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Welcome to the issue
Volker Kluge
Editor
The Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro were my Natalia Camps Y Wilant has researched in the estate of
eighteenth. I witnessed exciting competitions from Charles de Coubertin and invites us to join an excursion
superb athletes. In this issue I consider which of the into the early history of the modern Olympic Games.
moments from Rio will stand the test of time in Olympic She discusses who the father of the man who founded
history. For my part, I experienced a wonderful town, the IOC regarded the Olympic Games, and how he
but there were also shadows which darkened the represented in a painting as an allegory.
mood. The list of athletes who have been retrospectively The name Coubertin figures largely in the contribution
disqualified for doping offences at the 2008 and 2012 by Chris Cannon, archivist of the Wenlock Olympian
Games on page 17, is certainly no roll of honour. Society. He writes on the medal which Pierre de Coubertin
On the day before the Opening Ceremony in the after his visit to Much Wenlock donated to the winner of
Maracanã Stadium, the Quadrennial Meeting of our 1891 in the medieval Tilting at the Ring.
International Society of Olympic Historians (ISOH) took Jan Luitzen looks at the story of Dutch boxer Karel
place. There long-serving General Secretary Tony Bijkerk Miljon, lost his 1928 semi-final because of a contro
and Treasurer John Grasso took their leave. Our co- versial decision by the jury. Bernhard Kramer and
founder Bill Mallon reminds us that ISOH will be 25 years Richard Stanton continue their series of articles about the
old on 5th December. His article includes an invitation Olympic Art Competitions, and Richard Baka examines
to a celebratory reception to be held on 3rd December in the growth and rebranding of the Olympic Winter Games.
Central London. The series about IOC Members has reached part 22 and
The article by Paata Natsvishvili from Georgia is certain the biographies include some real Olympic “heavy-
to stimulate discussion. He believes that the “Unknown weights”. As usual this issue publishes Olympic news,
French Boy”, who steered the Dutch pair to victory and reviews and obituaries, in which Olympic medallists are
is thus considered the youngest Olympic champion, was honoured.
none other than his compatriot Giorgi Nikoladze. With this edition the 24th year of the ISOH publication is
It is well known that only men were permitted to take finished. It appeared for the first time in the summer of
part in the Ancient Olympic Games. The question of 1992 under the title Citius, Altius, Fortius.
whether women also competed in antiquity is answered
by Christian Wacker with a clear No. He does however Thanks are due to our editorial team, now strength-
examine evidence from Roman times which offer clear ened by Professor Elizabeth Hanley.
representations of women taking part in sport.
ISOH Executive Committee | 2016-2020
President David Wallechinsky (USA)
Vice-President Dr. Christian Wacker (GER)
Secretary-General Markus Osterwalder (SUI)
Treasurer Dr. Laurel A. Zeisler (USA)
Members Philip Barker (GBR)
Secretary-General
Dr. Kostas Georgiadis (GRE) Markus Osterwalder
Volker Kluge (GER) Eggweg 6
9100 Herisau
Leif Yttergren (SWE)
Switzerland
on behalf of the IOC Richard W. Pound (CAN) Phone: +41 71 351 77 19
ex-officio Dr. Bill Mallon (USA) E-mail: markus.osterwalder@isoh.org
JOH 3 | 2016 1
Message from
the President
David Wallechinsky
ISOH President
There were so many problems during the run-up and Machavariani, thus becoming the first mother-son
staging of the Rio 2016 Olympic Games, that some might combination in Olympic history.
have thought that the Olympic Movement itself was • Fifty-four year old Santiago Lange (ARG) won gold in
in serious danger. Such is not the case. The Brazilian Nacri 17 catamaran sailing eleven months after having
people were warm and welcoming hosts. It’s just my a cancerous left lung removed.
opinion, but I believe that the average Brazilian is nicer • Meanwhile, Nick Skelton (GBR) won show jumping gold
and kinder than the average human being on Earth. at age 58, to become the oldest Olympic champion in
What really sustained the Games was the spirit of the any sport since 1964.
11,000 athletes themselves, the vast majority of whom • Another equestrian athlete, Isabell Werth (GER), won
gathered to perform to the best of their abilities and to her ninth and tenth medals in dressage, gold in the
interact with athletes from other countries and other team event and silver in the individual event. No one
sports. else has ever earned more than eight medals in the
Here are a few achievements by those athletes who sport.
found their places in Olympic history. • Kristin Armstrong (USA) became the first cyclist to win
• To begin with, at the Rio 2016 Games, athletes from 87 the same event (the time trial) three times.
countries won medals and athletes from 59 countries • The US women’s basketball team won the Olympic
earned gold medals. This broke the record in both tournament for the sixth time in a row, extending their
categories. winning streak to 49 games. Their average margin of
• Between 1896 and 2012, only three athletes had victory in Rio, 38.5 points, topped the previous record –
ever won the same individual event four times: Poul 36.9 points – set by the 2008 US team.
Elvstrøm (DEN) in the one-person dinghy, Al Oerter • South Korea won all four archery events in 2016.
(USA) in the discus throw, and Carl Lewis (USA) in the South Koreans won the women’s team event for the
long jump. In Rio, Michael Phelps (USA) won the 200 eighth straight time – every time since the event was
metres individual medley for the fourth time, and introduced in 1988.
Kaori Ichō (JPN) won the women’s middleweight • Chinese divers won the women’s synchronized
wrestling division for the fourth time. platform event for the fifth straight time – every time
• Usain Bolt became the first person to win the 100 since the event was first included in the Olympic
metres for the third time and the first person to win programme in 2000.
the 200 metres for the third time. Considering that • Conseslus Kipruto won the men’s 3000 metres
most people in the world have tried to run 100 metres steeplechase to give Kenya its ninth victory in a
as fast as they can at least once in their lives, to be the row in the event after boycotting in 1976 and 1980.
best in the world for so long is quite an achievement. Kenyans also won gold and silver in 1968 and 1972.
• Christoph Harting (GER) won the discus throw Kenyan runners earned at least two medals in the
four years after his brother Robert won the same steeplechase in each of the seven Olympics prior to
event. They are the first set of siblings to win the the Rio Games. It appeared that this streak had been
same individual event in the history of the Summer extended when two-time Olympic champion Ezekiel
Olympics. Kemboi crossed the finish line in third place, but he
• British brothers Alistair and Johnny Brownlee took was subsequently disqualified for stepping onto the
gold and silver in the triathlon, becoming the first 1-2 infield after a water jump.
sibling finishers in the Summer Olympics since 1960. • For the record, African-American women from the
• Estonian marathon runners Leila, Liina, and Lily Luik United States earned 14 gold medals (including team
became the first triplets to compete together. sports). If they had been a nation, they would have
• At age 47, Georgian pistol shooter Nino Salukvadze, an been in sixth place in the medal table, even though,
eight-time Olympian and a 1988 gold medal winner, with a population of about 19.6 million, they would
competed in Rio along with her 18 year old son, Tsotne be the 67th most populous nation.
