Vital Forest Graphics - Stopping the Downswing? - Convention on Biological Diversity
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The United Nations Environmental The Food and Agriculture The United Nations Forum Programme, as the world’s leading Organization of the United Nations on Forests Secretariat provides support intergovernmental environmental (FAO) is one of the largest specialized to the international policy dialogue on organization, is the authoritative source agencies in the United Nations system sustainable forest management. The of knowledge on the current state of, and the lead agency for agriculture, United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF) forestry, fisheries and rural development. is an intergovernmental body on and trends shaping the global The Forestry Department helps nations global forest policy which promotes environment. The mission of UNEP is manage their forests in a sustainable way. management, conservation and to provide leadership and encourage The Organization’s approach balances sustainable development of all types partnership in caring for the environment social, economic and environmental of forests. The UNFF Secretariat works by inspiring, informing, and enabling objectives so that present generations with a wide range of international nations and peoples to improve their can reap the benefits of the Earth’s forest organizations and stakeholders to quality of life without compromising that resources while preserving them to meet facilitate cooperation and coordination of future generations. the needs of future generations. on global forest issues. Disclaimer The contents of this report do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNEP, FAO, UNFF or any other contributory organizations. The designations employed and the presentations do not imply the expressions of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP, FAO,UNFF or contributory organizations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authority, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. UNEP promotes environmentally sound practices Published by UNEP/GRID-Arendal globally and in its own activities. This Printed on recycled paper with 100 % plant based ink report is printed on 100% recycled paper, using vegetable-based inks and other eco- Copyrights 2008 UNEP/GRID-Arendal, UNEP, FAO, UNFF friendly practices. Our distribution policy aims to All rights reserved reduce UNEP’s carbon footprint. ISBN: 978-92-807-2903-0 Job No: DEW/1032/NA
Vital Forest Graphics Stopping the Downswing? Core editorial team Authors and contributors Claude Martin Christian Lambrechts (UNEP) Frédéric Achard (European Commission Joint Carolyn Marr (Down to Earth, UK) Mette Løyche Wilkie (FAO) Research Centre) Lera Miles (UNEP – WCMC) John Bennett (Principal, Bennett & Associates) Mukundi Mutasa (Southern Africa Research Ieva Rucevska (UNEP/GRID-Arendal) Donné Beyer (Octopus Media) and Documentation Centre, Zimbabwe) Mita Sen (UNFF Secretariat) Jim Carle (FAO) Christian Nellemann (UNEP/GRID-Arendal) Editorial panel Arnaldo Carneiro (Instituto Socioambiental, Vemund Olsen (Rainforest Foundation Norway) Kevin M. Conrad (Coalition for Rainforest Brazil) Martina Otto (UNEP DTIE) Nations) Peter Csoka (UNFF Secretariat) Jari Parviainen (Finnish Forest Research Institute) Mahendra Joshi (UNFF Secretariat) Alberto DelLungo (FAO) Adriana Ramos (Instituto Socioambiental, Lars Laestadius (Global Forest Watch) Frédéric Durand (University of Toulouse, France) Brazil) Marianne Fernagut (UNEP/GRID-Arendal) Philippe Rekacewicz (Le Monde Diplomatique) Lars Løvold (Rainforest Foundation Norway) Lauren E. Haney (UNEP/GRID-Arendal) Ieva Rucevska (UNEP/GRID-Arendal) Claude Martin John Sellar (CITES) Risto Päivinen (The European Forest Institute) John Innes (University of British Columbia) Carsten Smith Olsen (Royal Veterinary and Carsten Smith Olsen (Royal Veterinary and David Kaimowitz Agricultural University, Denmark) Agricultural University, Denmark) Marion Karmann (FSC International Centre, Barbara Tavora-Jainchill (UNFF Secretariat) Germany) Frank Turyatunga (UNEP/GRID-Arendal) Language editor: Kieran Cooke Ashish Kothari (IUCN) Proof reader: Harry Forster Natalie Unterstell (Instituto Socioambiental, Ingelin Ladsten (Rainforest Foundation Brazil) Norway) Cartography Jo Van Brusselen (The European Forest Institute) Christian Lambrechts (UNEP) Philippe Rekacewicz assisted by Petteri Vuorinen (FAO) Barbara Lassen (IUCN) Cécile Marin, Agnès Stienne, Giulio Frigieri, Monika Weißschnur Riccardo Pravettoni, Laura Margueritte Arvydas Lebedys (FAO) and Marion Lecoquierre Mette Løyche Wilkie (FAO) Layout and cover: Boris Séméniako
Foreword Contents Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4 Forest definition and extent.......................................................................6 Forest losses and gains: where do we stand?.............................................. 10 The relationship between indigenous people and forests.............................. 14 Forests sustain livelihoods...................................................................... 16 A hiding places for fighting forces and a refuge for victims........................... 18 Forests under threat as farming commodities take over................................ 20 Is fast-wood like fast-food?..................................................................... 24 Changing trends in forest products........................................................... 26 Clearing forests for biofuels..................................................................... 30 Forests are a key source of ecological services............................................ 32 Climate change and its impact on forests. Will trees migrate?....................... 34 Forests and the carbon cycle.................................................................... 36 Forest animals threatened by habitat loss and poaching.............................. 38 The forests of Central Africa..................................................................... 40 The forests of Southeast Asia................................................................... 42 The Amazon, the largest rainforest in the world.......................................... 44 The boreal forests.................................................................................. 46 Forests and fires.................................................................................... 48 Forests suffer from air pollution............................................................... 50 Local forest management........................................................................ 52 Certification for sustainable forest management.......................................... 54 Economic incentives to protect forests...................................................... 56 Are legal instruments sufficient to protect our forests?................................ 58 Greening degraded forest landscapes......................................................... 60 References............................................................................................ 62
