in law.28 Over the
last few years, several key laws have
been passed as part of the agrarian
transformation from rural subsistence
farming to an industrial cash-crop
economy. However, these new laws
have been criticised for potentially
undermining land rights in the ways
Latex being stored prior to processing, Cambodia 2013. © Global Witness outlined in the table below.29
Responsible
Law Government Agency Aim Area requiring clarification
Vacant, Fallow Government’s Central To convert ‘vacant, fallow • As very few farmers have official land title certificates, most
and Virgin Lands Land Management and virgin land’ into farmers have no formal land use rights under the VFV Law. Those
Management Law Committee (LMC) chaired agricultural industrial without title are thereby classified as ‘squatters’, leaving them
(VFV Law) 201230 by the Minister of estates (Chapter 3, vulnerable to losing their land to concessions.33 This is due to the
Agriculture and Irrigation Article 4.)32 fact that under the VFV law, the LMC can allocate land used by
(MOAI)31 smallholders (both upland taungya land and lowlands with no
official land title) to domestic and foreign investors.34
Farmland Law Farmland Management To secure rural land • Land can be legally bought, sold and transferred on a land market
201235 Body (FMB), a line agency tenure through a land but the process is problematic as it only applies to those with land
within the MOAI and use certificate and use titles – which accounts for only a minority of the population.
chaired by the Minister of registration system It therefore leaves those who don’t have an official land use title
the MOAI36 (Chapter 5, Articles 15a. without legal rights or protection, meaning their land can easily be
and b.)37 sold-off to investors.38
• Land use certificates can be issued to farmers by Farmland
Administration Bodies (FAB) but the process for this is unclear, as
are the government bodies responsible.39 Decisions made by the
FAB are outside judicial processes. This removes farmers’ right
to appeal.40 It can therefore be argued that any project deemed
to be in the ‘national interest’ can be pushed forward without
question.41
Foreign Myanmar Investment Provides framework for • Has deemed the agriculture sector ‘restricted’ for large-scale
Investment Law Committee (MIC) under and guides foreign direct (private) investments, along with other sectors such as toxic waste,
201242 the Ministry of National investment into Myanmar livestock and fisheries. These ‘restricted’ sectors carry additional
Planning and Economic (Chapter 6, Articles 11 a. but ambiguous environmental and social precautions.45 This
Development (NPED)43 and b.)44 ambiguity around the restrictions creates a potential loophole for
damaging activities to be approved. What’s more, if a project is
deemed ‘beneficial’ to citizens then it may gain approval from the
Myanmar government and therefore override these restrictions.46
• Land use rights for concessionaires can last for up to seventy
years47 which, if for agricultural investments, contradicts with
the former VFV law. Under that, the total acreage that can be
leased for industrial crops is 50,000 acres for a 30 year period.48
Longer leases can be obtained under the FIL if the investor
gains permission from the Myanmar Government.49 This further
exacerbates the inequalities surrounding land tenure in Myanmar.
4
What Future for the Rubber Industry in Myanmar?
As a consequence of the above, there ‘frontier’ countries of Cambodia and they attempt to complain or resist,
are serious concerns that these new Lao P.D.R. These investments have communities face violence, arrest and
laws governing land concessions had devastating consequences for detention. In both Cambodia and
could put communities under real both countries’ people and forests. Laos, land investments are governed
threat. Ethnic communities living The negative impacts that both by legal safeguards intended to
on the uplands are particularly at countries are experiencing should ensure national economic benefits
risk. The targeting of their land for act as a grave warning of what and prevent negative environmental
rubber plantations could exacerbate happens when governments ignore and social impacts. As in Myanmar,
insecurity of land tenure and social, environmental and governance the majority of the population in
access to food for the majority safeguards. In this respect, what both countries are rural subsistence
of Myanmar’s population who lessons can Myanmar learn from farmers and agricultural investment
rely on their land and forests for Cambodia and Laos? is urgently needed to tackle
their livelihoods. Consequently, poverty levels. But instead of their
the new laws could be interpreted Cambodia and Laos: governments promoting investments
as benefiting the private sector, What lessons can in small holders, corruption and
particularly large foreign investors, Myanmar learn? vested interests have meant that
at the expense of the country’s communities’ needs have been
Cambodia and Laos are in the middle
smallholder farmers. consistently neglected in favour of
of a land-grabbing crisis.53 Vast tracts
The Ministry of Agriculture and leasing out huge tracts of land to the
of land are being leased out by both
Irrigation (MOAI) has produced a 30- private sector.
