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Wetland Conservation Ethos
Published by Wetlands International South Asia Text Dr Sidharth Kaul, President, Wetlands International South Asia Dr Ritesh Kumar, Conservation Programme Manager Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge with thanks the following for valuable suggestions and text edits: Prof C. K. Varshney, Member, Governing Body, Wetlands International South Asia Dr Ajit Pattnaik, Vice President, Wetlands International South Asia Prof J. K. Garg, Hony Treasurer, Wetlands International South Asia Dr Asad Rahmani, Member, Governing Body, Wetlands International South Asia Prof E. J. James, Member, Governing Body, Wetlands International South Asia Design and Layout Sugandha Menda, Kamal Dalakoti and Chandni Sahi Copyright Wetlands International South Asia The material in this publication can be reproduced for non-commercial purposes only with due acknowledgement. Available from Wetlands International South Asia, A – 25, Second Floor, Defence Colony, New Delhi – 110024, India Suggested Citation Kaul, S., Kumar, R. (2019). Wetland Conservation Ethos. New Delhi: Wetlands International South Asia. pp. 64 Disclaimer The presentation of material in this book, and geographical designations employed do not imply the expression of any opinion of whatsoever nature on part of Wetlands International South Asia concerning the legal status of any country, area, territory, or concerning boundaries or frontiers. The maps are not to scale and are for representative purposes only. Usual disclaimers apply. Photo Credits Wetlands International South Asia Photo Library unless specifically cited
Glacial Wetland Tectonic Wetland Floodplain
Chandertal, Nainital, River Yamuna at
Himachal Pradesh Uttarakhand Narora, Uttar Pradesh
Ox-Bow Crater Wetland
Moti and Kerari , Lonar,
Bihar Maharashtra
Tank Salt Pan
Wetland
Conservation
Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu
Ethos Point Calimere,
Tamil Nadu
Reservoir Mangrove Swamp
Nagarjuna Sagar, Bhitarkanika,
Telangana Odisha
Estuary Sandy Beach Coral reef
Ashtamudi, Tarkarli, Andamans
Kerala Maharashtra
Foreword
Wetlands are shallow waterbodies in which water keeps up for most part
of the year and recedes below the surface level during the dry season.
The biotic community undergoes time changes from aquatic/marshy
to mesophytic types. They are among the most productive and most
threatened ecosystems which help in society’s ecological as well as Dr Sidharth Kaul
economic security. President
Wetlands International South Asia
Water is life, and wetlands are the life support systems that ensure
functioning of water cycle. As ‘kidneys of landscape’, wetlands receive flows
of water and waste from upstream sources. They help stabilize water supplies, cleanse polluted waters, protect
shorelines, and recharge groundwater aquifers. The extensive food chain and biological diversity in wetlands
make them ‘biological supermarkets’. Wetlands have special attributes as cultural heritage of humanity,
and have deep connections with our beliefs and practices. Yet, these are one of the most rapidly degrading
ecosystems due to conversion for agriculture, changes in water use and availability, increasing urbanisation
and infrastructure development.
Wetlands if allowed to degrade due to intense human greed and developmental pressures will result in
human catastrophe in terms of availability of fresh water all over the globe. Due to myopic sectoral vision,
management of wetlands is not done in a systematic manner and they are being used under different names
such as lakes, marshes, swamps, estuaries, tidal flats, river floodplains, mangroves, coral reefs and several
others in diverse languages of India.
The book ‘Wetland Conservation Ethos’ has been written to remove this discrepancy in dealing with
management issues of wetlands in a holistic manner. Wetlands should be the common nomenclature for
all types of waterbodies to enable integrated and effective management of these fragile ecosystems. In its
pages, the reader will get a glimpse of different wetland types and forms, their
significance, threats, conservation measures taken so far, gaps therein, and
ways of addressing these gaps.
It is expected that this publication will stimulate readers to take
decisive and result oriented action for conservation and wise
use of wetlands.
Contents Introduction 7 Wetland Definitions and Forms 9 Distribution of Wetlands in India 15 Significance of Wetlands 19 Threats to Wetlands 25 International Convention on Wetlands 31 Present Status of Wetlands 37 Integrated Wetland Management 41 Conservation and Management Efforts 49 Gaps and Future Needs 57 Citizens and Wetlands Conservation 63 Abbreviation 65 Glossary 66
A large flock of Demoiselle Cranes in wetlands of Wadwana, Gujarat. These cranes undertake one of the toughest winter migrations over the Himalayas, from Black Sea region to the Indian sub-continent
Introduction
W etlands are fragile aquatic ecosystems covered with
water, either permanently or seasonally. They are a
vital part of the hydrological cycle, highly productive and
support rich biodiversity.
Wetlands provide a wide range of important resources
and ecosystem services, such as food, water, fiber,
groundwater recharge, water purification, flood
moderation, erosion control and climate regulation.
Wetlands enhance the aesthetic value of the landscape
and support a wide variety of recreational, social and
cultural activities. Wetlands are and will remain vitally
important for human wellbeing.
Wetlands are severely threatened due to anthropogenic
activities like reclamation through drainage and landfill,
discharge of domestic and industrial effluents and solid
wastes, changes in water inflow and outflow patterns,
excessive water withdrawal and over-exploitation of their
natural resources.
We must ensure that all wetlands are conserved and
managed sustainably not only by concerned government
agencies and NGOs but also by society at large.
This would enforce our commitment towards conservation
and wise use of these fragile ecosystems.
W et l and C o nservati o n E th o s 7
Dip-net in Vembanad backwaters of Kerala
Wetland
attributes
• Inundation by water,
either permanently
or seasonally
• At least periodically
supports hydrophytes
• Substrate of
predominantly undrained
hydric soils
8 W et l ands C o nservati o n E th o s
1
Wetland
Definition
and Forms
Wetlands are transitional lands Wetlands are complex hydrological
between terrestrial and aquatic and biogeochemical systems. They
ecosystems where the water table are a distinct class of ecosystems
is usually at or near the surface, between the terrestrial and aquatic
or the land is covered by shallow ones, known as ecotones.
water permanently or seasonally.