Forests: Suppliers of Multi ple ) Global forest distribution Services to Nature and Hu mankind O ver the last few years, two, closely related key environmental issues, have been at the top of the environ- + Global forest types mental agenda: climate change and deforestation. Deforesta- tion, estimated at more than 7 ������������� ����������� million hectares a year, has im- and for efforts to ensure that scientific findings are translated Amazon, the Congo Basin mediate consequences in terms into a common, user-friendly language. and southeast Asia, as well as of increased carbon emissions Environmental assessments, such as the Vital Graphics the boreal forests. The atlas also analy- and loss of biological diversity. series, are fundamental communication tools that promote ses the role and importance of forests with regard �������� ����������� Most of the losses in forest cover are interaction between science and various stages of the policy to the most pressing environmental issues of our time, in- ���� taking place in developing countries, in and decision-making cycle. The format of the Vital Graphics cluding: climate change; loss of biodiversity; trade and envi- ��� particular in South America, Africa and Southeast Asia. One series with its extensive graphic component reduces com- ronment; air pollution; energy and biofuels; agriculture and of the root causes behind deforestation is the weak govern- plexity and adds value by summarizing, synthesizing and il- food security. ������������ ance structure for forest conservation and sustainable man- lustrating critical environmental issues. In order to further the understanding of the importance ���������� agement of forest resources. This applies particularly to pub- Forest issues are wide ranging. In order effectively to raise of the forests, the atlas reviews the main ecological functions ����������� ��� licly owned forests that represent over 80 per cent of global the awareness and understanding of the policy-makers and they provide in support of human well-being. These include ��������� ������� forest cover. the general public, Vital Forest Graphics focuses on a number the regulation of ecological processes, including the hydro- ��� In order to help address forest governance, it is essen- of selected issues that are topical and important. logical cycle and micro-climatic conditions. tial to further the understanding of policy-makers and the The atlas starts by setting the stage and looking at what Finally the Vital Forest Graphics atlas highlights some of ������ ��� general public at large regarding the importance of forests, defines a forest. It examines changes in forest cover in vari- the proven or innovative practices, including legal or eco- ������������� ��� the underlying causes of their loss and the exciting success- ous parts of the world over the last century. The publication nomic tools, which have been implemented to help conserve ������ ful practices available to help conserve them. This calls for also provides an analysis of the most salient features of the the forests and secure the livelihoods of forest-dependent ������������ ��������� a strengthening of the interface between science and policy largest forest ecosystems, including the tropical forests of the communities. 4 Vital Forest Graphics Vital Forest Graphics 5
* Forest cover varies depending on how it is defined based on botanical characteristics, i.e. Forest definition and extent variety of tree species, will be used for assessing various classes or types of for est. An overall assessment carried out on a regional or global level is unlikely to satisfy more detailed national level requirements. Conversely, a definition �������������������� ������������������ How much forest is there in the world? D efining what constitutes a forest is not easy. Forest types differ widely, determined by factors including lati initions for forests and wooded areas were in use round the world – with some countries adopting several such developed to suit the needs of any given country is unlikely to be applicable at a global level. A surprisingly difficult question to answer tude, temperature, rainfall patterns, soil definitions at the same time! In an attempt to calculate how much composition and human activity. How It should be kept in mind that dif forest there is both at regional and global a forest is defined also depends on who ferent definitions are required for dif levels some common definitions have is doing the defining. People living in ferent purposes and at different scales. been developed. These definitions are the British Isles or Scandinavia might An assessment focusing on the avail generally very broad, in order to encom identify forests differently from people ability of timber for commercial or pass all types of forests – from dense, tall in Africa or Asia. Similarly, a business industrial purposes may exclude small forests found in the humid tropics, to person or economist might define and wooded areas and types of forest not temperate and boreal forests and forests value a forest in a very different way to considered to be of commercial value. in semi-arid and arid regions. �������������������� a forester, farmer or an ornithologist. A definition based on physical charac ������������������ A recent study of the various defin teristics, such as the canopy cover, will Common Definitions itions of forests (Gyde H. Lund 2001) most likely be used for an assessment The (United Nations) Food and Agri found that more than 500 different def of the forest extent, whilst a definition culture Organization (FAO) has been assessing the world’s forest resources + The main biomes of the world at regular intervals. Its Global For est Resources Assessments (FRA) are based on data provided by individual countries, using an agreed global defi nition of forest which includes a mini mum threshold for the height of trees (5m), at least 10 per cent crown cover (canopy density determined by esti �������������������� ������������������ mating the area of ground shaded by the crown of the trees) and a minimum forest area size (0.5 hectares). Urban parks, orchards and other agricultural tree crops are excluded from this def inition – as are agroforestry systems used for agriculture. According to this definition there are at present just ������ ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� under 4 billion