governments for rubber plantations
year Master Plan for the Agriculture with disastrous consequences In Laos, no official government
Sector (2000-01 to 2030-31). The for local communities and the statistics are available for the total
development plan lacks detail but environment. The negative impacts land acquired by domestic or foreign
states that the government aims to are hard to overstate: often the investors. A recent government
convert 10 million acres of ‘wasteland’ first people know about a company estimate stated approximately
for private industrial agricultural being given their land is when the 2.7 million acres has been given
production.50 However, no official bulldozers arrive. Families affected out in land concessions alone.54
national land-planning process has are impoverished, face food and This is equivalent to 5 per cent of
been produced to help form decisions water shortages and get little or no national territory or 18 per cent
around land use. In addition, the compensation. Indigenous minority more than the total arable land in
government also has a 30-year plan peoples’ spirit forests and burial Laos.55 It is estimated that rubber
in the same timeframe to obtain grounds have been destroyed. When accounts for 34 per cent of total
1.5 million acres of planted area of
rubber in the country, and the capacity
to produce nearly 300,000 metric
tonnes (MT) per annum.51 This target
is expected to be reached earlier than
expected: the area planted has already
reached 1.4 million acres and the
production target is predicted to be
met in 2025.52
Myanmar is not alone in this
surge of investments into rubber
plantations. Smallholder rubber
farmers have taken a central role in
global production historically, but the
last few years has seen a new wave
of rubber investors acquiring large
swathes of land in the neighbouring Community land cleared for a rubber plantation in Cambodia. © Global Witness
5
What Future for the Rubber Industry in Myanmar?
allocated concessions.56 However, the to ensure more equitable and and subsequent protests against
expansion of an existing but small sustainable use of its natural the ruling Cambodian People’s
rubber industry in Laos has happened resources and to protect the rights of Party.65 These demonstrations have
only in the last decade. The smallholders and indigenous peoples continued into 2014 and were met
promotion of rubber was intended to to access land and forest resources.61 with excessive use of force by the
act as a modest supplemental cash authorities, resulting in the deaths of
However, the implementation of
crop to enhance livelihoods of upland several civilians.66
these laws is weak and completely
farmers.57 In reality, it has grown into
undermined by Cambodia’s corrupt A shroud of secrecy also plagues the
a rapidly expanding agro-industry
political and business elite. Land allocation process, which involves
that is becoming tainted by mounting
has become the latest example of an almost total lack of community
concern over a lack of government
how Cambodia’s valuable natural consultation and varying degrees
regulation and controls.58 Due
resources have been captured by of coercion. Local communities
to the immature nature of the
those in power growing spectacularly are offered wholly inadequate
industry, government officials in
rich while one third of the population compensation for loss of land and
Laos have relied on external inputs
lives on less than US$0.61 a day.62 resources and more often than not
of knowledge and investments from
The problem is exacerbated by the receive nothing. The government’s
state and private entrepreneurs from
fact that millions of Cambodians do land concession model has attracted
neighbouring countries, particularly
not have secure titles to their land. significant international criticism, as
Vietnam and China. This has
The consequences have been the loss illustrated by a statement from the
triggered a huge and sudden increase
of significant areas of land for local United Nations Special Rapporteur
in rubber planting with little planning
communities across the country due on the situation of human rights
or monitoring taking place.59
related to economic and other land
concessions in Cambodia, Professor
Surya Subedi
“The current climate of development
(in Cambodia) is characterized
by low transparency and uneven
access to information, inadequate
consultation, and participation which
is not inclusive, and, in my view, is
unsustainable and likely to hamper
future economic growth.”67
In addition to the devastating
negative social and environmental
impacts, such investments carry
significant corporate risks for
Cambodians protesting in Phnom Penh against a ‘land grab’ are met with force by the authorities. © Global Witness companies. Due to escalating land
In Cambodia, rubber plantations to an expanding encroachment of disputes, on 7 May 2012, the
cover 2.9 million acres and make rubber and other land concessions, Cambodian Prime Minister Hun Sen
up 80 per cent of total land with an estimated 700,000 announced a moratorium on the
concessions.60 Since 2001, the Cambodians adversely affected.63 granting of new land concessions
Royal Government of Cambodia Protests against the rapid rise in land and a review of those already in
has introduced new laws governing concessions have become increasingly existence. The stated intention of
land and forest resources, as well common and violent: in 2012 the this programme was to issue over
as specific legislation for land Government of Cambodia arrested 700,000 land titles to communities
concessions, community forest twice as many people during housing on more than 2.4 million acres of
management and registering and land disputes as in 2011.64 land before the July 2013 general
indigenous peoples’ collective Furthermore, land disputes factored election.68 By January 2013, 617,000
titles. These measures are intended highly in the 2013 general election acres of land had reportedly been
6
What Future for the Rubber Industry in Myanmar?