Wetland is a generic term used In our sectoral pursuits, often
for waterbodies and hydrological aquatic ecosystems are referred as
entities such as lakes, rivers, lakes, marshes, swamps, creeks,
floodplains, estuaries, marshes, backwaters, mangroves, coral, peat,
swamps, fens, bogs, tidal flats, bogs, fens and by other different
mangroves, corals and other related terminologies. Basically, all these are
ecosystems. different wetlands types. In order to
conserve and manage these aquatic
The biotic community in wetlands ecosystems in an integrated and
changes over time from aquatic or coordinated manner and prevent
marshy to mesophytic type. The ad-hoc management, they need to
abundance of water at least for a part be consistently addressed only as
of the year is the single dominant wetlands.
factor for defining wetlands.
W et l and C o nservati o n E th o s 9
Wetlands as per Ramsar
Convention
The Convention on Wetlands, an intergovernmental treaty of marine water the depth of which at low tides does not
adopted on 2 February 1971 in the Iranian city of Ramsar exceed six meters’.
and since signed by 170 countries, defines wetlands as:
In addition, to protect coherent sites, Article 2.1 of the
‘Areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural Convention provides that ‘wetlands may include riparian
or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or
static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas bodies of marine water deeper than six meters at low tide
lying within the wetlands.’
By origin, wetlands can be classified as follows:
Glacial Wetlands
These include wetlands formed due to the action of glaciers, such
as damming of rivers, scouring of valleys, the creation of pits and
depressions and reworking of floodplains. These wetlands are exposed
to high solar radiation during short summer duration. As these wetlands
generally do not have drainage, they are highly saline and contain little
vegetation. The water in these wetlands is very clear.
Tso Moriri, Jammu and Kashmir Tso Moriri in Jammu and Kashmir and Chandertal in Himachal Pradesh
are examples of glacial wetlands.
Tectonic Wetlands
These wetlands are formed due to tectonic movements of earth and
loading of high amounts of organic materials received from inflowing
catchments.
Nainital in Uttarakhand is a tectonic wetland.
Nainital, Uttarakhand
Crater Wetlands
Collision of meteorites or other extra-terrestrial objects with earth’s
Shailendra Kotian
surface creates depressions in which crater wetlands are formed. Lonar in
Buldhana, Maharashtra is believed to have developed in a crater created
by meteor impact on Earth.
Lonar, Maharashtra
10 W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o sWetland Types
Marine and coastal wetlands such as open coasts, coral reefs, estuaries, tidal Often these wetland types are
flats, mangroves and coastal lagoons. interlinked hydrologically and
ecologically, merging into one
Inland wetlands such as permanent and seasonal rivers, inland deltas and
another and the larger landscapes.
floodplains, permanent and seasonal lakes and ponds, marshes, freshwater Wetlands should, therefore, be
swamps and peatlands. considered as part of the river
basin or coastal zone.
Human-made wetlands such as reservoirs, barrages and dams, aquaculture
ponds, excavations and burrow pits, wastewater treatment ponds, irrigation
canals, ditches, irrigation ponds and rice fields.
Oxbows
Pradosh Kumar Sahu
Oxbows are formed when the meander of a river is cut off due to silt
deposition, or river changing course, isolating a crescent-shaped
waterbody.
The basins of Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers abound in oxbows. In
Mahanadi Delta, Ansupa is an oxbow located at delta apex.
Ansupa, Odisha
Marshes
These are dominated by herbaceous plants and are sustained by water
sources other than direct rainfall like surface runoff, groundwater or tidal
flow.
Kanwar Jheel is a marsh located in floodplains of Burhi Gandak in Bihar.
Kanwar, Bihar
Swamps
Swamps are wetlands dominated by trees. These have poor drainage
and sufficient water supply to keep the ground waterlogged, and level of
David V Raju
minerals to stimulate decay of organisms and prevent accumulation of
organic materials. Mangroves are coastal swamps bordering major deltas
of the country.
Sunderbans, spread across India and Bangladesh is the world’s largest
Sundarbans, West Bengal single contiguous mangrove swamp.
W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o s 11Floodplains
These are lands adjacent to river or stream which is subject to periodic
inundation by water over-topping the channel.
Yamuna floodplains are the primary source of water for Delhi.
River Yamuna Floodplains, Narora, Uttar
Pradesh
Fens
These are peat forming freshwater wetlands and, in general, are non-
acidic receiving nutrients from ground water sources. They are not
Frank Hoffman
commonly found in India.
Drentsche Aa National Park, Balloerveld, The
Netherlands
Bogs
A bog is a wetland that accumulates peat, a deposit of dead plant
material. These wetlands are unusually acidic and low in nutrients. These
Pieter van Eijk
have high water table maintained directly by rains and snow, which in
turn maintains waterlogging and relative oxygen levels. They are not
commonly found in India.
Peatlands on Tibetean Plateau, China
Estuaries
An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one
or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the
open sea. Estuaries form a transition zone between river and maritime
environments. A coastal lagoon is a bar-built estuary, formed when
offshore barrier sand islands develop above sea-level and extend in a
chain, broken by one or more inlets.
Chilika, Odisha Chilika is a lagoon in Odisha separated from the Bay of Bengal by a long
sand berm.
12 W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o sBackwaters
Backwaters are coastal wetlands formed when the inflowing river flows
are blocked by an opposing current or the flow of tides.
The Malabar Coast of Kerala has several backwater areas, significant as
tourist destinations of the state.
Vembanad, Kerala
Mudflats
Mudflats, also known as tidal flats, are coastal wetlands that are formed
Dr Raju Kasambe
by mud deposited by tides and rivers, and usually found in sheltered
areas as bays and lagoons.
Sewri mudfalts in Mumbai is one of the important breeding areas of
flamingoes.
Sewri Mudflats, Maharashtra
Coral Reefs
Coral reefs are coastal wetlands characterised by reef building corals.
Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium
carbonate.
Gulf of Kachchh and Lakshwadeep in the Arabian Sea and Gulf of Mannar,
Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal are the major reef
areas of India.
Corals, Andamans
Human-made Wetlands
These are wetlands built for a purpose, such as storing water for
irrigation and drinking, or for producing fish or for recreation. Reservoirs,
aquaculture ponds, salt pans, dams, barrages, and impoundments are
some examples of human-made wetlands.