hectares of forest in the ������������������������������������������������ ����������������������������������������������������������� world, covering in all about 30 per cent ���������������������������������������������� ������������������������������������������� of the world’s land area (FAO 2006). ������������������������������������������� ������������������������������� �������������������� ������������������������������������ ����������������������������� The United Nations Framework ������������������ ��������������������������� �������� Convention on Climate Change ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������� �������������������������� �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ������ ������������ (UNFCCC) uses a slightly different ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ����������������������������������������������������������������� ����������������������������������������� approach. It requests industrialized & 6 Vital Forest Graphics Vital Forest Graphics 7
& countries to estimate the forest area minimum crown cover. The threshold crown cover encompasses both open cover of 40 per cent. It has also used another due to the different method definitions concerns just what a par according to their own national defin values chosen must be used for all sub and closed forests. The term closed remote sensing to ensure compatibil ologies used. For example, the use of ticular forest is made up of. Is it largely itions which should be documented in sequent assessments made during the forest refers to areas where tree cover ity across countries. According to the satellite imagery might produce very composed of indigenous (native) or the greenhouse gas inventory report. reporting period and if the definition exceeds 40 per cent while the term UNEP assessment, there were an esti different results to a ground based sur introduced species? If planted, is it a For supplementary reporting to the is different from the definition used by open forest refers to areas where tree mated 2.87 billion hectares of closed vey. In addition, remote sensing tech monoculture – consisting of only one Kyoto Protocol, however, these coun FAO, the country should explain why a cover is between 10 and 40 per cent. In forest worldwide in 1995, equivalent niques for assessing forest areas can species? The definitions outlined above tries have to apply a forest definition different definition was chosen. order to assess the state of the world’s to 21.4% of the total land area. Half of result in areas used for agricultural also exclude the condition of the for with threshold values within certain The crown cover threshold and the closed forests, the United Nations this area was located in Russia, Canada purposes or urban development being est. Is it an undisturbed primary for parameters; 0.01-1.0 hectares for mini land use criterion are, in most cases, Environment Programme (UNEP) and Brazil (UNEP 2001) included rather than excluded in over est, severely degraded or something in mum area, 2-5 meters for minimum the most critical factors defining for has recently employed other definition Several other regional and global all calculations of forest area. between? Is the forest healthy or has it tree height and 10-30 per cent for ests. The 10 per cent threshold of criteria, including a minimum crown maps and assessments of forests have In order to help address some of been subject to attacks by pests, disease been produced – often with differing these problems, a new, global remote or forest fire, or damaged by wind or + Countries with the most forest results, reflecting the various defin sensing survey of forests carried out by air pollution? Area is only one factor itions and methodologies used and also group of agencies lead by the FAO is at in assessing the world’s forests: it is the differing interpretations made. present being used to assess trends in also vital to present comparable data ������ Problems which arise in trying to forest areas over the last 30 years. The on various specific forest types, exam ��� assess the extent of forests worldwide survey, which is due to announce its ine forest health and look at usage and ���������������� are compounded by the fact that even results in 2011, involves all countries resource values. when using a commonly held defin and aims to carry out its work in as ������ ������������ ������ ������ ition, data from one country is not consistent a way as possible. A factor & See also pages 10, 12 ��� ������ necessarily comparable with data from not included in the above-mentioned ����� ���������� ����� + Forest cover in percentage of total land area ������ �������� ������������ ��������� ���� ���������� �� �� ��������� � � � ������������������ ������ ��������� ������������������������ ������������ ��������� ������ ������ ������ ������ ������ ������ ��������� �������� � ���� ����� ���������� ����������������������������� ����� �� ����� ������� �� ���������� �������� ��������� �� ��������� ���������� � ����������������������������������������� � �������������������������������� � ������������������ ��������� ������������������ 8 Vital Forest Graphics Vital Forest Graphics 9
+ Changing global forest cover Definitions Forest losses Deforestation: Removing the vegetation cover below the threshold value that defines a forest. and gains: where Net change in forest area (loss and gain): Sum of all changes in forest area over a specific period of time (including reductions due do we stand? to deforestation and disasters, and increases due to afforestation and expansion of forests during the period). ������� ������� Afforestation: Planting of trees Forests can undergo changes estimates that about 13 million hectares ������������������� on land which was never forested. in various ways. Forest areas – an area roughly equivalent to the size Reforestation: Planting of trees of Greece – of the world’s forests are on land which was forested before. can be reduced either by ��������������� cut down and converted to other land �������������������� Forest degradation: Removing deforestation or by natural part of the vegetation cover uses every year (FAO 2006). ��������������� disasters such volcanic leading to reduced capacity of At the same time, planting of trees the forest to provide specific goods eruptions or severe mud slides, has resulted in new forests being estab and services. which can result in the forest lished while in other areas forests have Forest fragmentation: Splitting being unable to naturally of a contiguous forest area into expanded on to abandoned agricultural regenerate. Conversely, smaller pieces through conversion. land through natural regeneration, ���������������������������������������� forest areas can be increased thus reducing the “net loss” of total – through afforestation or by forest area. In the period 1990-2000 the conducted assessments – methodolo teristics, composition and health of net loss of forests over the 1990-2005 a net loss of forests to having a net gain the natural expansion of forests world is estimated to have suffered a gies also differ meaning that estimates forest ecosystems. period (FAO 2006). in forest area (FAO 2006). net loss of 8.9 million hectares of forest have a large degree of inaccuracy. Historically, deforestation has been The five countries with the largest Although reasons for deforestation each year, but in the period 2000-2005 Given the considerable variety in the much more intensive in temperate annual net loss of forest area in the differ from region to region, the most this was reduced to an estimated 7.3 types of forests and in their character regions than in tropical regions, with period 2000-2005 were Brazil, Indo direct cause is generally the conversion W hile natural disasters are rela tively rare, clearance of forests has been practised throughout docu million hectares per year – or an area about the size of Sierra Leone or Pan ama (FAO 2006). In broader terms, this istics and relative health, the rates of deforestation and “net change” do not convey the full picture of the changes Europe being the continent with the least original forest. However, in the last 50-100 years, the situation has changed; nesia, Sudan, Myanmar and Zambia. The five countries with the largest annual net gain in forest area over of forest areas for other land uses, in particular agricultural crops, includ ing annual crops and tree crops, such mented human history. Prior to the means that the world lost about 3 per occurring to forests over time. A “net rates of deforestation are now highest the same period were China, Spain, as orchards and palm oil plantation, industrial era such clearances were cent of its forests in the period 1990 change” in forest area may hide the fact in tropical developing countries. Vietnam, the United States and Italy. as well as infrastructure development. generally part of a relatively slow and to 2005; at present we are losing about that natural forests are being deforested In the period 2000-2005, South Chile, Costa Rica, India and Vietnam Although harvesting of tropical timber steady process (MEA 2005) but in 200 hectares of forest each day. in one part of a country or region while America reported the largest net loss are among the countries which have is rarely the main cause of deforestation, recent times the rate of deforestation Unfortunately, very few countries forest plantations are being established of forest, followed by Africa. In the recently recorded a change from having the establishment of logging roads & around the globe has increased dra have any estimates of the actual rates in another area. Large scale changes 1990s, Asia had a net forest loss of matically. The United Nations Food of deforestation; even “net change” can also happen within the forest 800,000 hectares per year. In the period + Global forest fragmentation and Agriculture Organization (FAO), estimates are rarely based on regularly area. In some cases natural forests 2000-2005 Asia showed a net gain of are converted into forest plantations forests of around 1 million hectares per + Annual net change in forest area, 1990-2005 while undisturbed primary forests are year, despite high rates of deforestation ���������� ��������� �������� ��������������� ������ being changed into modified or even in many countries in the region, in par ���� ���� ���� ���� � ���� ������� degraded forests. ticular in Southeast Asia. This net gain ����� ������� For example, forest areas opened is attributed to large-scale afforestation, � ������ by the felling of hardwood species particularly in China, where there has �� are likely to be colonised by pioneer been an annual increase of more than 4 �� tree species, thus changing the forest’s million hectares. Meanwhile in Europe composition. It is therefore important forest areas continued to expand, ����������� �� ������������ not to focus solely on factors such as although at a relatively slow rate, while ���������������������������������������������� �� deforestation rates or net change, but North and Central America and Oce ������������ ������������������ ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� �� to also look at changes in the charac ania registered a relatively small annual 10 Vital Forest Graphics Vital Forest Graphics 11
& tends to open up previously closed data currently exists on the degree of Removing forests not only means the + Decreases and increases in forest area in Costa Rica, 1940-2005 forest areas and facilitate access which global forest degradation, due in part loss of this carbon carrying capacity ���� ��������� ��������� then often leads to the conversion of to different perceptions of what degra but also frequently means that large ���� forest areas to agriculture. Underlying dation entails and the lack of adequate amounts of greenhouse gas are sud ��������� ��������� causes of deforestation include popula assessment methodologies with meas denly released into the atmosphere ��� ��� tion increases and resulting increases urable thresholds and/or the resources through wood burning and clear �������� �������� in demand for land, poverty, lack of needed for their implementation. ance activities, compounding climate enforceable property rights and a lack At times, the condition of a degraded change problems. ������ ������ of incentives to establish proper forest forest can be improved, either through Reducing carbon emissions caused ���������������������������������������������������� management systems. forest or landscape restoration pro by deforestation and forest degrada �������������������������������������������������������� ����������������������������������������������������� Forest degradation often implies a jects or by natural recovery after other tion in developing countries (REDD) ����� ���� ����������������������������������������������������� ������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������� change in the health and vitality of a pressures. is seen by many as a potentially promi �������������������������������������������������� ����������������������������������� forest ecosystem but it can also relate Forest fragmentation can jeopardize sing approach in the battle to combat to other factors such as changes in the long-term health and vitality of the climate change. If the REDD initiative the composition of tree species, a loss forest ecosystem. Forest fragmentation succeeds, it will not only mitigate cli of biodiversity, a permanent or long can also result in species loss as the size mate change