removed from private investors’ national parks, wildlife sanctuaries be allocated as concessions, across
economic land concessions and and protected forests.70 According to the country intact forest is giving
returned to local people, thereby recent data, forest cover in Cambodia way to industrial-scale plantations
undermining Cambodia’s legitimacy fell from around 72 per cent in 1973 at an unprecedented rate.73 Forest
as an investment destination.69 to only 46 per cent in 201371 and cover has fallen from 70 per cent to
Deforestation is also a major problem satellite imagery demonstrates that just 40 per cent of total land mass
in both Cambodia and Laos. Investors land concessions have significantly over the last 50 years, according to
appear to have deliberately targeted contributed to the loss of intact official statistics.74 This rapid forest
protected areas, with over 70 per forest.72 In Laos, forest cover has loss has dire longer terms impacts on
cent of the concessions given out in also declined rapidly. Despite the law soil erosion and watersheds, loss of
2012 in Cambodia situated inside allowing only ‘degraded’ forest to biodiversity and ecosystem services.
Satellite imagery showing deforestation between 1973 and 2013, including in areas protected by Cambodian law. Cambodia has the fifth highest
deforestation rate in the world. © Open Development Cambodia
The financial risks to governments and investors of large-scale rubber concessions
The corporate risks associated with Using geospatial data from 12 emerging report, ‘Rubber Barons: How Vietnamese
investing in land where tenure rights are market economies, including Cambodia, companies and international financiers are
unclear are very real. A 2012 report by the analysis highlights the problem of driving a land grabbing crisis in Cambodia
The Munden Project analysed the financial overlapping land claims diminishing the value and Laos’.81 Within 48 hours of the release
costs associated with ignoring the issue and viability of industrial concessions.79 The of the report, HAGL’s share price dropped
of tenure in land investments.75 The report study concludes that “industrial concessions by 6 per cent, attributed by some media
demonstrated that the financial risks posed on public lands representing 31% of the reports to the exposé.82 The company has
are numerous and range from unexpected total hectares sampled had some overlap since experienced consistent pressure
cash flow loss due to suspensions, to with a demarcated local territory”.80 This from investors to bring its operations
seizure of assets following the loss of demonstrates to investors that such risks are in line with the law, work directly with
insurance coverage.76 The escalation of risk already being realised and highlights the local communities to solve disputes and
can be extremely rapid and irreversible. The need for feasibility studies and consultation settle compensation claims, and publicly
report concluded that the average global with local communities prior to securing a disclose details of its concessions. Some
operating costs of a three-year investment land acquisition. investors withdrew their funds from HAGL
of around USD$10 million could be as altogether due to the associated risks with
This matches Global Witness’ own
much as 29 times higher if the project was the company.83 At the time of writing,
experience. In May 2013, Vietnam’s
forced to stop its activities because of local communities affected by HAGL’s operations
largest rubber company, Hoang Anh
opposition.77 in Cambodia had submitted a complaint
Gia Lai (HAGL), was exposed by Global
The Munden Project published a further Witness for a range of environmental and against the company to the International
assessment in 2013 of ‘land tenure risk’ as human rights abuses in the company’s Finance Corporation, which invests in HAGL
a specific threat to corporate investments.78 plantations in Cambodia and Laos in the through a Vietnamese equity fund.84
7
What Future for the Rubber Industry in Myanmar?