Hirakud, Odisha
W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o s 13Tsomgo is a high altitude wetland located in Sikkim in the Himalayan
Region at an altitude of 3,750 m above mean sea level
14 W et l and C o nservati o n E th o s2
Distribution of
Wetlands in India
Wide variations in rainfall, Wetlands range from high altitude
physiography, geomorphology and lakes of Himalayas, floodplains and
climate create a rich diversity of marshes of Ganga-Brahmaputra
wetlands in India. Their structure alluvial plains, saline flats of Great
and functions vary as per genesis, Indian Desert to extensive marshes
hydrological regimes, substrate and coral reefs bordering the
factors, trophic levels, turnover country’s coastline and islands.
capacities, pollution levels and
interaction of biotic and abiotic
factors.
W et l and C o nservati o n E th o s 15Tsokar, a high altitude wetland in Ladakh, is a breeding
site for the globally vulnerable Black-necked Cranes
Dibyendu Ash
The floodplain of Rapti
River in Uttar Pradesh
Wetlands in the
Himalayas
The Himalayas are dotted with
glaciated lakes, swamps, and Wetlands in the
floodplain marshes spread across
Leh-Ladakh, Kashmir valley,
Gangetic Floodplains
parts of Uttarakhand, Himachal The alluvial plains of River
Pradesh, Sikkim and Arunachal Ganges and the Brahmaputra
Pradesh. These wetlands support have extensive riverine wetlands
the flow of mighty rivers like as floodplains and oxbow lakes.
Ganges, Brahmaputra and Indus They are locally known as maun,
and act as a buffer between beel, chaur, jheel or jhabar.
glacial melt waters and outflow These wetlands sustain highly
to smaller river and streams. productive agriculture and
Pasturelands fringing the fisheries and act as flood buffers.
wetlands are used for grazing
livestock and are the home of
several rare and endemic species Flamingos
of birds, medicinal plants and in Sambhar,
mammals. Rajasthan
Periyar was Wetlands in the Desert
formed due to and Semi-arid zone
construction of
Mullaperiyar The arid zone spanning
Dam on the Rajasthan and Gujarat has
Periyar River vast saline and monsoon fed
in Kerala, and freshwater lakes and reservoirs.
is surrounded The Rann of Kachchh (Gujarat)
Wetlands of the by the Periyar and salt lakes as Sambhar,
Western Ghats National Park Pachpadra, Deedwana and
Lukransar (Rajasthan) are some
The Western Ghats, one of the
of the characteristic wetlands of
biodiversity hotspots of India, is
this part.
criss-crossed by numerous rivers
and streams giving rise to swamps
and marshes. The Myristica
swamps found in the region are
dominated by Myristica trees.
16 W et l and C o nservati o n E th o sUpper and Mangroves in
Lower Lakes Munroe Island,
(also known as Ashtamudi,
Bhoj wetland) Kerala
are human-
made tanks
in Bhopal
City (Madhya
Wetlands in the Pradesh) Wetlands in the Coasts
Deccan Peninsula and Islands
The Deccan Peninsular region The narrow plains of the east
has few natural wetlands and is and the west coast, and islands
mostly studded with constructed harbour a range of coastal
tanks providing water for various wetlands as lagoons, salt
human needs, besides serving as marshes, mangroves and coral
nesting, feeding, and breeding reefs. Chilika (Odisha), Pulicat
sites for a large number of birds. (at the border of Andhra Pradesh
and Tamil Nadu), Point Calimere
(Tamil Nadu) and Asthamudi
(Kerala) are major lagoons.
Mangroves are found along the
coastlines of nine states and
three union territories of India.
Sunderbans (West Bengal),
Bhitarkanika (Odisha) and
Pichavaram (Tamil Nadu) and
Andamans are major mangrove
areas.
Gulf of Kachchh and Gulf of
Loktak is the Mannar, and the islands of
lifeline of Manipur Lakshadweep, and Andaman and
valley Nicobar have major reef areas in
the country.
Wetlands in
the North-East Coral reefs in
Andamans
Located at the junction of
Indian, Indo-Malayan and Indo-
Chinese biogeographic regions,
north-east zone is considered
the gateway of Indian floristic
and faunistic diversity. This
region abounds with several
rivers, streams, lakes, ponds,
waterlogged areas and oxbows,
especially in Assam.
W et l and C o nservati o n E th o s 17Sasthamkotta, a large freshwater wetland of Kerala, is the
primary source of water for Kollam City
18 W et l and C o nservati o n E th o s3
Significance
of Wetlands
Wetlands are one of the most called their ‘ecosystem services’.
important part of landscapes. Ever These can be broadly categorised
since civilizations began, wetlands as provisioning, regulating,
have played an important role in cultural and supporting services.
development of human society.
The benefits wetlands provide are
W et l and C o nservati o n E th o s 19Wetlands as source of water
Our main supply of freshwater comes from an array of
wetlands. Groundwater contained in aquifers accounts for
over 95% of available freshwater and is the most critical
source of drinking water and irrigation. Several wetlands help
soak rainfall and recharge groundwater.
Harike (Punjab) provides water to Southern
Punjab and Rajasthan
Wetlands as flood and storm buffers
Wetlands buffer floods and reduce droughts. In the upper
reaches of a basin, wetlands act as sponges absorbing rainfall
and snowmelt and allowing water to percolate slowly into the
soil. Floodplains of rivers serve as natural storage reservoirs
enabling excess water to spread out over a wide area reducing
its depth and speed.
Coastal wetlands like mangroves, coral reefs, mudflats and
Floods in Guwahati City of Assam would be much estuaries can limit damaging effects of storm surges and tidal
worse if Deepor Beel and associated wetlands did waves by acting as physical barriers. Mangroves and coastal
not absorb large parts of monsoon flows of River marshes help bind shoreline and reduce erosion. The super
Brahmaputra cyclone of Kalinga which hit Odisha in 1999 devastated the
entire coastline. It was found that villages that had retained
mangroves had lesser number of casualties as compared to
those with little or no mangroves.