but also reduce the rate of ���� term reduction in the crown cover and of a forest becomes too small to sup forest and biodiversity loss while at the ��������� changes in timber volumes or carbon port a viable population of a certain same time providing forest-dependent ��� + Conversion of original biomes, 1950-2050 retention levels. Degradation is often plant or animal species, or if migratory communities with alternative sources �������� ������������������������������������ caused by overexploitation of forest routes and corridors cease to exist. of income. On a broader level, it will ���� � �� �� �� �� �� �� �� �� �� ��� � areas by humans, including haphazard The loss of forests results in the loss result in developing countries being ������ ������������� and badly executed logging operations. of all the resources – such as timber, paid to conserve and sustainably man ������� ������� ��������� It can also be caused by pests and dis firewood and medicine – and services age large areas of their forests for the ����� ��������� ��������� eases or repeated forest fires. Degrada – such as conservation of soil, water benefit of mankind. ������������� ������������ tion does not of itself result in the loss and biological diversity – that a forest ��������� of forest area but it is often the first provides. Loss of forest also means that ������������� phase of a process which ultimately the vital role the forest plays in carbon & See also pages ������������ 6, 20, 40, 42, 44 ��������� ������������ results in deforestation. No reliable sequestration is no longer possible. ���� ���������������� ���������������� + Variation in area covered by forest, 1990-2005 ��������� ������� ��������� ��� ����������� ��������� �������� ������������� ���������� �������� ������������� ������������ ������ ������������ ����������������� ������� ������� ����� ������� ��������� ������������� ������������ ������������ ��������������� ������ ���� ��������� ��������� ���������� ������ ��������� ��� ������ ������ �������� ������ ����������������������������������� ������ ������������������������� ������������������������� ����������������������������� �������������������������� ������������������������� ������� ������������ �������������� ���������������������� ������������������������������������������� ������� ���� ������������� ������� � ����� �������������������� ������������������������� ������������������������� � ������������������������������������������������������������������������ ����������������������������������������������������������������������������� ����������������������������������������������������� ������� ������� ���������� ���� ������ ��� ������� ����� ���� ���������� ���������� ���������������������������������������������������������� ��������� ���������������������������������������� 12 Vital Forest Graphics Vital Forest Graphics 13
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+ Traditional activities in the village of Mpâa, DR Congo ������ ������ ������� ����� The relationship ������� between indigenous ������ �������� ����� �������� ������ �������� ������ ������� ����� ��� ��������� ��� ������� �� ��� �������� �� people and forests ������� ��� ������� ������� � ���� ������ ��� �� �� ������ ����� �������� ������ �� �������� �� �������� � ������ �� ��� ��������� ��� �� �� �������� ��� � ��� �� ������� ��� ������� ������� � � �� � ���� ������ �� ��� �� �� �� ������ � �� �� �� � ������ ������ ������ �� � I �� ��� � � �� � More than 1.6 billion people � ndigenous forest people use their people of �� �� �� ������ the Peruvian ������ Amazon call � around the world depend land in many different ways – for the rainforest Titá, or mother (Krogh �� �� fishing, hunting, shifting agriculture, 2006), referring to Titá as if to a person, �� to varying degrees on forests �� �� �� �� �� ��� ���������� the gathering of wild forest products who can be happy ��� as well�������� as sad, angry �� �� � � � for their livelihoods – not just ��� ���������� � ���������� �� ��� �� ��� �� � � � and other activities. For them, the for ��������� as well as indifferent. �������� � �������� for food but also for fuel, for ���������� �� ������ � �� ��� est is the very basis of survival and its Titá provides the Matses with every ��� ������ livestock grazing areas and for ����������� ��������� �������� resources have to be harvested ������ in a sus thing they need ������� – as ����� long as they fol medicine. At least 350 million ����� ������ �� �� tainable manner.�������������� But when traditional low her rules, including never taking ���������������������� �� ������ people live inside or close to life styles change �������� ���� and, for example, �������������� more from the forest than is������������������������� needed ����������������� ����������� ����� dense forests, largely dependent industrial logging �������������� or mining takes ������������������� and treating all things ���������� belonging ��������������� to it ������������ ������ ������� ����� ������������������� ����������������������������������� ����������� ����� on these areas for subsistence place, over use of resources ���������������� can lead ��������������������� to ���� ������� with respect. ���� ������ Traditionally, ������������ ������������ the����������� Matses and income, while about conflict. perform hunting ceremonies to ask the � � � � �� �������������� ���������������������� ���� 60 million indigenous people Although indigenous people around animal spirits for permission to kill �������������� ����������������� �������� are almost wholly dependent the world often have very different sets animals for food. ����� ������������������������� �������������� ������������������� ��������������� ���������� on forests (FAO 2008). of beliefs and traditions, a special bond As with the Matses, indigenous peo ������������ ����������������������������������� ����������� with the land is a common factor. For ples’ ideas of territory are not only con ������������������� ������������ ��������������������� ������ example, the semi-nomadic Matses cerned with controlling a geographical ���������������� ������� ���� ���� ������������ ����������� area or using forest resources: territory � � � � �� + Forest concessions and protected areas also embodies fundamental aspects of culture and geography (Franky 2000). ������������������������ ����������� ����� Indigenous forest people see them �������������� selves as inseparably linked to the for cannot comprehend the idea that for In the Philippines for example, land One strategy which is increasingly ����������������� ������������ est and everything in it – trees, plants, ests and land can be bought and sold. issues in such areas are governed by the being used by forest people in order ����������� rivers, animals and