Investment in land and agriculture Security (CFS).87 This is the first
provides an opportunity to tackle international standard defining
poverty and boost national economic best practice for the way in which
development. But these can only human rights, land and natural
be achieved if governments and resources inter-relate. They include
companies stop prioritising large-scale strong provisions on consultation,
private investments that lock them customary rights, land reform and
into weak relationships with volatile how investment in agriculture must
international markets, over investment prioritise smallholder production.
in local sustainable livelihoods Since adopting the Voluntary
which leads to genuine national Guidelines, the CFS is now working
development. For investments in a on an aligned set of principles for
high-risk sector such as land, several responsible agricultural investments.
sets of international guidelines exist
Guidelines are also being formed
to help governments and companies
for the global rubber industry with
invest in an environmentally and
the establishment of a ‘Sustainable
socially responsible way:
Rubber Initiative’ which, although
• Directly responding to the social still at its early stages, was endorsed
problems that such investments can by the rubber industry at the World
cause, in 2011, the United Nations Rubber Summit in Singapore in May
Human Rights Council endorsed the 2013. Recognising the potential social
‘Guiding Principles for Business and environmental impacts of rubber
and Human Rights’.85 These plantations, the aim of the initiative
emphasise the responsibility to protect is to define a set of sustainability
and respect human rights of both
standards for rubber production which
companies and governments, and
will be implemented by all industry
include extra-territorial obligations on
stakeholders along the supply chain.
those operating across borders.86
Additionally, some tyre companies such
• The following year, the Voluntary as Michelin have also recognised the
Guidelines on the Responsible need to minimise the risks associated
Governance of Tenure of with sourcing natural resources,
Land, Fisheries and Forests including natural rubber, and have
in the Context of National independently developed company
Food Security were adopted sourcing policies which are applied
Small-scale agriculture provides a stable
livelihood for many Burmese farmers. © iStock by the UN Committee on Food throughout their supply chain.88
8
What Future for the Rubber Industry in Myanmar?
Sustainable agriculture, to pick up the tab for a degraded to the poor, due to communal
environment.101 However, small- labour opportunities provided by
sustainable rubber
scale farming is an efficient and small-scale farming in rural areas.106
The commercial rush for land in resilient mode of production. Small What’s more, smallholder income
recent years has pushed forward farms are often more productive can be between two and ten times
an often polarised debate around than their larger counterparts: due higher than the income from wage
small-scale versus large-scale to the fact they are often directly employment.107
agriculture, particularly in the wider run by the owners themselves,
context of food security.97 Some Large-scale monocrop plantations
they are able to self-manage their
have stated that large farms are also impact on biodiversity and
labour, consequently leading
more efficient and benefit from result in the loss of environmental
to a higher output per hectare
easy access to markets.98 Two services such as carbon storage,
than large farms.102 Overall, it is
recent reports by the UN, however, forest products, water sources and
estimated that approximately 450
have concluded that a shift to soil fertility.108 Furthermore, the
million smallholders feed around
supporting smallholder farmers, as lack of biodiversity and associated
2 billion people worldwide.103 In
well as a more holistic approach to vulnerability to disease and pests
contrast, although large commercial
agriculture, is the only way to tackle makes necessary the input of large
agribusiness companies tend to have
food security, sustainable land use quantities of chemical pesticides
greater success in market integration,
and climate change.99 within the concession. Pesticide-use
they often do not involve local
can have damaging effects on both
In practice, subsidies and tax systems farmers.104 In addition, their tendency
human health and can poison both
often favour large-scale, export- to focus on specific crops – often
wildlife and water sources used by
dependent farms and have locked large-scale monocultures – and
local communities.109
countries into serving fluctuating dependency on specific economic
international markets.100 In some conditions means they have difficulty To conclude, there is little evidence to
cases this has been at the price in adapting to changing markets and suggest that large-scale plantations
of small farms and the families prices.105 Studies have also shown are needed to improve or ‘modernise’
supported by them. Smallholders that a more equitable distribution agriculture. There is, however, a
have often been ruined by industrial of land leads to higher rates of wealth of evidence demonstrating
commodity producers who have economic growth and helps to the benefits of small-scale agricultural
banked big profits and left taxpayers ensure that growth is more beneficial production, including rubber.