Wetland products
Sustainably managed wetlands can provide a range of plants,
animals and mineral products. Nearly two-thirds of fish, one
of the primary sources of animal protein, is sourced from
coastal wetlands. Over three-fourth of rice in Asia is produced
in wetlands. Honey is collected from many mangrove
swamps, including Sundarbans. Several wetland plants have
medicinal properties. Wetlands also provide a source of
livelihood to a large population especially those inhabiting
their shorelines.
A fish catch in Loktak
20 W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o sWetlands as water purifiers
Wetlands help in purifying water by locking up pollutants
in their sediments and vegetation. High level of nutrients
as phosphorus and nitrogen, commonly associated
with agricultural runoff, can be significantly reduced
by wetlands. Many wetland plants can remove toxic
substances that come from pesticides, industrial discharge
and mining. Tissues of floating plants such as Water
Hyacinth, Duck weed and Azolla can store iron and copper
Kolkata city discharges nearly 600 million litres from wastewater. However, continuous waste discharge
of wastewater daily into East Kolkata Wetlands beyond carrying capacity of wetlands can lead to
located on its eastern periphery. This sewage is environmental disasters.
used to produce approximately 15,000 MT of fish
and 30,000 MT of vegetables annually. The quality
of water improves after passing through these
wetlands
Wetlands for recreation and tourism
The natural beauty and diversity of plant and animal life
in wetlands make them ideal destinations for recreation
and tourism. However, irresponsible tourism can create
pressures on wetlands.
Vembanad in Kerela is visited by nearly one
million tourists each year. Wetland tourism is a
significant economic activity for the state
Wetlands for education and research
Wetlands provide excellent opportunities for education
and research on aquatic ecosystems.
The diversity of habitats, the complexity of ecosystem
processes and broad social and cultural connections
make them suited for multi-disciplinary studies on nature-
society interactions.
Wetland Research and Training Centre of Chilika
Development Authority, Odisha
W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o s 21Wetlands and Climate change
Wetlands, as several other ecosystems, are vulnerable
to climate change. These ecosystems, however, can
help mitigate and adapt to a changing climate.
Some wetlands such as mangroves and salt marshes
act as carbon stores, thereby preventing the release of
dangerous greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
As variability of water availability is likely to increase
Mangroves are known to store up to 50 times more in future, the ability of wetlands to absorb and retain
carbon than the tropical forests water and moderate floods and storms are essential
functions that can help buffer impacts of climate
change. Conserving wetlands is also essential for
securing habitat of aquatic species threatened by
changing climate.
Wetlands as habitats for migratory birds
Nearly two thousand bird species make regular seasonal
movements, travelling thousands of miles between
breeding and non-breeding areas to escape the harsh
winters of the polar and temperate regions. Migrating
birds use wetlands as stopover sites for feeding, resting
and breeding. Indian wetlands connect the Central Asian
and East Australasian Flyways.
Pong (Himachal Pradesh) supports large
congregrations of Bar-headed Geese migrating from
Tibet, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and Russia
22 W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o sThe Brow-antlered Deer resides in the floating islands
of Keibul Lamjao National Park
A Brow-antlered Deer in Keibul Lamjao National Park, Loktak, Manipur
Wetlands as Biodiversity Hotspots
Several wetlands are habitats of a number of endemic and highly threatened to near
threatened species. Chilika maintains a healthy population of, and, is one of the only two
lagoons in the world inhabited by endangered Irrawaddy Dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris).
Keibul Lamjao, a floating national park on the south of Loktak is the only known natural
habitat of globally endangered Brow-antlered Deer (Rucervus eldii). The largest remaining
populations of critically endangered Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) are found around River
Son, Girwa and Chambal of Central India. Over 70% of the global population of vulnerable
Great Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) is largely confined within the grasslands and
swamps of Kaziranga National Park in Assam.
W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o s 23Encroachment of Pallikarnai marsh has rendered Chennai City
vulnerable to floods
24 W et l and C o nservati o n E th o s4
Threats
to Wetlands
Despite being the source of a range degrade, the benefits provided
of benefits, wetlands have been naturally by these ecosystems are
drained, filled and converted for lost, impacting survival of species
alternate uses in almost all parts of as well as livelihoods of dependent
the globe. Since 1900, the world has communities.
lost around 50% of its wetlands. In
India, nearly one-third of the natural Some of the major threats to
wetlands have been lost in the last wetlands are discussed in this
three decades alone. As wetlands section.
W et l and C o nservati o n E th o s 25Alteration of natural hydrological regimes
Water regimes govern biodiversity and ecosystem services
of wetlands. Alteration of natural hydrological regimes often
leads to reduced water availability, altered hydro-period, loss
of connectivity with biodiversity habitats, impeded nutrient
exchange and other processes which significantly enhance their
degradation.
The water resources development projects have played a critical
role in providing water for economic use such as hydropower
Ithai Barrage on Loktak, Manipur and agriculture. In several instances, lack of consideration of
the functioning of wetlands has created adverse impacts on the
aquatic habitats. Diversion of water for hydropower generation
through the construction of Ithai Barrage downstream of Loktak
has converted a natural floodplain wetland into a reservoir,
critically affecting the habitat of the Manipur Brow–antlered
Deer and near complete obstruction of migratory pathways
of fish from Chindwin–Irrawaddy system. In Kashmir valley,
conversion of marshes associated with Wular for agriculture has
reduced the capacity of the wetland for regulating flow regimes,
leading to increased floods and droughts.
Catchment degradation
The water holding capacity of wetlands plays a crucial role in
determining its ability to regulate flow regimes, cycle nutrients
and support biodiversity. Being depositional in nature,
wetlands act as sediment traps, which in the long run plays a
key role in their succession. However, catchment degradation
accelerates sedimentation rates, thereby, risking sustenance
of ecosystem processes and services. Similarly, the runoff from
cropped area of the catchment loads nutrient, resulting in
eutrophication.
Stone mining in catchment of Wular (Jammu and
Kashmir)
In Harike (Punjab), 86 percent of water holding capacity has
been lost since 1954 due to excessive silt accumulation from
Shivalik catchments. The resulting decline in inundation has
reduced hydrological regime moderation capability of this
wetland, and coupled with high levels of nutrient enrichment,
promoted infestation of Eichhornia. Surajkund and Badhkal,
tourist hotspots in the state of Haryana, frequently run dry on
account of excessive mining in the catchments, which prevent
the inflow of rainwater and recharge of groundwater critical to
the maintenance of the hydrological regimes of these wetlands.