mountains. It is However this does not mean they do Indigenous Peoples’ Rights Act. Unfor to defend their rights is to provide �������� ������ impossible, according to community not have a clear notion of their rights tunately such regulations are often con proof of their residence in, and use �������� beliefs, to separate any single object (Odegard et al. 2006). The use of cer travened by powerful local interests. of, forest areas. In the Democratic ����� ������ or living thing in the forest – such tain areas or resources may be granted Also, traditional tenure systems are Republic of the Congo, indigenous ���������� �������� as a particular plant, animal or min based on a number of criteria, such as not always recognized by governments, groups and other forest-dependent ����� ������� �������� ������������ eral – from its symbolic position in the belonging to a particular group, tribe leaving indigenous forest people with communities are participating in the �������� ������� cosmology of the people (Olsen 2006). or clan. Land use can also be based on out formal rights to their territories. mapping of their traditional terri �������� �������� ������� ���������� These ideas are expressed through reciprocal agreements with neighbour This violates the United Nations Dec tories (FORUM 2007). Such maps are ������� mythology, religious practices, and ing groups or individuals. laration on Indigenous Peoples’ Rights likely to be a vital tool in the future as systems of social regulation, including In many countries, the State is the (UNDIPR) as well as ILO Convention indigenous people around the world management of the environment and official owner of most forest areas, 169 – both of which place a clear obli struggle to gain formal recognition of ������ systems of production and exchange even though some of the land may have gation on States to legally recognize, their rights. (Sanchez et al. 2000). been inhabited for generations by large demarcate and effectively protect indig ������ � ��� ������ Because of their special relationship numbers of people. In some cases the enous peoples’ territories and natural & See also pages 16, 54 with the land, many indigenous people rights of such people are recognized. resources. 14 Vital Forest Graphics Vital Forest Graphics 15
+ Forest cover in relation to poverty Forests sustain livelihoods ������ ��� ����������� ����������������������������� ��� �������������������������� ��� ��������������������������� ������� ������������������������������ ����������� ��� Forests play an important role a large number of households across more of total household income, with ������� ����������������������� in the livelihoods and welfare virtually all forest types (e.g. Scoones the poor the most forest dependent ��� of a vast number of people et al. 1992; Neumann 2000; Cunning (e.g. Cavendish 2000; Aggelsen 2003; �������� � in both developed and ham 2001). Such assets therefore make Vedeld et al. 2004). � ��� ��� ��� ��� ��� ��� ��� ��� ����������������� �������������� up an important contribution to live There is evidence that forests are ��������� ����������� ������������ developing countries; from lihoods. often of particular importance to �������������� ����������������� urban citizens taking �������� ����������� ������������ Examples are numerous. Forest women, children and ethnic minori a recreational stroll in a nearby harvested fuel wood is an important ties. For instance, forest foods are cru ��������� ��������� forest to isolated hunter- source of household energy for heating cial to many children (McGregor 1995) preferential treatment to influential gatherers who live ���������� ��������� and cooking in many countries. Non- and involvement of women in non- companies and organizations and pro in and off the forest timber products, such as bush meat, are timber forest product collection and motes corruption. Such is the case in �������������� important to help meet dietary deficits trade improves intra-household equity ��������� Honduras where local communities ������������ and a vital source of protein. Medi (Kusters et al. 2006). There are also cannot gain secure rights to the for ������������ cinal plants from the forest, used either studies indicating that richer house ests in which they live while common, T he World Bank has estimated that 1.6 billion people around the world depend to some degree on for in self-medication or in traditional medicine systems are in many regions the sole or main source of medicinal holds may be highly forest dependent – though such dependence relates to other sets of products than the ones ��������� �������� systematic and high-level corruption has characterized the workings of the timber industry (Larson 2007). There ��������� ests for their livelihoods (WB 2004). remedies for maintaining or improv extracted by poor households. For ��������� ������������ is thus scope for increasing the contri Although only an estimate this clearly ing health. Small-scale forest product instance, fuel wood and the use of dung ������������ bution of forests to poverty prevention indicates that forest dependency is processing, such as wood carvings or has been found to decrease as income and reduction. widespread. In developing countries, cane furniture, may be an important rises in India while fodder and the use Building upon the emerging evi ��������� it is projected that a large number of source of non-farm employment. of wood for construction increases ������� dence of the absolute and relative �������� people will remain at or below poverty Even though forests are often very (Narain et al. 2008). importance of forests and forest prod levels (Collier 2007). In relation to for important to households, there is sur The evidence regarding the role of ucts to livelihoods, governments and ests, this raises the question of whether prisingly little knowledge on the actual forests in allowing households to move ������� other development bodies should take forested areas can play a role in poverty level of household forest income and out of poverty is scant and mixed; there action to: make policy reforms in nego alleviation. the role of such income in maintaining are examples such as the above study tiation with small-scale forest users in A livelihood involves income-gener livelihoods. Households typically use from India indicating that income order to create conducive production ating activities determined by natural, forest products for subsistence pur from forests allows households to accu conditions, including securing owner ��������� social, human, financial and physical poses or products are traded in infor mulate assets and escape poverty. How ship and rights use; revise legislation �������� assets and access to these (Ellis 2000). mal markets. Much