Case Study one for sustainable rubber: Thailand
Thailand is the largest producer of which smallholders have diversified to The Thai government also provides subsidies
natural rubber in the world, producing combine rubber farming with livestock, for local farmers who, as a result, are able
3.5 million metric tonnes, nearly a third fruit, fisheries, rice and other crops. RILS
92
to produce high quality rubber. Almost 50
of total global output during 2012.89 provides higher household incomes than per cent of Thailand’s natural rubber is of a
The country only consumes 10 per cent that of rubber monocrop systems alone, quality high enough to meet the domestic
of its natural rubber domestically, with
whilst also ensuring the sustainability certification standard.94 This is predominantly
90 per cent of production for export.90
and resilience of household livelihoods.93 used to make car tires and is therefore able
The vast majority of Thailand’s rubber
Given that in rubber cultivation, the costs to serve the export market. The remaining
is produced by smallholdings, which
of production are not necessarily reduced half of Thai rubber produced is used for
accounts for almost 90 per cent of rubber
production and provides a livelihood for through investment in bigger plantations, lower quality products. Although ongoing
thousands of households.91 For the last RILS guarantees economic security for political unrest has recently impacted upon
decade, the government of Thailand has farmers, dynamic production for markets, the country’s rubber sector over the longer
promoted Rubber Integrated Livelihood and less industrialized exploitation of the term,95 Thailand’s production of natural
Systems (RILS), a programme through natural environment. rubber is expected to increase.96
9
What Future for the Rubber Industry in Myanmar?
The benefits of
Case Study two for sustainable rubber: India smallholder rubber
India is the fourth largest producer of and financial support.112 For example, In the main rubber producing
natural rubber globally.110 The rubber in Kerala, these cooperatives helped to countries, smallholder production
sector in India is dominated by small improve the efficiency and productivity of dominates the natural rubber
holdings which account for 92 per cent rubber smallholder systems, enabling them industry: smallholder produce 93 per
of production and 89 per cent of the area to achieve a lower cost of production and cent of rubber in Malaysia, 90 per
of rubber in the country.111 In the 1960s, better prices for their products compared cent in Thailand, 92 per cent in India
the Rubber Board of India helped support to non-members.113 Furthermore, rubber and 85 per cent in Indonesia.118 An
the organisation of district-level rubber growers adopting a group approach were historically successful smallholder
cooperatives through both organisational able to produce superior grades of rubber cash crop, rubber carries potential for
due to training from the Board and the smallholder farmers for a number of
provision of facilities for processing good important reasons:
quality rubber.114 Growers were also more 1. Economic resilience and food
likely to adopt new technologies due to security: Natural rubber can easily
financial support from the Rubber Board be planted with other cash crops
as well as the strengthened bargaining providing a more diverse source of
power that comes from being part of a income for farmers. Rubber can also
co-operative.115 play an important role in a wider
Rubber production in India has stayed agro-forestry system – also known
stable for the last decade, in part reflecting as ‘jungle rubber’119 – which has
the strength of the country’s production emerged as a resilient system in
model. Although trade data is not the traditional rubber-producing
commonly available, the general trend is countries, both environmentally and
for the majority of rubber produced to be economically.120 Integrating rubber
consumed domestically by India’s growing into such wider farming systems can
car industry, only exporting natural rubber both increase household incomes and
when the price on the international market provide resilience to market volatility.