26 W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o sPollution
Increasing urbanisation without the development of
adequate waste management infrastructure has led
wetlands located within urban and the peri–urban areas
to become waste receptacles. Agricultural intensification
and the increased use of chemical fertilisers have resulted
in negative impacts on the water quality within rural
wetlands. For instance, most of the Gangetic floodplain
wetlands are in an advanced state of eutrophication due to
the discharge of untreated sewage as well as runoff from
A waste dump on Deepor (Assam) agricultural fields.
Invasive species
Most of the inland wetlands of India have been invaded by
exotic species, which have acquired nuisance proportions
considerably influencing the native biota and habitat
conditions. Water hyacinth, which was introduced in
India about a century ago occurs almost throughout
the country. The other dominant species that have
gradually infested several wetlands are Salvinia, Ipomoea
and Alternanthera. Adverse impacts of fish invasive on
local biodiversity have been noted in case of Tilapia
Water hyacinth
(Oreochromis mossambicus).
Over-harvesting of resources
Owing to high livelihood dependence, wetlands are
often subjected to over–harvesting of resources and
modification for enhancing provisioning services such
as wood, fish, water, etc. at the cost of regulating and
cultural services. Uses of harmful fishing practices, such as
small mesh size nets, are prevalent in a majority of inland
wetlands. Often sustainable yield for a particular wetland
is not known and at times ignored by stakeholders.
Wetland biodiversity and wider food webs are also put
A fisher using fine-mesh net under stress by loss through by catch. Varying inundation
regimes are often modified to suit agriculture and
W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o s 27aquaculture uses. Livelihoods of over 15,000 fishers living
around Kanwar Jheel in North Bihar have been disrupted
as dynamic inundation patterns have been transformed for
promoting permanent agriculture, which in turn, has been
impacted by lowering of ground water levels and flooding
attributed to shrinkage in wetland regimes
Unregulated tourism
Tourism is an important driver of economic growth.
Wetlands, an essential part of tourism experiences, are
likely to see an increase in touristic pressure in the times
to come. For example, backwaters of Kerala are visited by
over one million tourists annually. Accordingly, the tourism
industry ensures the livelihoods of over 85,000 households.
Often, the habitat characteristics or functioning of
wetlands are not taken into account while developing
tourism infrastructure and recreation facilities. Increase in
House boats in Dal (Jammu and Kashmir) houseboats in Dal (Jammu and Kashmir), and Vembanad-
Kol backwaters (Kerala) have converted tourism from a
livelihood option to threat for these fragile ecosystems.
Climate change
Global climate change has emerged as an important
driver of loss and degradation of wetlands especially high
altitude and coastal wetlands. Climate change induced
melting of glaciers has led to increased water levels of
StoriesofKabeera
Tso Moriri (Jammu and Kashmir) submerging habitats
utilised by migratory birds such as the Black–necked Crane
and Bar–headed Goose. Modelling simulations indicate
that about 84 percent of coastal wetlands in India are at
risk due to a one meter sea level rise. Inland wetlands
Gurudongmar (Sikkim) are at risk from alteration in hydrological regimes,
eutrophication, and algal blooms that are likely to result
from increasing temperatures.
28 W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o sThe municipal corporation of Gurugram (Haryana) has chosen
Basai as the site for a waste treatment plant
W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o s 29Chilika (Odisha) was one of the first two Ramsar Sites
designated by India
30 W et
e t l and
a n d C o nservati
n s e r v a t i o n E th
thos5
International
Convention on
Wetlands
Wetlands are the only ecosystem international cooperation and
to have a dedicated multilateral transboundary wetland issues.
environmental agreement of
their own, known as the Ramsar Under the “three pillars” of the
Convention. The Convention was Convention, the Contracting Parties
signed in 1971 at the Iranian city of commit to:
Ramsar, located on the Caspian Sea • work towards the wise use of all
shoreline. It is an intergovernmental their wetlands;
treaty providing the framework for • designate suitable wetlands
national action and international for the list of Wetlands of
cooperation for the conservation International Importance (the
and wise use of wetlands and their “Ramsar List”) and ensure their
resources. The Convention entered
effective management;
into force in December 1975. • cooperate internationally on
transboundary wetlands, shared
The Convention has 12 articles wetland systems and shared
on conservation and wise use of species.
wetlands including their definition,
criteria for designation of Ramsar As on date, the 170 Contracting
sites, wise use, establishing nature Parties have designated 2,337
reserves, research, monitoring, wetlands with 252.05 million
management of wetland biodiversity, hectares as Wetlands of International
Importance under this Convention.
W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o s 31International Organization Partners
The Convention works with six global non-governmental organisations. Four of
them have been associated with the treaty since its beginnings and, in 1999, were
conferred the formal status of International Organization Partners (IOPs).
Wetlands IUCN – WWF BirdLife International The Wildfowl
International International International International Water & Wetlands
(1999) Union for (1999) (1999) Management Trust (2015)
Conservation Institute
of Nature (2005)
(1999)
Constituents of Ramsar Convention
Implementation of Ramsar between its triennial meetings.
Convention is a partnership between The Contracting Parties that are
Contracting Parties, the Standing members of the SC are elected by
Committee (SC) and the Ramsar each meeting of the CoP to serve for
Secretariat. three years.
The Conference of Contracting The Ramsar Convention Secretariat
Parties (CoP) is the policy making carries out the day-to-day
organ of the Convention. The coordination of the Convention’s
conference enables the Contracting activities. It is located in Gland,
Parties to hold broad ranging Switzerland.
discussions on the implementation
of the Convention and to adopt The Scientific and Technical Review
decisions in the form of resolutions Panel of the Ramsar Convention was
and recommendations. Government established in 1993 as a subsidiary
representatives from each of the body to provide scientific and
Contracting Parties meet every three technical guidance to the CoP, the
years to receive national reports on SC, and the Secretariat.
the preceding triennium, approve
the work programme and budgetary
arrangements for the next three
years, and consider guidance for the
Parties on a range of ongoing and
emerging environmental issues.