2
Message from the
Secretary-General
Markus Osterwalder
ISOH Secretary-General
I have the honour of announcing myself as your Corcovado, Lapa, the botanic garden, Santa Teresa, the
new Secretary-General. First, I would like to say a Samba school, various exhibitions and the Olympic
heartfelt thank you to all those who have supported Boulevard. After almost three weeks stay in Rio we were
and subsequently elected me. Meanwhile, I had the more than just tired.
opportunity to exchange messages with several ISOH On the 21 st September David Wallechinsky and I
members and the opportunity to get to know them. travelled to Riga to present the Vikelas Plaque to Genādijs
An important part of new role will be developing Maričevs. An especially festive framework awaited us in
connections within our organisation. the Riga Sports Museum. The Latvian Olympic Committee
Since I began my new job, we have acquired eight new organised the event, and after the official addresses
members. Notably these include one from Georgia for we were honoured to be invited to a dinner by the NOC
the first time. President Aldons Vrublevskis and the Director of the
Rio 2016 began for me with the ISOH Quadrennial Sports Museum, Ms Agra Brüne.
Meeting held on 4th August in the Press Centre in Barra. And now I hope that together we can make ISOH fit for
For reasons of health, my predecessor Anthony Th. the future in order to master all our challenges.
Bijkerk was no longer in a position to fulfill his role
which forced me to step in at once. At this point I wish
Tony a good recovery and hope that he will be able to
adjust to his new life.
Five new Sports for Tokyo 2020
Despite some difficulties with transport or communi- Following proposals made by the
cation, most Brazilians were outstanding hosts and in Organising Committee for the Games
addition “world champions” at improvising. Everywhere of the XXXII Olympiad in Tokyo, the IOC
ratified five new sports for 2020 at their
we experienced exciting encounters and always in com-
meeting in Rio: baseball/softball,
bination with good humour and a willingness to help.
karate, skateboard, sports climbing
The pride of the Brazilians was obvious. So many flags, and surfing. The decision by the 129th
banners and creative costumes contributed to a relaxed IOC Session in Rio de Janeiro was the
and supremely friendly mood of the fans. most comprehensive evolution of the Olympic programme
in modern history.
The additional sports in Tokyo will not impact the athlete
or event quotas of existing Olympic sports or be binding on
future host cities. The current athlete and event quotas are
unaffected.
The IOC considered a variety of factors when assessing
the proposal, including the impact on gender equality, the
youth appeal of the sports and the legacy value of adding
them to the Tokyo Games.
The inclusion of the new sports will add 18 events and
474 athletes, with equal numbers of women and men for
all sports except baseball/softball, which will have the same
number of teams but different player totals, because softball
teams have 15 players whilst baseball teams have 24. Tokyo
2020 will rely heavily on existing and temporary venues to
The only regrettable thing was the booing of opponents stage the competitions.
during the competition. I suspect that this behaviour Discussions on the event programme in the existing
mainly stems from the Brazilian culture of football. 28 Olympic sports for the Olympic Games Tokyo 2020 are
Along with the many sports events (one per day) ongoing, and will be finalised by the IOC Executive Board in
mid-2017. (IOC/JOH)
we visited also the magnificent sights the city has to
offer. We could not miss visiting Sugar Loaf Mountain,
JOH 3 | 2016 3
Report on ISOH Quadrennial Meeting
By David Wallechinsky
Since many ISOH members are statisticians, it may be
worth noting that the average age of members who
passed away was 83.
25th Anniversary Celebration
A gathering to celebrate the 25th anniversary of ISOH will
be held in London on 3rd December 2016. It will take place
at the Victory Service Club (63-79 Seymour Street; London
W2 2HF) from 14.00 until 17.00. Richard Pound will be the
keynote speaker. All ISOH members are invited.
Membership
Professor Lamartine On the afternoon of 4th August 2016, the International
DaCosta received Society of Olympic Historians (ISOH) held its Quadrennial Outgoing Secretary-General Anthony Th. Bijkerk reported
the 2015 Lifetime Meeting in a press conference room at the Main Press that ISOH now has more than 450 members from 55
Achievement Award Centre in Rio de Janeiro, the day before the Opening nations.
from ISOH President Ceremony. About 40 members and others attended,
David Wallechinsky. including members of the press. Coverage was included IOC-Related Projects
in The Wall Street Journal and El Economista.
Photos: Markus Osterwalder
David Wallechinsky reported that ISOH members have
In Memoriam been working closely with the IOC to make available
to the public an encyclopedia that would include all
After a brief introduction by President David results from all Olympic Games since 1896 (and as many
Wallechinsky, homage was paid to those ISOH members as are known from the Ancient Games). In addition,
who died since the last quadrennial meeting. They are: he explained that he has been working with the IOC’s
Georgy Demetr (1923-2012; Russia) Words of Olympians project by conducting extended
John Apostel Lucas (1927-2012; USA) video interviews of Olympic athletes who are now
Naomi Beinart(-2013; South Africa) older than 75. His most recent interview was with Alex
Vladimir Rodichenko (1931-2013; Russia) Tarics (water polo, Hungary, 1936), the oldest surviving
David Young (1937-2013; USA) champion in Olympics history. Mr. Tarics died, at the age
Patricia Henry Yeomans (1917-2103; USA) of 102, two months after the interview.
Lionel Peters (1937-2013; Great Britain) Also, at IOC President Thomas Bach’s request, ISOH
Karl Lennartz (1940-2014; Germany) members compiled a list of Olympians and other
Tibor Ivanics (1937-2014; Hungary) participants who died during the Olympic Games. This
Regnier “Pim”Huurman (1934-2014; Netherlands) information was used to create a memorial inside the
Peter Daland (1921-2014; USA) Athletes’ Village in Rio de Janeiro.
Gosse Blom (1946-2014; Netherlands)
Mary Alison Glen-Haig (1918-2014; Great Britain) ISOH Website
June Becht (1929-2014; USA)
Harry Gordon (1925-2015; Australia) The ISOH has upgraded its website thanks, in parti
Monique Berlioux (1923-2015; France) cular, to the work of webmaster (and ISOH member)
Alan Zell (1930-2015; USA) Mark Maestrone. Another ISOH member, Nicholas
Markku Siukonen (1948-2015; Finland) Wolaver, has been helping promote ISOH through
Jacobus “Jaco” Treurniet (1933-2016; Netherlands) social media.
4
Election Results of the IOC’s Olympic Studies Centre. He has published
numerous books, lectured widely and helped dozens of
The results of the latest ISOH election were announced. young scholars with their work. Indeed, the aid he has
David Wallechinsky and Christian Wacker were re-elected given so many students and others may be his greatest
as President and Vice-President respectively. Markus legacy.