is higher than the domestic.116 In one research project in Indonesia,
The case of India shows that rubber agroforestry was perceived by local
cooperatives can have a significant positive farmers as the most important use of
impact on the costs of inputs, processing land compared to both monoculture
and marketing when compared to farmers and simpler rubber crop systems as
who do not engage with the cooperative it could provide a range of sources
model. This highlights the importance of of income and food.121 Further
rubber cooperatives receiving institutional research in Indonesia showed that
support from the government; helping smallholders in the country combine
to overcome the challenge of increasing rice and rubber production with
the economic performance of members, rubber meeting the need for market
whilst maintaining their own financial goods whilst rice meets subsistence
solvency. Such results can be achieved needs. This provides smallholders
through efforts to professionalise with flexibility: farmers tend to
cooperatives, providing sound legal abandon rice cultivation when rubber
frameworks around cooperatives and prices are high but return to it during
through providing enough autonomy such economic downturns.122
that cooperatives are able to decide their
2. Increased growth and
own organizational structure.117
productivity: Inter-cropping of
Rubber tapper in Kerala. © iStock certain crops with rubber can
10What Future for the Rubber Industry in Myanmar?
improve the performance of rubber
trees. This is due to nitrogen inputs to
the soil from particular crops which
help boost the growth of the trees.123
One study in China also shows that
rubber trees actually yield more when
grown with other crops than on its
own in a monoculture plantation.124
This is because fertile topsoil can be
lost due to erosion because of mono-
cropping, leading to lower yields
overall and over time.125 Burmese Shrike Lanius collurioides. Habitat protection is crucial for the survival of Myanmar’s unique
flora and fauna. © iStock
3. Poverty alleviation: If given the
right technical and financial support,
smallholder rubber, and particularly
rubber agroforestry, can provide a
stable livelihood for local farmers.
Smallholder income is greater than
the wages earned by farmers working India
as labourers in a concession model.
Thailand
In addition, planting rubber with
other crops can provide food and fuel
for domestic consumption, as well as
other cash commodities on a shorter Key Malaysia Malaysia
Natural rubber produced by
term basis.126 smallholders domestically
Indonesia
Natural rubber produced by
4. Environmental and biodiversity large-scale plantations domestically
protection: In South East Asia,
large areas of rich biodiversity have Malaysia India Indonesia Thailand
been put under great pressure from 10093% 10092% 10085% 10090%
the establishment of plantations, 80 80 80 80
including rubber.127 Monoculture
60 60 60 60
plantations have a particularly
40 40 40 40
detrimental effects on species
20
7% 20
8% 20 15% 20
10%
diversity and ecosystems – a shift
0 0 0 0
to small-scale and more diverse
rubber systems could reduce these other plantation, cannot be deemed inefficient with regards to carbon
impacts. Species diversity is higher as ‘carbon positive’ – that is a sequestration.130 The authors of the
in agroforestry rubber systems than sequester of carbon – if it is replacing paper found that taungya in some
monocultures and studies have intact natural forest. In addition, cases may be carbon-neutral or even
concluded that agroforestry systems recent studies in one paper have carbon positive, compared with some
can play an important role in the looked at the relationship between other types of land-use systems.131
conservation of primary the replacement of taungya fields The study concluded by highlighting
forest species.128 with rubber in terms of carbon the uncertainties surrounding carbon
Rubber plantations have recently sequestration in the context of global stocks in various forms of land-use
been brought into the debate REDD (Reducing Emissions from and stated that it is ‘impossible to
around carbon sequestration and the Deforestation and Degradation) predict accurately the extent that
incorporation of rubber into carbon policies. This is in part due to the REDD policies involving swidden-
markets.129 It should go without fact that taungya fields are often rubber transitions will ultimately
saying that rubber, or indeed any perceived to be degraded and increase carbon sequestration’.132
11What Future for the Rubber Industry in Myanmar?