The SC of the Ramsar Convention
is the intersessional executive
body which represents the CoP
32 W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o sRamsar Sites in India
W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o s 33Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) was placed in the Montreux Record in 1990 due to water shortage and an unbalanced grazing regime. The invasive growth of grass Paspalum changed the ecological character of a large area, reducing its suitability for certain waterbird species, notably the Siberian Crane
Montreux In India the Ramsar Convention the Convention. Twenty-seven
entered into force on February wetlands have been designated
Record 1, 1982. India was a SC member as Wetlands of International
from 1993-1996 and from 1999- Importance. Restoration of Chilika
The Montreux Record is a 2002. India has played a vital role was recognized by the Convention
register of wetland sites in conservation and wise use of with a Ramsar Award in 2002.
on the List of Wetlands of wetlands, and overall strengthening
International Importance
where changes in ecological
character have occurred,
are occurring, or are likely Advantages of joining the Ramsar
to occur as a result of
technological developments, Convention
pollution or other human
interference. It is maintained • Entails an endorsement of and • Brings access to expert advice
as part of the Ramsar List. commitment to the principles on national and site-related
that the Convention represents, problems of wetland conservation
The inclusion of wetland facilitating the development of and management.
within Montreux Record national level policies and actions,
does not mean red listing including legislation, that help • Encourages international
or blacklisting a wetland nations to make the best possible cooperation on wetland issues
site. It instead highlights use of their wetland resources and brings the possibility of
priority action to be taken in their quest for sustainable support for wetland projects.
for management of these development.
wetlands so that further
deterioration is prevented, • Presents an opportunity for a
and the site restored to good country to make its voice heard in
ecological health. the principal intergovernmental
forum on conservation and wise
India had three wetlands use of wetlands.
under this Record, namely
Chilika in Odisha, Keoladeo • Brings increased publicity
National Park in Rajasthan and prestige for the wetlands
and Loktak in Manipur. designated to the List of Wetlands
of International Importance, and
Chilika was taken out hence expanded possibilities of
of the Record after a support for conservation and wise
successful restoration and use measures.
recommendation of the
Ramsar Advisory Mission • Brings access to the latest
in 2002. To date, Chilika information and advice on the
remains the only wetland adoption of the Convention’s
in Asia to be delisted from internationally accepted
Montreux Record. standards.
W et l and C o nservati o n E th o s 35Loktak, Manipur
Phumdi, floating mats of vegetation, are the
characteristic feature of Loktak (Manipur)
36 W et l ands C o nservati o n E th o s6
Present Status
of Wetlands
Several wetland types exhibit wetlands and assess their extent in
large seasonal and inter-annual the country have been made since
variations in inundation regimes the nineteen-eighties, wherein an All
and vegetation, rendering a India Wetland Survey was initiated by
comprehensive assessment of status the Government of India. Measures
and trends difficult. Nonetheless, taken to assess the extent of
efforts to create an inventory of wetlands in the country are discussed
in this section.
W et l and C o nservati o n E th o s 37A Directory of Based on a In 1993, Efforts to map wetlands In 2004, the Salim Ali
Asian Wetlands questionnaire WWF-India in at national scale Center for Ornithology
published by IUCN survey, the Ministry collaboration using remote sensing (SACON) under a UNDP
and Wetlands of Environment, with MoEF&CC techniques began in the sponsored project
International (then Forest and Climate published a nineties. The first remote carried out a mapping
International Change (MoEF&CC wetland directory sensing based national of inland wetlands using
Waterfowl then Ministry of providing details inventory of wetlands 23.5 m resolution data
Research Bureau) Environment and of 140 wetlands. was published in 1998 by of IRS LISS III mostly of
published in Forest) published Space Application Center 2001. The assessment
1989 included a Directory of (SAC) using post and pre also included data on
a detailed Wetlands in 1990, monsoon imageries of select species groups for
description of listing 2,167 natural 1992-93 (IRS LISS I and II analyzing conservation
92 significant and 65,253 human- data). Subsequently, the significance.
wetlands of India. made wetlands national inventory was
(spanning 1.45 updated at a uniform The SACON inland
million and 2.59 scale (1:250,000) using wetlands assessment,
million hectare area 2004–05 Resourcesat based on analysis of
respectively). AWiFS (8 m spatial change in wetlands
data), as per which the areas from 71 districts
national wetland extent concluded that 38%
was assessed to be 8.83 wetlands had been lost
million hectare). during 1992-2001.
38 W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o sThe first inventory of coastal In 2001-02, BNHS published The MoEF&CC commissioned a
habitats in India, with focus the Center an assessment nation–wide wetland mapping
on coral reefs and mangroves, of Advanced of existing and project entitled ‘National Wetland
was carried out in 1989–1991 at Study in Marine potential Ramsar Inventory and Assessment’ to the
1:250,000 and 1:50,000 scales, Biology (CASMB) Sites of India in Space Application Centre (SAC) in
with maps showing high tide line published state 2008. Nearly 140 2007. The project used a 19 wetland
and low tide lines and wetland of art reports on wetlands were type classification (including
features such as mudflats, 17 lagoons and 15 identified as natural as well as human–
beach, mangroves, and coral estuaries. potential Ramsar made), derived from analysis of
reefs. Since then, several remote sites. RESOURCESAT I LISS III data of
sensing assessments have been 2006–07 at 1:50,000 scale (with 23.5
carried for the Indian coast, m resolution) for pre–monsoon
results published in the form of and post-monsoon periods. The
National Wetlands Atlas based atlas, for the first time, included a
on analysis of satellite images separate category of high altitude
of 2006-07, shoreline change wetlands (wetlands located above
assessments reports, an atlas of 3,000 m amsl).
mangroves and coral reefs and
other products. As per the atlas published in 2011,
In 2006, the the national extent of wetlands
CASMB updated was assessed to be 15.26 million
existing hectare, equivalent to 4.63 percent
inventories of the country’s geographical
to include area. Inland wetlands (including
information on wetlands below the minimum
2,692 wetlands. mapping unit of 2.25 hectare)
Natural wetlands constitute 69 percent (10.56 million
were estimated to hectare) of the total wetland area.
span 3.58 million High altitude wetlands have been
hectare, and assessed to extend 126,249 ha. The
human-made 3.33 state of Gujarat has the maximum
million hectare. wetland area (3.47 million hectare).