Osterwalder was elected the new Secretary-General and
Laurel A. Grasso Zeisler the new Treasurer. Volker Kluge, Special Awards
Philip Barker, Kostas Georgiadis and Leif Yttergren were
re-elected to the Executive Committee. The complete John Grasso was awarded ISOH Honorary Membership
results are available on the ISOH website. for his indispensable role in the development of the
International Society of Olympic Historians and for his
Treasurer’s Report contribution as treasurer for twelve years (2004-2016).
Outgoing ISOH Treasurer John Grasso reported that during Farewell from
the four-year period from 1st January 2012 to 31st December General Secretary
2015, the ISOH bank account decreased from $86,039.83 Anthony T. Bijkerk,
to $82,884.52, primarily as a result of the shrinking value who had come to Rio
of the pound and euro against the U.S. dollar. ISOH despite ill health.
maintains accounts in the United States and Germany. Adjacent: Outgoing
Revenues come primarily from membership fees and treasurer John Grasso
annual subventions (subsidies) provided by the IOC. Our Another special honour was awarded to Anthony Bijkerk. became an ISOH
major expense is the production and shipping of the In 1991, he was invited to ISOH’s founding meeting. Honorary Member.
Journal of Olympic History, which is sent to members, as Although he was unable to attend this meeting, he was
well as all IOC Members, all National Olympic Committees made a member of the Executive Committee of the ISOH.
and all International Sports Federations. Financial He served as editor of the Journal of Olympic History from
details are available upon request. 1996 until 2002 and as Secretary-General for twenty years
(1996-2016). Among his many achievements, Bijkerk
Journal of Olympic History published Olympisch Oranje – Van Athene 1896 tot en
met London 2012, the first book containing full data on all
Journal editor Volker Kluge reminded members that the participants from one nation.
the Journal of Olympic History, which ISOH publishes
three times a year, has become more colorful not just Tony's farewell
in design presentation, but in content, with the hope
that it will appeal to a wider audience of readers. He Our President read a short address on behalf of Tony
thanked the editorial team and especially the authors, Bijkerk who noted that during his tenure as Secretary-
without whom the Journal could not exist. All of these General, ISOH membership has more than doubled
people work on the Journal as volunteers, like everyone from 190 members to more than 450. He concluded by
else who works for ISOH. expressing “the hope that the future of the International
Society of Olympic Historians may continue to be bright, Genādijs Maričevs was
Proposed Executive Committee Changes informative, innovative and above all that it will grow honoured with the
into a fully respected body of Olympic historians accepted Vikelas Plaque. David
Vice-President Christian Wacker presented a proposal everywhere. I wish my successor, Markus Osterwalder, Wallechinsky and
that was discussed at the most recent meeting of the every success possible, and I hope that he will enjoy the Markus Osterwalder
Executive Committee in May. The four non-officers job as much as I have.” travelled to Riga
would have specific functions, namely Journal editor, to make the presen
webmaster, marketing and awards vetting. It has also tation: Far right:
been proposed that these positions be filled by the Lithuania’s NOC
Executive Committee. President Aldons
Vrublevskis. The
Presentation of Lifetime Achievement Award presentations to prize
winners Stephen L.
The annual ISOH Lifetime Achievement Award was Harris and Ruud Paauw
presented to Lamartine DaCosta of Brazil. DaCosta was took place later and
the founder and first President of the Brazil National will be featured in
Olympic Academy and a member of the Research Council the next Journal.
JOH 3 | 2016 Report on ISOH Quadrennial Meeting 5
“History” and other stories from the
shadow of Sugar Loaf Mountain
By Volker Kluge
A memorable logo and Rarely have I heard or read the phrase “wrote Olympic
torch on a Brazilian history“ so frequently as in the media coverage of the
stamp block, franked two and a half weeks in which Olympic Games took
on 5th August 2016, place in Rio de Janeiro. On closer inspection it was
the day of the opening mostly not about history, but about positive stories with
of the Olympic Games. the standardised introduction: “For the first time ...”
There were cases of doping, bad behaviour from
athletes, wrestling coaches undressing to protest
against a verdict, or ungracious judokas refusing to
shake hands with their opponent, only extremely rarely
let the media write “history”.
If one understands history however as an occupation
or even science which finding out about the past – and The three dimensional logo is somehow very Brazilian,
thus human history – by means of certain sources, then and not just because it made up of the national
the flood of material from Rio is considerably reduced. Yet colours of green, blue and yellow. It was chosen after
there were some moments which fully deserved to burn a competition between amongst 137 creative agencies.
their way into the collective memory. Here is a selection: The idea apparently came to Frederico Gelli the
creative director of Tátil Design, whilst he was swimming
The Symbol at Ipanema. When he emerged, he is said to have
caught sight of the Dois Irmãos (Two Brothers Hill) and
At first sight, the logo of the Olympic Games reminded said to himself: “We are in the middle of sculpture
me of a baby’s dummy. Only on further examination did city, we need to make a harmonizing logo.”1 It was the
I recognise three human beings who hands and feet, unique panorama of undulating mountains which
stylised into ribbons, touch, so that oval shapes arise. inspired him to create a logo which emits a great deal
Did these figures stand symbolically for the descend- of energy.
ants of the indigenous peoples, for the white conquerors
and immigrants as well the enslaved peoples of Africa, Olympic Rings
who are now in 2016 are included in the festival? If one of
them breaks out, then the others fall as well, as the Ger- The Parade of Athletes is the heart of the Opening
man discus thrower Christoph Harting discovered when Ceremonies. It was introduced in 1906 and as every year
he dropped the souvenir he had just received on the top since 1928, it was led by Greece to honour the birthplace
step of the podium. of the Games. The producer had set aside one hour,
Games of the XXXI Olympiad Rio de Janeiro 2016
5th – 21st August First appearance: Kosovo (KOS), South Sudan (SSD)
Opening: Brazil’s interim President Michel Temer Entered athletes: 11,458, of which: men 6276, women 5182
Olympic Oath: Athletes: Robert Scheidt (Sailing) (43.06%),Officials 3481, Total 14,939, by continents: Africa
Referees and Officials: Martinho Nobre dos Santos (Athletics) 1004, America 2542, Asia 1900, Europe 5080, Oceania 733
Coaches: Adriana Aparecida dos Santos (Volleyball) 28 Sports, 306 disciplines where medals were awarded,
Last runner in the Torch Relay: Vanderlei Cordeiro de Lima of which: men 161, women 136, Mix: 9 (London 162-132-8)
(Athletics); budget: 10.6 billion USD Women were represented in all sports.