Conclusion and however, merely go to show what have prevented these measures from
happens when vested interests are being implemented effectively.137
recommendations
prioritised over genuine national Consequently, in many communities
The governments of the largest development. farmers are struggling to maintain
rubber producing countries globally community land and forests in
Drawing upon the experiences of
(Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia and the face of growing pressure
Thailand and India, it is clear that
India) have all deliberately introduced from investors and government
policies to support smallholder rubber smallholder rubber production is a
institutions to impose concession
production.133 As outlined above, viable and effective model to move
arrangements.138
the reasons for this include on-going households and communities out of
progressive land reform policies in poverty. Farmers can better manage The international community is
the different countries, interest from their lands productively if their tenure poised to invest in Myanmar’s rich
smallholders in establishing rubber, and user rights are legally recognised natural assets. The government
and the interest of governments to and they are given the right technical currently stands at a crossroads with
better control smallholder farms and and financial support.135 On the regards to how it takes advantage of
their production.134 Experts from the other hand, externally-imposed, such foreign investor interest. There
main rubber producing countries large-scale policies such as the is growing demand, predominantly
continue to push for investments commercial estates being established from China, for natural rubber, and in
in smallholders in order to boost in Cambodia and Laos negatively Myanmar this will continue to drive
both the livelihoods of local farmers affect smallholders and the country a transition from traditional farming
and productivity in order to meet overall.136 Even when laws and systems to a landscape dominated
global demand. It is therefore well policies have been drafted that by cash crops, including rubber.
recognised by successful producer could assist smallholders to maintain The future of smallholders is not yet
countries that the future of global control of their land and invest in clear, but the decisions the Myanmar
rubber production continues to commercial crops, lack of capacity Government makes now will impact
lie with smallholder farmers. The and conflicting vested interests from significantly on its people and
examples of Cambodia and Laos, government officials in both countries environment for many years to come.
Rubber plantation in Kerala. © Global Witness
12What Future for the Rubber Industry in Myanmar?
Recommended actions for the Government of Myanmar
On rubber production: d. Adopt the standard of Free, Prior and Informed
Consent as defined in the UN Declaration on the
1. Promote and protect smallholder rubber
Rights of Indigenous Peoples – to which Myanmar
production. Support smallholder farmers through
is a signatory – for all communities potentially
technology and knowledge transfer, access to
affected by rubber and other agricultural
processing points and other extension services.
investments.
Support and strengthen farmers groups in order
to help boost the productivity and quality of 4. Undertake a participatory national land-use
Myanmar’s rubber sector; planning process in line with national land policy in
order to develop a formal framework that guides
2. Provide institutional support for rubber
decisions about existing and future land allocation,
co-operatives in order to improve the efficiency
use, management and protection. This needs to
and productivity of smallholders and, in turn,
include recognition of collective and customary
secure greater commercial and economic benefits
land and user rights and identification of the areas
for farmers;
most agronomically and economically feasible for
On governance of large-scale land concessions rubber and other commodity production. Draft
and land reform policy: land use plans should be made available for review
The following recommendations apply to all land and comment by smallholder farmers, civil society,
concessions, including rubber concessions. This government representatives, and the private
includes the Opium Crop Substitution Programme sector. Finalized land use plans should be made
(OCSP) and other programmes under which rubber freely accessible to the public and government
concessions are allocated and managed: authorities, in all relevant languages;
3. Establish an overarching national land policy which 5. Ensure that Environmental and Social Impact
serves the needs and rights of smallholder farmers Assessments are undertaken for all land
and guides, strengthens and aligns current laws investments prior to contracts being secured
governing land concessions. The land policy should: in order to prevent deforestation and other
environmental impacts, and prevent forced
a. Reform and align the Vacant, Fallow and Virgin
evictions. Ensure such assessments are sufficiently
Lands Management Law, the Farmland Law and
rigorous to prevent projects from going forward if
the Foreign Investment Law which govern rubber
the negative impacts are too great. Harmonise such
and other agricultural concessions to ensure
assessments with existing environmental laws and
that smallholder farmers, in particular ethnic
related regulation and ensure the results of such
minorities, are protected and prioritised over
assessments are made public;
large private investors; and establish legal clarity
including definitions of key articles in the law; 6. Establish legal and judicial recourse for the
protection of land and user rights in order that
b. Recognise and legally protect legitimate collective
socially unjust decisions around the use of land may
and customary land tenure and user rights,
be challenged by affected communities;
including taungya, across all laws. Adequate
safeguards should be put in place to ensure land 7. End all land acquisitions that do not offer
conflicts do not increase in the future; compensation to affected communities in line with
international standards;
c. Adopt and implement the Voluntary Guidelines on
the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Establish and enforce a moratorium on any
Fisheries and Forests and to make these standards further large-scale land concessions until the
legally binding; above actions have been taken.
13What Future for the Rubber Industry in Myanmar?