W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o s 39Pelicans flying over Gosabara - Mokarsar (Gujarat) 40 W et l and C o nservati o n E th o s
7
Integrated
Wetland
Management
Wetlands need to be managed in measures should take into
a manner that their biodiversity is account wetland catchments and
conserved, and the benefits humans coastal zones, as well as integrate
derive from these ecosystems are socioeconomic development of
maintained for long-term. The wetland-dependent communities. A
management needs to be holistic, range of activities is required for this
multidisciplinary, and based on the purpose which is discussed in this
scientific knowledge. Conservation section.
W et l and C o nservati o n E th o s 41Integrated management Institutional mechanisms
planning
Conserving and managing
Wetlands need to be managed wetlands requires collaborative
on the basis of an integrated plan efforts between various sectors
resulting from systematic review and agencies. It is therefore
of wetland features and governing essential to create institutional
factors. Diagnostic processes mechanisms for intersectoral
should be used to identify causative collaboration, through a nodal
factors for wetland degradation. agency. State governments
Management goals and objectives have been advised to constitute
should be defined clearly, and Wetlands Authorities so that
suitable monitoring and evaluation expertise is available in all desired
systems put in place. Stakeholders departments for execution of
should review the plans through management plans in a scientific
consultative processes. All forms and cohesive manner.
of information – scientific and
traditional need to be factored in
while preparing these plans. Wetlands inventory
Wetlands inventory is crucial
Capacity development for setting policy priorities
and targeting conservation
Wetland management requires efforts. The MoEF&CC has
specialised skills. Building the commissioned several wetlands
capacity of managers through inventories to improve the overall
training and related activities knowledgebase on wetland
can strengthen integrated status and extent. The Wetlands
management. Capacity (Conservation and Management)
development efforts should cut Rules, 2017 require that states
across all sections of society. Need- prepare inventories of wetlands
based training programs can be within their jurisdiction, and
organised at national, regional or prioritise them for regulation
district levels. Training on dominant and management. Preparation of
themes of wetland conservation brief documents for notification
like catchment area treatment, requires geographic delineation of
water management, pollution the wetland, its zone of influence,
abatement, livelihood options, and an account of preexisting
restoration techniques, biodiversity rights and privileges, consistent or
conservation, sustainable resource not consistent with the ecological
development, managing invasive health of wetlands. Survey,
species, environmental education mapping and inventorisation need
and awareness, impact assessment to take into consideration impact
of developmental activities of developmental activities on
surrounding wetlands can be wetland and its catchment. It is
of great help in implementing vital to confirm remote sensing
activities of management plans. data with adequate ground
42 W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o struthing. Inventorisation is an Making the value of wetlands
ongoing activity and can be of visible to society creates an
great help once higher resolution evidence base for more targeted
imageries are available so that even and cost–effective solutions. In
smaller wetlands of less than 2 the recent times, several methods
hectare are mapped. for valuing wetlands in economic,
ecological, and social terms have
been developed. These can be used
Valuing wetlands by wetland managers to express
the contribution of wetlands to
As public goods, a broad category developmental decisions, and
of wetland ecosystem services quantify impacts of wetland loss.
and biodiversity values are not
factored in decision-making,
thereby resulting in wetlands Community participation
being converted for alternate
uses. The resultant loss has direct Wetlands affect lives and livelihoods
economic consequences, which are of a range of stakeholders. It is
underestimated. important to seek their engagement
in all stages of management.
W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o s 43This can be achieved through governments can be examined at this
consultations, involvement in design level from a feasibility perspective.
and implementation of management
plans and monitoring. An enabling An advisory body consisting national
role can be played by policy planners, experts in specialized fields can guide
managers, research organizations, managers in executing all activities
NGOs and CSOs towards creation in a desired manner. Within states,
of a common platform wherein monitoring is the responsibility of the
community concerns for wetlands are State Wetlands Authorities. At District
discussed and appropriately factored levels, monitoring may be entrusted
in management. to a team of experts, capable
of assessing conservation and
Participatory Rural Appraisals and livelihood outcomes of management
community consultation can be used plans.
to leverage traditional knowledge
into design of interventions. Synergies within
Issues of gender sensitization international conventions
and involvement of women in and multi-lateral
decision making processes need agreements
prioritization. Engagement is also
aimed at enhancing the awareness Apart from the Ramsar Convention,
of communities and stakeholders on there are several international
values of wetlands and the need for conventions, and multi-lateral
their integrated management. environmental agreements wherein
the Contracting Parties have made
commitments related to wetlands
Monitoring and review conservation. Notable amongst
these are Convention on Biological
Wetlands need to be continually Diversity, Convention on Migratory
monitored to assess their health and Species, United Nations Convention
functioning. This should not be limited to Combat Desertification, World
to monitoring status of plant and Heritage Convention, UNESCO Man
animal life alone. Exchange of water, and Biosphere programme, United
sediment and nutrients; the status of Nations Sustainable Development
catchments, as well as sustainability Goals, United Nations Framework
of wetland resources need to be Convention on Climate Change and
monitored. Monitoring of climatic and the Sendai Framework for Disaster
geophysical parameters is required to Risk Reduction.
identify long-term changes.
There is a need to coordinate
A three-tier system at national, state national implementation of these
and district level may need to be Conventions and agreements for
created for assessing the effectiveness achieving synergistic outcomes.
of management plans. At the national Coordination efforts should also be
level, advice on appropriate policy, made at state levels, wherein much
research and capacity development of direct action is implemented.
aspects may be made. Management
plans recommended by the state
44 W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o sBlackbucks in Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary
(Tamil Nadu)
W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o s 45Wetlands and the Sustainable Development Goals
Source: Ramsar Convention
46 W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o sAsan (Uttarakhand) is a community reserve
W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o s 47Tso Moriri, a high altitude wetland in Changthang
Plateau is a Ramsar site
48 W et l and C o nservati o n E th o s8
Conservation and
Management Efforts
Wetland conservation draws its Article 51–A (g) stating that “it
strength from India’s rich legacy shall be the duty of every citizen
of environmental conservation of India to protect and improve
enshrined in various policies, the natural environment including
legislations and regulatory forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife
regimes. The Indian Constitution and to have compassion for living
encapsulates this spirit, notably in creatures.”