Participating teams: 207, made up of 205 NOCs, Refugee Men are not admitted to Synchronised Swimming and to
Olympic Team (ROT), Independent Olympic Athletes (IOA) Rhythmic Gymnastics.
6
50 minutes and 17 second. When it was complete, I was Every team – one tree.
too tired to check whether or not the plan had been The 207 seedlings will
adhered to. one day form the
In truth, the world is large. No fewer than 207 teams Athletes’ Forest of
took part in the march into the Maracanã Stadium, Deodoro.
among them the much reduced team from Russia. Its
authorities stood accused of state sponsored doping
regime. Their total exclusion had been demanded by
some.
For the first time in Olympic history the athletes were
included in a campaign. On entering the arena they
received seed and a cartridge with a plant, borne by a
child who followed each team on a tricycle decorated
with flowers. The seedlings were temporarily placed in
mirrored boxes, which burst open after the parade and The Olympic Laurel
from whose upper ends the tops of the trees formed the
Olympic rings – for the first time completely green. Thomas Bach’s Olympic Agenda 2020 recommended the
Green was to be the dominant colour of the evening. creation of a new award. The Olympic Laurel, which was
It stands for the paradisiacal nature of Brazil, whose presented for the first time in Rio during the Opening
name comes from “terra do Brasil”, the brazil wood. Ceremony. The original trophy of fair-mined gold,
For a long time it represented the only product of the which stands on a stone from the Ancient Olympia, will
host country, which led to the exploitation of gigantic in future be kept in the Olympic Museum in Lausanne.
forest areas. The first recipient was Kenya’s double Olympic
The destruction of the national tree has stopped, champion Kipchoge Keino, who in 1968 won the 1500
but a greater problem is global warming of the earth. m and in 1972 the 3000 m steeplechase. Keino served as
“Greenland is disappearing!” warned a voice in the an IOC Member from 2000 to 2010. He was nominated by
stadium, in which reflection was included. a jury chaired by IOC President. It included prominent
The contribution of the athletes to prevent climate representatives from five continents – among them IOC
change could be no more than symbolic. The Olympic Honorary President Jacques Rogge.
Games will not save the world. But if the 11,000 Keino received this prize for his charitable work with
seedlings come up, they could one day, together with orphans, which started in 1973 following his retirement
the 207 seedlings in the form a beautiful “Athletes’ from competition. He opened a children’s school and
Forest”. We should monitor its progress. a training centre, which is today home to almost 100
Green was the colour
of the day. The Olympic
rings were formed by
trees at the opening
of the Games.
Photos: picture-alliance
JOH 3 | 2016 “History” and other stories from the shadow of Sugar Loaf Mountain 7
Kenya’s double Doves have formed an important part of the ritual
Olympic champion since Antwerp in 1920. Although these took place two
Kipchoge Keino was years after the end of the war few thought of them as
the first winner of “doves of peace”. Belgian soldiers from the Signals corps
the Olympic Laurel, released the birds – one for each of the 27 participating
which recognised nations.5
for his social It is probable that the IOC had decided on this gesture
engagement. in 1914 at the Olympic Congress in Paris, where other
elements a flag and an oath were also added to the
protocol by Coubertin. A year earlier he had witnessed
the release of 10,000 doves at the inauguration of the
German Stadium in Berlin, perhaps this provided
inspiration.
Kenyan orphans. In 1999 there followed the opening Doves are not mentioned until the 1930 version of
of the Kip Keino School in an isolated region, offering Olympic Charter, which states: “Immediately a fanfare of
education to more than 300 girls and boys aged from 6 trumpets is heard and a salute is fired whilst the Olympic
to 13. flag is hoisted on the central mast, this being a signal for
“We come into this world with nothing … and depart the freeing of pigeons (each pigeon having round its neck
this world with nothing”, said Keino in a speech of a ribbon with the colours of the nation participating) ...”6
thanks. “My request to you, all sports men and women, If in 1932 in Los Angeles it was still “hundreds of
is to join me in the continuous continuation to support doves”, the number multiplied in 1936 in Berlin,
all the youths in the world to get basic humanity: food, where everything assumed a more gigantic scale.
shelter, and education.” On the morning of the opening day 100,000 birds of
German breeders were released in four groups, while
The Doves of Peace the “Olympia Flight” in the afternoon was reserved
for 18,000 homing pigeons, which had been sent in by
Kites are part of the city landscape of Rio. A few months their owners from eleven countries.
ago, 200 were dispatched to children in Kenya, who sent The symbolism we associate with the doves today arose
Paper kites with them back to Brazil together having added messages of only after the Second World War. Pablo Picasso designed
messages of peace peace. During the award for the Olympic Laurel kites a symbol of hope for the First World Peace Congress
from Kenyan children flew in to represent the doves of peace in the Maracanã in 1949 in Paris. It incorporated a dove of peace. It was
sailed through the Stadium. fitting that his daughter, born on the evening before the
Maracanã Stadium. Doves had always been an important symbolic Congress, received the name “Paloma” – dove.
Adjacent: 94 years ago, presence. IOC founder Pierre de Coubertin wrote about The Gun salute disappeared from the Olympic protocol,
in 1920 in Antwerp, the opening ceremony in 1896 in Athens: “The Cannon its passing was mourned by few. On 17th September 1988
it was Belgian-soldiers salvoes immediately resounded, followed by the release the doves were released before the flame was lit in Seoul.
from the Signals corps of pigeons which wheeled joyously over the stadium Many came to rest on the rim of the cauldron and were
who released the …”2 What task was intended for them is not revealed. incinerated when the flame was lit.
pigeons for each team. It is however known that the dove in Christianity stands Yet the IOC previously concerned itself with the welfare
Photos: picture-alliance,
as a symbol for the Holy Ghost3 and as the bringer of the of the animals. As the birds could be frightened by the
Volker Kluge Archive “joyful message”.4 usual cannon fire, Rule 57 was changed. At the Munich
Games for the first time fireccrackers were used and only
then were the doves released. So that they would not
get lost under the roof construction, their starting point
was moved to a wall outside the stadium. 7
Animal rights groups made such angry protests that
the problem was discussed at the 1990 IOC Session in
Tokyo. General Director François Carrard pleaded for
a change to the bye-law of Rule D69 of the Olympic
Charter, whereupon the Brazilian João Havelange
proposed that instead of a whole flight of doves a
single example or as an alternative “coloured balloons
could be used instead”8. It was agreed finally on the
formulation “a symbolic release of pigeons”, which, as
Rio showed, sets no limit on imagination.
8
Brazil’s double gold
medal winning sailor
Robert Scheidt, spoke
the Olympic Oath on
behalf of his fellow
athletes. The tradition
began in 1920 when
Belgian fencer Victor
Boin, who took the
oath whilst grasping
his national flag.