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update_15_10_2013/Policy_Paper/Media_Point/FSWG-LCG%20 Crisis In Cambodia And Laos’, Global Witness, May 2013 77 op. cit., p.3
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Land%20Reform%20(May%202012)%20(ENG).pdf 54 Or 1.1 million hectares, Michael Epprecht, Heinimann A., Lu J., Land Tenure Risk and Industrial Concessions in Emerging Market
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18 ‘Developing smallholder rubber production: Lessons from AFD’s 56 IISD, ‘Business models for foreign investment in agriculture in shareholder in Vietnamese rubber giant 2 weeks after land grab
experience’, Delarue, J., Agence Française de Développement, 2009, Laos,’ Trade Knowledge Network of the International Institute for scandal’, Global Witness press release, 13 December 2013 http://
http://www.oecd.org/countries/ghana/44662138.pdf p.8-9 Sustainable Development, July 2012, p.17, http://www.iisd.org/ www.globalwitness.org/library/credit-suisse-ignored-human-rights-
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21 op. cit., p.1 ‘Expansion of rubber (hevea brasiliensis) in Mainland Southeast Asia: Witness exposé’. 03 December 2013 http://www.globalwitness.
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58 op. cit. 2014)
24 Hla Myint, Myanmar Rubber Planters and Producers Association
59 op. cit. 84 CAO Ombudsman, CAO cases, East Asia & Pacific http://www.
(MRPPA). Data is for the year 2012-13
60 Prime Minister Hun Sen, Speech Cambodia Outlook Conference, 22 cao-ombudsman.org/cases/case_detail.aspx?id=212; ‘Cambodian
25 470,066 acres out of a total of 1, 435, 931 acres, MRPPA, Rubber communities submit complaint to World Bank over bankrolling
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www.cambodiadaily.com/archives/hun-sen-shares-vision-of-rubber-
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plantation-boom-11253/ (accessed 26 February 2014)
State - two of the most forested regions in the country. Data suggests world-bank-over-bankrolling-vietnamese-rubber-giant (accessed 26
that conversion timber from these agricultural concessions located 61 Based on Chapter 5 of the 2001 Land Law, the 2002 Forestry
Law, Articles 3 and 5 of the 2005 Sub-decree on Economic February 2014)
in forested regions is mostly legal with government approval from ‘Cambodian communities submit complaint to World Bank over
both ministries of agriculture and forestry and exported via Yangon’, Land Concessions (ELCs), the 2008 Protected Area Law, and the
Cambodian government’s obligations to international human bankrolling of Vietnamese rubber giant behind land grabs and human
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27 ‘Legal Review of Recently Enacted Farmland Law and Vacant, Fallow 62 United Nations Development Programme, Key Facts about Poverty
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cambodia (accessed 28 January 2014) 86 op. cit., Foundation Principle 2
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under the 1997 Indigenous Peoples Rights Act and Liberia under the 63 ‘Cambodia Universal Periodic Review Submission 2013’,
Human Rights Watch, January 07 2014 http://www.hrw. voluntary-guidelines/en/ (accessed 29 January 2014)
2013 Land Policy
org/news/2014/01/07/cambodia-universal-periodic-review- 88 For example, see Michelin’s Purchasing Principles www.michelin.
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submission-2013
‘fragmentary’ new law’, Aung, S, DVB online, 6 September 2013 February 2014)
http://www.dvb.no/news/farmers-warned-against-fragmentary-new- 64 ADHOC, A Turning Point? Land, Housing and Natural Resources
Rights in Cambodia in 2012, February 2013, p.7, http://adhoc- 89 Thailand Rubber Association, Thai Rubber Statistics, NR production of
law-burma-myanmar/32269; ‘Legal Review of Recently Enacted
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files/doc_3274.pdf Defenders and Land Grabs Continue, Human Rights Watch, January com/en/detail-stat.php?statID=212 (accessed 29 February 2014);
21 2014, http://www.hrw.org/news/2014/01/21/cambodia-unfair- Thai Rubber Latex Corporation http://www.thaitexgroup.com/
elections-fuel-protests (accessed 07 January 2014) maain_page/index_our_company.php (accessed 05 March 2014)
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