W et l and C o nservati o n E th o s 49Efforts by national and state governments
Wetland conservation and network of sites of national and
sustainable management are placed international significance includes
within the mandate of MoEF&CC. 250 wetlands.
Several broad ranging policies,
strategies and action plans have The regulatory framework for
been formulated by the Government wetlands is defined within the
which directly or indirectly supports broader national environment
wetland conservation. policy. The National Conservation
Strategy and Policy Statement on
Wetlands were initially conserved Environment and Development
primarily for their biodiversity values, (1992) identified pollution and over–
and several landscapes such as exploitation of wetlands as an area
Keoladeo, Harike, Kaziranga and of concern. Conservation of wetlands
Manas were notified as protected was emphasized as a strategy for
areas. sustainable use of land and water
resources as well as biodiversity
With India becoming a signatory to conservation. Subsequently, the
the Ramsar Convention in 1982, and National Environment Policy
MoEF&CC (the then MoEF) being (2006) laid down specific policy
established in 1985, a national elements for wetlands. Wetlands
programing framework for wetlands have been identified as components
was institutionalised. MoEF&CC of ‘freshwater resources’, and the
established the National Wetland recommended policy actions include
Conservation Plan (NWCP) in 1986 integration in developmental
to provide overarching policy planning, management based on
framework and financial assistance prudent use strategies, promotion of
to the state governments for ecotourism, and implementation of a
implementation of site management regulatory framework. Integration of
plans. Mangroves and coral reefs wetlands in river basin management
were initially covered under NWCP has been identified as a strategy for
but were later bifurcated as a the management of river systems.
separate programme. In 2001,
the National Lake Conservation In 2010, a regulatory framework
Programme (NLCP) was carved out of for wetlands was introduced by
NWCP to address pollution issues in MoEF&CC in the form of Wetland
urban and semi–urban waterbodies (Conservation and Management)
through interception, diversion Rules, 2010 under the provisions of
and treatment of pollution load. In the Environment (Protection) Act,
2013, and the two schemes were 1986. The rules have been further
merged into the National Plan for revised and notified as Wetlands
Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (Conservation and Management)
(NPCA) to enable adoption of Rules, 2017. Key features include
integrated approaches. Wetlands constitution of State Wetlands
located within Protected Areas are Authorities and National Wetlands
covered under the Ministry’s scheme Committee at the national level,
Integrated Development of Wildlife and wise use as a framework for
Habitats. As of December 2017, the regulating wetlands.
50 W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o sThe diverse wetlands of Mahanadi Provisions of the Indian Forest In line with the CBD Strategic Plan
Delta, Odisha Act, 1927 and the Indian Wildlife 2011–2020, India has formulated
(Protection) Act, 1972 define the 12 National Biodiversity Targets.
regulatory framework for wetlands Wetlands find direct reference under
located within forests and designated Target 3 (Strategies for reducing rate
protected areas. Similarly, coastal of degradation, fragmentation and
wetlands are protected under the loss of natural habitats are finalized
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) and actions put in place by 2020),
Notification (2011 recently modified Target 6 (ecologically representative
in 2018) and the Island Protection areas on land and in inland waters,
Zone (IPZ) Notification 2011. The as well as coastal and marine
Indian Fisheries Act, 1897, The Water zones, especially those of particular
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) importance for species, biodiversity
Act, 1974, The Environment and ecosystem services, are
(Protection) Act, 1986 and The conserved effectively and equitably),
Biological Diversity Act, 2002 provide and Target 8 (by 2020, ecosystem
substantive legal and regulatory services, especially those related to
conditions for conservation of Indian water, human health and livelihoods
wetlands. The Coastal Aquaculture and well–being are enumerated and
Authority Act, 2005 prohibits the measures to safeguard them are
conversion of natural coastal identified).
wetlands such as mangroves, salt
pans, estuaries and lagoons for Wetlands also find a place in sectoral
aquaculture. policies for water and climate
change. The National Water Policy
W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o s 51(2012) provides an important policy an advisory on conservation and designated areas. Similarly, the East framework for linking wetlands to restoration of waterbodies in urban Kolkata Wetlands (Conservation water resources management. The areas. and Management) Act, 2006 curtails policy recommends adoption of a landuse changes within the Ramsar basin approach for water resources The National Action Plan for Climate Site. In Kerala, the Conservation management, and identifies Change has identified eight missions of Paddy Land and Wetland Act, conservation of river corridors, which form the core intervention 2008, bans conversion of wetlands. waterbodies and associated strategy for climate change In 2015, the state governments of ecosystems as important action mitigation and adaptation. Wetland Karnataka and Rajasthan have enacted areas. Ministry of Water Resources, conservation and sustainable legislations for conservation of River Development and Ganga management is included in the wetlands. Rejuvenation (MoWRRD) has several National Water Mission and Green programmes that contribute to India Mission. In collaboration with national and wetland conservation. The MoWRRD international organisations, the also coordinates implementation Several state governments (notably Ministry has published several of “National Project for Repair, West Bengal, Odisha, Kerala, Manipur documents on various aspects of Renovation & Restoration (RRR) and Assam) have also enacted wetlands (for example, monographs of Waterbodies directly linked to their legislation on wetlands. The on wetlands published with WWF- Agriculture” since January 2005. The Government of Manipur notified the India). Guidelines for application programme supports restoration and Manipur Loktak Lake (Protection) oriented research and development augmentation of storage capacities Act, 2006 and Manipur Loktak Lake have been published and assistance is of waterbodies, including recovery (Protection) Rules, 2008, which given to select research organisations and extension of their lost irrigation define a core zone and buffer zone, to provide, in time series, a robust potential. In 2013, the Ministry of and stipulate specific activities research database on wetlands. Housing and Urban Affairs has issued that can be permitted within these Wetland Interpretation Center at Chilika (Odisha) 52 W e t l a n d Co n s e r vat i o n E t h o s
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