The Oaths The notion of an oath was already on the wish list of
the founding Olympic Congress of 1894. It was supposed
The Olympic Oaths is one of the most solemn moments to give the IOC the right to exclude from the Games any
in the programme, at the same time one of the most person who had ever broken the rules. At that time they
controversial. Many consider that most athletes commit were primarily thinking of the amateur regulations. Yet
perjury. Coubertin had something higher in his mind: he had
It is almost a century since it was introduced. In 1920 the notion of a type of thinking which he called “religio
in Antwerp it started with an athletes’ spokesman – a athletae” – a moral direction.
role that requires much personality and was brilliantly In the wake of the “Thorpe Affair”10 thoughts had
fulfilled in Rio by 43 year old sailing champion Robert become concentrated in the need for a participants’
Scheidt. He had won a medal at each of five Olympic oath, a concept which Coubertin had first expressed in
Games – two gold, two silver and a bronze. He should 1906.11 It was to have been introduced at the 1916 Games
be free of any suspicion of deceit, apart from if he but in the event it was made its debut only after the First
possessed the ability to dope the wind. World War in Antwerp. Fencer Victor Boin stood with a
The controversial disqualification of the East German raised right hand and with the Belgian flag grasped in
female tobogganists at the 1968 Winter Games his left. He solemnly swore:
probably contributed in the IOC Executive Committee Nous jurons de prendre part aux Jeux olympiques en
to the realisation that judges and officials should compétiteurs loyaux, d’observer scrupuleusement
also swear an oath in future. A text composed by Lord les règlements et de faire prevue d’un esprit
Killanin, similar in wording to the athletes’ oath, was chevaleresque pour l’honneur de nos pays et pour la
to be introduced at the Games in Mexico City.9 Many gloire du Sport.12
sports federations objected to this so a resolution was
postponed for a year. The oath for judges was only Since 1984, the oath taker has grasped the Olympic flag
introduced at the Games of 1972. rather than his or her national flag. The oath itself has
It is to be expected that few of the referees and judges been modified several times in its history. The word
entrusted with this honour have become household “swear” was replaced in 1961 by “promise” and, to
names. Even the name of Martinho Nobre dos Santos, reduce nationalism, “our country” by “our teams”. The
who took the oath in Rio, is not widely known outside clause relating to doping and drugs was only adopted
his sport. He had been Technical Director of the Brazilian into the Olympic Charter in 1999.13
Athletics Federation (CBAt) for many years. Without him
and many like him, the Games could not take place. The Hybrid Cauldron
The same is true of the trainers. The IOC recognised
the importance of the athlete ‘entourage’ at the 2009 As usual there was considerable speculation on who
Congress and since the 2010 Olympic Youth Games, they would be the last runner in the torch relay. It was
too have sworn an oath and are also obliged to promote considered a virtual certainty that it would be Pelé – the
Fair Play. Their oath was spoken in Rio by Adriana Brazilian football legend. It was said that IOC President
Aparecida dos Santos, who had won silver in 1996 and Thomas Bach had invited him, and he was only waiting
bronze in 2000 with the Brazilian basketball team. for the agreement of a sponsor. On the eve of the
JOH 3 | 2016 “History” and other stories from the shadow of Sugar Loaf Mountain 9
Vanderlei de Lima c eremony however a statement from Pele announced: I thought it was a good choice. Who does not remember
lit the Olympic Flame “I’m not in physical condition to take part in the opening the dramatic images from the 2004 marathon race in
as last runner. ceremony.” Athens? On that evening an eccentric Irish priest called
Right: twelve years Now there was feverish speculation in the media about Neil Horan tried to grab hold of the Brazilian with
before he had been a replacement. These were called Jackie Cruz Silva and five kilometres to go. Within a few seconds 53 year old
denied victory in the Sandra Pires – both had won Brazil’s first Olympic gold Athenian Polyvios Kossivas managed to overpower the
Olympic marathon in beach volleyball. Tennis player Gustavo Kuerten, who intruder, who had previously run onto the track during
when impeded by an had been world number one in 2000 was discussed, and the British Formula One Grand Prix at Silverstone. He
eccentric priest from indeed he took the flame from former basketball world had also found his way onto the course for the Derby at
Ireland. Only the champion Hortência Marcarí. But a few metres further Epsom. After the interruption de Lima lost his rhythm and
swift intervention of on, a slight man was waiting to take over. His name: it was only a question of time he was caught by Stefano
a Greek spectator Vanderlei Cordeiro de Lima. Baldini (Italy), who had been only 30 seconds behind.
enabled de Lima to Mebrahtom Keflezighi (USA) also overtook de Lima.
continue the race A protest by the Brazilian Athletic Federation, who
and take bronze. demanded a second gold medal for de Lima, was
rejected by the IAAF and also by the Court of Arbitration.
Photos: picture-alliance
De Lima had to be content with bronze, yet at the
concluding event, in whose framework the victory
ceremony for the marathon took place, received an
extra prize. President Jacques Rogge presented him with
the Pierre de Coubertin Medal. Since 1964, this has been
awarded very rarely. It was given for his “exceptional
sportsmanship”.14
In Rio, de Lima was additionally honoured. He lit a
cauldron which broke with the tradition of keeping
the Olympic Flame alight for 17 days with a fire of huge
volume. Instead a small flame was presented as a
symbolic warning to reduce global warming caused by
fossil fuel and greenhouse gases and to use the sun as
an energy source.
The Girl from Ipanema
Supermodel Gisele Bündchen now 36 years of age, stole
The Olympic Hybrid the show in a golden shimmering dress by Alexandre
Cauldron in the Herchcovitch on a 128 metre long catwalk which was
Maracanã Stadium decorated with sketches of the most famous work of
Photo: Philip Barker architect Oscar Niemeyer. The Girl from Ipanema rang
10Original and copy:
Without her
knowledge Helô
Pinheiro became
famous as the
inspiration of the song
Girl from Ipanema.
At the Olympic Opening
Ceremony, now 71
and a grandmother,
she was represented
by Supermodel
Gisele Bündchen.
out across the stadium. It has become an unofficial Michael, Usain and Leonidas
Brazilian national anthem.
According to legend, composer Tom Jobin and the Michael Phelps was already The Greatest, even before
lyricist Vinícius de Moreas sat in a bar in Rio’s artists’ he set off for Brazil for his fifth Olympic Games. An 18
quarter, where an unknown 17 year old girl would often times Olympic champion, who already had returned
run past. That was the inspiration for a song with a from retirement – in 2009 and 2014 – he was entrusted
melancholy melody. It was about a beautiful girl with with carrying the American flag – as only the second US
a graceful step on the way to the beach. At first, Moreas swimmer after Gary Hall in 1976 in Montreal.
named his work Menina que passa (Girl walking past). One record however was missing for a 31 year old who
After that he produced a second version, translated by had achieved eleven individual Olympic victories from
Norman Gimbel into English and changed to conform to 2004 to 2012. There was one Olympic competitor who
North American taste. The song catapulted a new genre, was even more successful, albeit 2168 years before. A
the Bossa Nova, onto the world stage. No fewer than Greek called Leonidas, whose name would forever be
four Grammys went to The Girl from Ipanema in 1964. linked with his home island – Leonidas of Rhodos. He
Not until three years later did the girl become aware should not be confused with the Spartan commander
that she had inspired the song. Her name was Heloísa Leonidas, who lived 300 years earlier and led a valiant
Eneikda Menezes Paes Pinto and she got to know action against the Persians at the Pass of Thermopylae.
Jobim and Moreas, who made advances to her. But she Leonidas of Rhodes became famous as a runner,
married an engineer who was her childhood sweetheart because he was the first athlete at the 154th Games in
and became a good housewife in São Paulo. Olympia (164 BC) to win three times. He won in the stade
She did not profit from the success of the hit, played over 192.70 m, over the double stade (Diaulos) and was
by Jobim’s grandson on the piano at the opening. Only also victorious in the race in armour (Hoplitodromos).
later did Helô Pinheiro, as she is now called, become The triple winner, described by the Greeks as “Triastes”,
a model. In 1987 she posed for Playboy; in 2003 again repeated his success at the next three consecutive
with her actress daughter Ticiane. In “her” bay, near Games (from 160 to 152 BC), so that he went into history
the legendary bar “Veloso”, which she once had to pass as a twelve time Olympic champion.
when she was sent by her mother to fetch cigarettes, It took until the modern era before the feats of
she opened the boutique Garota de Ipanema, the title Leonidas were equalled. This was done by Phelps on
of the song in Portuguese. the 9th August 2016 with victory in the 200 m butterfly
Gisele Bündchen certainly represents a beautiful and two days later surpassed it in the 200 m medley.
image of Brazil. However there was considerable His complete record is 13 individual gold medals as
discontent on social media. Many were upset because well as three silver and two bronze. In addition come
she had been chosen in preference to Helô Pinheiro ten successes in the relays. In all he contributed to 23
who it was said had not even received an invitation to Olympic victories. This is a record which should ensure
the Maracanã Stadium. Pinheiro, now 71 years old and that the “Flying Fish” will stand at the top of the ranking
a grandmother, was philosophical about the decision. list perhaps for all time.
Instead she happily carried the Olympic torch through As far as the Rhodian is concerned, it should be noted
Rio and announced: “I am proud to be a Carioca.” that in antiquity there were neither team competitions
JOH 3 | 2016 “History” and other stories from the shadow of Sugar Loaf Mountain 11After 2168 years
American swimmer
Michael Phelps broke a
further Olympic record:
with 13 individual
victories, he eclipsed
the record of Leonidas
of Rhodos, who in
Ancient Olympia had
won the stade, diaulos
and the race in armour
(right). Far right: there
was no lack of support
for Usain Bolt in his
“Triple-triple”.
Photos: picture-alliance,
Philip Barker, Volker Kluge
Archive
nor silver and bronze medals. All that counted was the An “historic day” then for the Fijians, but it begs
victory of the individual, who was rewarded in Olympia the question which day is “golden”. In Rio, it was
with a “Kotinos”, a olive bough. At the Isthmian Games the 11th August when Princess Anne presented their
in Corinth there was a pine branch, at the Pythian gold medals, but the clocks in the Fijian capital Suva,
Games in Delphi laurel and at the Nemean celery. however showed 10 o’clock the next day. Will the
Usain Bolt can also be celebrated as a “Triastes”, 11th or the 12th of the month go into history? Few who
although he owes his third gold medal to the relay. Bolt celebrated across the 330 islands which make up the
who turned 30 on the final day of the Rio Games could archipelago were really bothered.
actually be described as a triple ‘’Triastes’’ His gold Whatever, the day will remain memorable for the
medals came in three successive Games over 100 m, 200 Fijians, who won their first gold, sixty years after their
m and as a member of Jamaica’s 4x100 m. In the media first appearance at the Games. Before this their best
however his success was celebrated as a “Triple-triple”. performance had come from weightlifter Maria Liku,
By winning the 200 m medley, Phelps catapulted who had been eighth in London.
himself into an exclusive circle. Until Rio only four News agencies reported that Prime Minister Frank
Olympians who had won the same competition four Bainimarama had declared the 22nd August 2016 as a
times in a row: Danish sailor Poul Elvstrøm in the national holiday. He received the team in Suva, but he
Finn class (1948-1960) Americans Ray Ewry in standing made no reference to this in his speech in Prince Charles
high jump and long jump (1900-1908 including 1906), Park.15
Al Oerter in the discus (1956-1968) and Carl Lewis in the Already on his return from Rio, where he watched
long jump (1984-1996). Even so Leonidas of Rhodos the final, he had called on the 881,000 inhabitants to
remains unmatched. He was victorious four times in a display their national flag. This is a light blue ensign
row in three individual disciplines. which features the British Union flag in the top left
quarter and the lion, another British symbol in the coat
Go Fiji Go! of arms.16
He made a call for the flag to be changed but the
Until now I have only once seen rugby in the flesh, and government did not agree. They reasoned the money
had thought the 15 a side version a very physical game. needed would be better spent helping victims of
Since Rio I have also become a fan of Rugby sevens, cyclone “Winston” – a which had raced over the West
which, as I discovered, only needs a sixth of the playing Pacific Atoll on 7th February 2016.
field and is carried out in two halves of seven minutes. The Fijians had certainly put rugby back on the Olympic
In the final it is ten minutes each way. map after an interval of 92 years. For good measure,
In particular it was those seven Fijians who contributed their women’s team reached the quarter finals. The
to my change of view. After they had put out 2013 World International Rugby Board, founded in 1886 and now
Cup winners New Zealand 12-7 in the quarter final, they known as World Rugby now boasts 92 member nations.
unleashed a real tropical cyclone in the gold medal It had been lobbying for Olympic inclusion since the
match. Great Britain was the victims. The margin of nineties but not until the 2009 IOC Session in Copenhagen
victory 43-7, was decisive. Britain were smashed! It was did they succeed. The majority 81 votes for, only eight
a hard lesson for the nation which had invented rugby. against was overwhelming.
12The introduction of
Rugby sevens and
the victorious Fijians
enriched the Olympic
programme in Rio.
Adjacent: The result
of the 1900 Rugby was
a 27-17 win for France’s
against Germany.
The scoreboard in
the Velodrome de
Vincennes in Paris
was considered
innovative.
In case traditions are still worth something, then rugby accompanied the success of rugby sevens. They were
had good arguments on its side, for as early as the voted back by 63 votes to 22. Some who opposed the
Olympic Games of 1900 in Paris this sport was held. Only decision may well had anticipated that there might be
two matches took place, but the first of these, played problems.
on 14th October 1900 had an additional dimension. At The Olympics called, but the best golfers did not
the invitation of the Union of French Sports Federations come. More than half of the top-15 world-ranked
(USFSA), whose General Secretary had been Coubertin, players were missing. Astonishingly it was mostly the
the Frankfurt Football Club 1880 team travelled to Paris to men who withdrew. Many of them used the threat of
meet the representatives of the host country in the Velo Zika virus as an pretext. Were they planning to become
drome of Vincennes. This caused a violent chauvinistic pregnant? The roll call of absentees was extensive: No. 1
reaction in the French press. They claimed it a disgrace Jason Day (Australia) who cited Zika as a reason, No. 2:
to “measure themselves in peaceful contest with the Dustin Johnson (USA) Zika, No. 3: Jordan Spieth (USA)
sons of the nation which had slaughtered their fathers in Zika, No. 4: Rory McIlroy (Northern Ireland) Zika and
1870”.17 Fortunately, there was no sign of this hostile at- called the Olympic tournament “insignificant”, No. 8:
titude amongst the 3500 spectators who saw the game. Adam Scott (Australia) pleaded another engagement,
At the ensuing banquet in honour of the German guests No. 10: Branden Grace (South Africa) withdrew because
there were alternating toasts to Kaiser Wilhelm and of Zika, No. 14: Louis Oosthuizen (South Africa) had other
President Loubet. In any event a well-intended, in the commitments. Perhaps the allure of victory in a ‘Major’
end vain attempt to release a “Dove of Peace”. was considered more important than an Olympic victory?
Those who believed that through the absence of
Green Jacket instead of Olympic Gold some to golfers it would be easier to win a medal in Rio
were also mistaken. The signal was given by Justin Rose
After an interval of 105 years golf was also welcomed (No. 11). On very first day he sank a putt from 175 metres
back into the Olympic family at the 121st IOC Session on the par three fourth. Three days later the 36 year old
in 2009 but with much less enthusiasm than had became the first Briton to be an Olympic golf champion.
For the first time for
112 years, golf was
again played with
Olympic gold at stake
in Barra.
Adjacent: at the first
tournament in 1900 in
Compiègne the ladies
still played in hats and
long dresses.
Photos: picture-alliance,
La Vie au Grand Air
JOH 3 | 2016 “History” and other stories from the shadow of Sugar Loaf Mountain 13The American Charles The Organising Committee led by Carl Diem accepted
E. Sands was the first golf into the programme. It was to have included
Olympic golf champion both singles and team competitions. The intention
in 1900. was to extend a new course on the Berlin Wannsee, as
the course of the Golf Club Berlin in the West End not
far from the German Stadium had already become
too crowded because of the growing popularity of
the game.20 The First World War prevented the Games
themselves as well as the development of Olympic golf.
The Thousandth – a Game with Figures
On the 13th August 2016 Team USA celebrated their 1000th
gold medal at Olympic Summer Games. It came in the
swimming pool and was won by the women’s medley
relay. The golds were broken down as follows: 323 in
athletics, followed by swimming (246) and shooting
(54). There has yet to be a gold in badminton, handball,
modern pentathlon, table tennis and triathlon.
By states (calculated by birthplace) California lay in
front (at that time with 447 Olympic champions). From
The elite women were almost completely represented. New York came 261, lllinois had 163. The fewest – two –
Gold went to seven times major winner, Park Inbee from came from Wyoming. Only North Dakota has failed to
South Korea (No. 3), who scored three successive birdies produce a champion to date.
in her opening nine. In the final round she carded a However the examination of other databases
round of 66, 16 strokes ahead of New Zealand’s 19 year brought more confusion than enlightenment. In
old Lydia Ko. Although ranked number one in the world, sports-reference, which uses the data compiled by
Ko returned home with silver. Olympedia 21, computed after the Games in London
This was fourth time that golf was on the Olympic more than 990 golds but this figure took into account
programme. In October 1900 competition was held at the twelve American victories at the IInd International
a course some 80 km from Paris in Compiègne (Oise). Olympic Games in Athens in 1906.
The course had been laid out only four years previously. Olympedia founder and ISOH stalwart Bill Mallon, who
The American Charles Sands won a thirty six hole advised Team USA in Rio, suggested that the 1906 gold
tournament. He had also taken part in the tennis earlier medals were not taken into account, nor were the four
in the summer 1900 and also played in the 1908 London which Americans won in the Art Competitions at the 1932
Games in Jeu de Paume. Games. If that is the case, then the total should have
The ladies’ winner in Compiègne was 22 year old been not 977 but 974. It is possible that the USOC figures
American Margaret Abbott, went round the nine holes included these artistic golds.
in 47. Players wore the standard hat and long skirt – and Disregarding the 1906 medals, the total in sports-
to pass the time, for in fact Miss Abbott had come to reference should have produced 978. Using this figure,
Paris to study art with Degas and Rodin. the women’s medley relay would not have won the
She had been accompanied by her mother, the 1000th gold, but the milestone would have arrived two
The exhibition widowed Mary Abbott, who had written some novels days earlier in men’s 4x200 m freestyle.
Esporte Movimento and essays for Chicago newspapers. Like her daughter
organised by ISOH she was a member of the Chicago Golf Club. At the end
member Roberto Gesta Abbott senior ranked seventh out of ten participants.18
de Melo one featured The second time golf was played for an Olympic title in
a wide range of St. Louis in 1904. But only the gentlemen were permitted
Olympic memorabilia and the tournament was matchplay. Canadian George
including a gold Lyons won the final 3 and 2.
medal won by Golf was also planned as part of the Berlin Games
German-American in 1916. This came after the IOC had decided at their
gymnast George congress in Paris to classify golf as among the optional
Eyser at the 1904 sports. It was for the host city to decide whether or not
Games in St. Louis. to stage it.19
14Infostrada Sports (Gracenote) also worked with the celebrated with great applause from the Berlin
figure 978. Here, the gold medal of the Austrian Julius spectators.
Lenhart, won a multi-event competition with athletic Athletes get headlines nowadays not just for sporting
and gymnastic exercises at the 1904 St. Louis Games was performances. An example: swimmer Ryan Lochte
included. Mallon on the other hand credits this victory travelled to Rio with freshly blond-dyed hair which
to Austria, because Lenhart, who lived in the USA for faded in the chlorinated water. The newsheets were not
professional reasons from December 1903 until 1905, unanimous: was the colour green/blue or ice blue?
never had American citizenship.22 One Sunday it was reported that the social media star
In a Journal article 23, which I compiled together with had been the victim of a crime in Rio. On the way home
Tony Bijkerk and the late Karl Lennartz, we however from a party in Leblon, men in police uniforms had
pleaded for more flexibility. Lenhart was a member of allegedly waited for him at a petrol station, held a pistol
the Philadelphia Turngemeinde, which won the team to his head and robbed him.
competition in St. Louis – of course for the USA. In
addition, it should be remembered that no nationality Inconsolable: France’s
was recognised in Austria as in some other countries. pole vaulter Renaud
Instead there was so-called “Heimatrecht”, given by Lavillenie wept on
the communes. the shoulder of Sergey
But it is a hundred per cent certain that the first Bubka. He was the
Olympic champion of the modern era – and thus also recipient of abuse by
of the USA – was called James B. Connolly. At the 1896 Brazilian spectators.
Games in Athens he won the triple jump. However the IOC President Thomas
American did not receive gold. It is well known that the Bach remained
winners’ awards at that time were made of silver. neutral.
Nor is it not totally clear who should be considered
number 100. On 28th October 1904 the AAU Gymnastic
Championships took place in St. Louis. These are also But a few days later the truth emerged on a video
included in the Olympic gymnastic competitions, recording. In fact Lochte and three of his companions
although it is probable that only Americans took had lied. They had vandalised a petrol station. When
part, but most were likely to have been native-born the security men had arrived, the quartet had paid for
Germans. Among the four gymnasts who can be the damage but then made their “complaint”. They
considered for this milestone, George Eyser towers over probably thought that an armed gang which robbed
the rest. He had supposedly lost his left leg in a train athletes would be a plausible story. It would certainly
accident and is said to have worn a wooden prosthesis. have been consistent with the image of a violent Rio
How was it possible that he could win the gym horse which was widely reported.
competition with that? It did not fit my picture that it occasionally rained on
Statisticians always want clear answers. There is rarely the sunny beach and that many seats in the venues
room for footnotes. remained unoccupied. Well, it was winter in Brazil.
However the 17 Olympic Games which I previously
Limp Comparisons and unforgettable Pictures experienced were always connected with hard work,
also always different from how I had pictured them at
A German athletes’ spokeswoman, perhaps disap home. But distance lends enchantment. As they recede
pointed at her own performance, declared Rio 2016 to be into memory, the lovelier they became.
the “worst Olympic Games of all time”. Her own terms of
reference were somewhat limited. The only Games she A well-earned honour:
had taken experienced were London 2012. every workman who
The 2012 pole vault Olympic champion, Renaud had contributed to
Lavillenie, lost out to the Brazilian Thiago da Silva. the construction of
The French claimed that as the competition came the new Metro line 4,
to a climax, he had been disturbed by jeering from which leads to the
spectators, which he compared to Berlin 1936. He was Olympia Park in
quoted as saying: “In 1936 the crowd was against Jesse Barra da Tijuca, was
Owens. We’ve not seen this since.” 24 recorded on a plaque
Later he apologised and opined that of course at the Jardim Oceacino
one could not make such comparisons. In fact: the station.
comparison itself was a limp one, for Owens was Photos: picture-alliance
JOH 3 | 2016 “History” and other stories from the shadow of Sugar Loaf Mountain 15‘’Super Mario’’: at the 6 Regulation and Protocol for the Celebration of the Modern Olympiads
and of the Quadrennial Olympic Games, IOC 1930, p. 22
closing ceremony
7 Minutes IOC Session 1971 in Luxemburg, p. 52.
Japan’s Prime Minister 8 Minutes, IOC Session 1990 Tokyo, p. 50
Shinzo Abe, dressed as 9 Minutes, IOC EC Meeting, 30th September-6th October 1968, p. 10
10 The Indian Olympic champion of 1912 in pentathlon and decathlon,
the popular Italian
James Thorpe, had to return his medals and prizes, after it had
plumber from the become known that some years before he had played baseball and
computer games received money for it.
appeared after having 11 Revue Olympique, July 1906, pp. 107-109, letter to Charles Simon,
General Secretary of the Fédération Gymnastique et Sportive des
‘’tunnelled‘’ all the
Patronages de France
way from Tokyo to Rio. 12 Comité Olympique Belge, Rapport Officiel des Jeux de la VIIème
Olympiade Anvers 1920, manuscript, p. 50
Photos: picture-alliance 13 Olympic Charter, IOC 1999, bye-law to rule 69, 1.12, p. 94. The oath
which has been valid since runs: “In the name of all the competitors
I promise that we shall take part in these Olympic Games, respecting
and abiding by the rules which govern them, committing ourselves
to a sport without doping and without drugs, in the true spirit of
sportsmanship, for the glory of sport and the honour of our teams.”
14 Official Report of the XXVIII Olympiad, Athens 2004, Vol. 2, p. 460
There are many images of Rio which remain fresh and 15 The Fijian Government, Hon PM Bainimarama’s Speech at Nadi
will perhaps never fade. One of the last comes from Welcome Home Celebration for Fiji’s Olympic Team, 22nd August 2016
16 Ibid, Statement by the Prime Minister on the National Flag,
the closing ceremony, as the Japanese Prime Minister
17th August 2016
Shinzo Abe, disguised a “Super Mario” bores through 17 Sport im Bild, No. 47, 1900, pp. 644-645
the globe from Tokyo to the Maracanã-Stadium. 18 Paula Welch, “Search for Margaret Abbott”, in: Olympic Review, No.
Everything wonderful, but in 2020 everything will be 1982, December 1982, pp. 752-754.
19 Norbert Müller, Von Paris bis Baden-Baden. Die Olympischen
better. Perhaps – or perhaps not! Kongresse 1894-1981, Schors-Verlag, Niedernhausen 1981, p. 80.
Because of the First World War the nine page protocol did not
appear until November 1919.
1 www.simpliowebstudio.com/2016-olympic-logo-font-created 20 Heiner Gillmeister, “Ein kosmopolitischer Golf Club in Berlin“, in:
2 Pierre de Coubertin, Olympic Memoirs, IOC, Lausanne 1992, p. 43 100 Jahre Golf in Deutschland, Bd. 1: Gründerzeiten bis 1924, Albrecht
3 Mark 1-10 Golf Verlag, Oberhaching 2007, pp. 86-87
4 Genesis 8-11. In the Bible it is said of Noah that after the Flood he 21 JOH, Vol. 17, 2009, No. 3, pp. 53-55
let a dove arise from the Ark to check the water level of the earth: 22 Bill Mallon, The 1904 Olympic Games, MacFarland & Company,
“When the dove returned to him in the evening, there in its beak Jefferson and London, pp. 150-151
was a freshly plucked olive leaf!” 23 Karl Lennartz, Volker Kluge and Tony Bijkerk, “Battle of Medals”, in:
5 The teams of Portugal and Brazil were still on the high seas on the JOH, Vol. 18, 2010, No. 1, pp. 40-48
opening day. 24 Reuters, 16th August 2016
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