forest use is there ever, by way of contrast, figures from in order to remove bias against house Trees, shrubs, herbs, game and a wide fore not recorded in regular income Madagascar show that areas there with hold-level producers and supporting range of other forest products all con surveys. However, available evidence high forest cover have low densities of FAO 2005). There are also international Being able to not only harvest for small-scale commercial units, includ stitute important natural assets that are indicates that income derived from the people but high poverty rates. initiatives aimed at improving our est products but also to transport and ing community-based forestry. Such harvested in significant quantities by forest may constitute 20 per cent or The World Bank and the United understanding of the relation between sell such products is important for initiatives would allow households to Nations Food and Agriculture Organ forests and livelihoods and the impact hundreds of thousands of households actively use forests, enabling them to + Level of dependence on forests ization (FAO) have urged that forests of policies on such relations, including in order to fully realise the benefits of build up their assets and improve their �������������� ��������������� can and must play a far bigger role in the Poverty and Environment Network, the forest. However, legislation often livelihoods. ������������ �������� ����������������� ������������������� ��������������������� meeting the UN’s Millennium Develop the Programme on Forests and the discriminates against small forest ������������ ����������� ������������� ������������������������ ment Goals, including the target of halv International Forestry Resources and users, typically by heavily regulating & See also pages 30, 54 �������������������� ����������� ing extreme poverty by 2015 (WB 2004; Institutions research programme. their access rights. It also often gives 16 Vital Forest Graphics Vital Forest Graphics 17
A hiding place for fighting forces ) Forests and conflicts and a refuge for victims ������ ��������� ��������� �������� ����� ������� ����� ����������� �������� ����� ���������� �������� ����� ������� ����������� ������� ������� ����������� ���������� ������������� ���������� ������ ���� Around the world, conflicts A round the world, conflicts and cratic Republic of Congo (DRC) ������ affected by woodcutting and animal ���� �������� and wars are taking a toll wars are, directly and indirectly, where the Garamba forest has been a ������������ ����������� ����������� poaching associated with the humani ������� ������� ������ on forests and on the taking a toll on forests and the com rebel stronghold for nearly two dec ����� ��� ������������������ tarian crisis. An estimated 600 tonnes communities that rely on munities that rely on forest resources ades. Many other wars and conflicts, ������ of wood per day was cut by refugees for for their livelihood. Dense forests in for example, in Cote d’Ivoire, Guinea, ����������������������������������� fuel, charcoal and shelter, according to them for their livelihood. ����������������������������� ���������� remote areas can serve as hideouts for Nicaragua, Sierra Leone, and the lib ������������������������������� the UNEP-World Conservation Moni Dense forests in remote areas insurgent groups. They also provide eration struggles in southern Africa, toring Centre (UNEP-WCMC). Interna can serve as hideouts safe haven for refugees fleeing from were also based in and launched from and other gemstones. However given by the Liberian government, the timber tional assistance to the refugees included for insurgent groups conflict. Both cases can result in over- forest areas. that logs are bulky and difficult to sanctions were lifted. Subsequently, in vital food, water and health care. Yet in exploitation of forest resources. Forest resources can be a vital source transport, illegal timber trading in con 2007, the diamond sanctions were also most cases fuelwood and poles to build Known cases of forests as sites of of revenue, used by warring parties to flict zones can be difficult, requiring lifted; however regulations concern shelters were not provided, leaving the rebel camps include Colombia where finance and sustain conflict; common access to reasonably good and secure ing arms sales, travel bans and asset refugees with no choice but to exploit left-wing guerrillas have camps deep conflict commodities are timber and transport systems, as well as access to freezes are still in force (UN Security local resources. in the Amazonian forest and in moun mineral resources extracted from for export markets and consumers. Council 2008). Sustainable management of for tainous forest areas, and the Demo est areas such as coltan, gold, diamonds “Natural resources, including forests, est resources can play a critical role in will continue to fuel deadly conflicts as Important forests post-conflict reconstruction and peace + Forests in narcotics and arms trafficking areas + Forests affected as hideouts and refuges long as consumer societies import materi- Protected forest areas are seen as a building activities. In 2003, the United ��������� ������ ���� ������ ������ als with little regard for their origin or the place of refuge by people fleeing from Nations Environment Programme ����������� ��������� �������� �������� �������� conditions under which they were pro- civil unrest, as they tend to be located (UNEP), in its post-conflict environ ������ ������������ � �� ������ ������� ����� ��������� duced. This also makes consumers part of in remote areas often with dense mental assessment of Afghanistan, � � ��� � ������� ��������� ������ ����� ����� ������ ����� ������� the equation, either knowingly or other- vegetation where people can hide found that more than 50 per cent of the � ���� ������� ������� ��������� ������ �������� ������ ���������� �������� � �������������� ������� ����� ����������� ���� ������ wise ” says Michael Renner, a security (Ogle thorpe 2007). Mwiza Vareriya, country’s natural pistachio woodlands ���� � ������ ��������� �������� ������ ������������� ������� specialist and senior researcher at the caught up in the genocide in Rwanda, had virtually disappeared as a result � ���� ������ ������ ������ �������� � ������� ������ Worldwatch Institute in Washington. described the feelings of those hiding of warfare, civil disorder, institutional ����� ���� � �������� ������ ������� United Nations action to prevent in the Gishwati forest: “We were very collapse and drought. Trees were cut � ������� ������ ������ �������� �������� � ��������� ��������� ���� ������� ������ the trade in conflict timber has centred scared, but then we got to the forest, and for the illegal sale of timber or to create ������������� ���� on resolutions, commodity sanctions, we felt safer” (Hanes 2006). stockpiles of fuelwood. ������ ����� ��������� � and so called smart sanctions, includ Large-scale cross-border migrations In other parts of Afghanistan, the � ������ ���� ��������� ������ � � ��������� ing travel bans and asset freezing of by refugees and internally displaced presence of landmines drove farmers � ������������� ������ ������ ������� companies and individuals engaged in persons (IDPs) who then settle ������� in for to clear forests to grow crops (UNEP � ������� ���� ��������� ������ � ����� �������� ������ ������ illegal trading. For more than a decade ested areas often result in biodiversity 2003). Programmes to restore these ������ � ��������� � ���� ������ � ������� forest resources were used to finance loss and deforestation as trees are cut for devastated areas and create sustainable ������ �������� �������������������� ����������������������� war in Liberia (1989 to 1996 and 1999 firewood or shelter and land is cleared livelihoods are under way; up to now, �������� ��������������������� ��������������������������������� ���������������������������������� ������ �������������� ������������������ ����������������������������� ������������������������� to 2003). In 2003, the UN Security for planting crops. In 1994, nearly the Afghanistan Conservation Corps �� �������������� �������� ������ ��������������������� ������������������������ ��� ���� ������� ������������������ Council called for an import ban on 1 million refugees from the conflict in (ACC) has planted more than 5 million ��� ���������������� ��������������� �������������� ������������������������� ������������������ timber products and rough diamonds Rwanda poured over the border with trees and generated income equivalent ��� ������������������������������ �������������������������������� ��� ���������������� ���������� ����������������������������������� ���������� ����� ����������� ��������������������� �������������������� from Liberia and an end to arms sales the DRC and into camps in and around to over 700 000 labour days (UNEP). ����� ������������������� ���������������������������������� ����� ����������� � �� �� �� ����� ���������������������������������� to Liberia (UN Security Council 2003). the Virunga National Park (Debroux et ����� ��������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������� ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� In 2006, following the implementation al. 2007). It is estimated that 50 000 hec & See also pages 16, 40 ��������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� of new forestry legislation and reforms tares of the park’s lowland forest were 18 Vital Forest Graphics Vital Forest Graphics 19
Forests under threat as farming commodities take over Growing global demand for land for the production of agricultural commodities has resulted in inevitable and D eforestation is driven by the need for land for uses such as agricul ture, agro-forestry, human settlements, could grow back, more recent forest clearances are often carried out on a much larger scale and aim to establish ity – are most likely to be converted for agricultural purposes (Kanninen, 2007; Stickler et al. 2007). Tropical for has high agricultural potential or high population densities, while in other nations such as Bolivia, Congo, Vene sometimes irreversible changes to the world’s forest cover infrastructure and mining. Some of permanent agricultural settlements. est nations vary greatly in suitability for zuela and Guyana one third to one half the most serious deforestation occurs Forest areas with the most favour mechanized agriculture. In some coun of the forests are unsuitable for agri when there are various commodity able environmental conditions – those tries such as Malaysia, French Guiana culture or have low concentrations of booms at the domestic and interna with good drainage and soil fertil and Cameroon, virtually all forest land farmers (Stickler 2007). tional levels. At such times farmers and To address pressures on forest land + Major producers of soya beans and sugar cane large agribusiness enterprises clear for + Major producers of palm oil and cattle meat the Brazilian government enacted a law est areas to plant more profitable mar ������������������ in 2006 stipulating that landowners ������������������ ket crops such as palm oil, rice, sugar �������������� can clear cut no more than 20 percent �������������� �� �� cane, banana and soya beans – or forest of their forests, while the remaining �� is cleared for animal grazing. In add �� 80 percent has to remain under forest �� �� ition, new road networks mean previ cover. Though this can be seen as an �� �� �� ously remote areas can be reached and important step in forest conservation, �� infrastructure built up, often leading �� problems over land ownership and �� to the eventual settlement of former ��� clear land title mean that the law is �� ����� ������ �� forestlands. often not properly implemented. ������ ������ �� ������ ����� ������� ����� �� � A combination of increase in ������� Increasing populations in urban �� �������� ������ �� ������� demands for food, land fertility, rising �������� �������� and rural areas also raises demand for ��� ��������� ��������� ������� ����� market prices for commodities and a food and other commodities, requir �������� ������ ��������� lack of clear and enforceable ownership ing ever more land to be used for pro �� ������� �������� rights to forest land results in agricul duction (CIFOR 2007). At the present ���������������������� ���������� ���������������� ture being the major cause of deforest time, production of commodities such ������������������ ������������������ ation. Such deforestation is often exe �������������� as soya beans and palm oil are reach �������������� �� ������ cuted through slash and burn practices, ������ ing record levels, with world soya bean �� ��� �� with forests and woodlands cut and production in 2006 reaching about ��� burned and the land cleared for crop � 222 million tonnes. Brazil is the world’s production or for livestock pastures. � biggest soya bean producer, accounting ��� ������ ����� This method, practised by small-scale ������ for 23 per cent of the global total. About ��� � � ������ ������ ������ farmers for centuries, releases a pulse of ������� ������� 220 thousand square kilometres land in �������� ������ ��� �� �� � ����� ����� ������ ����� ��� ����������� nutrients that serve as fertilizers for the ������ � Brazil is now planted with soya (FAO �� � � ����� ������ ��� ��������� ������ ������� soil. However, while traditional slash- �������� � ����� ��������� STAT 2007), mostly in the south-east �������� ��� � �������� �� ��������� and-burn or so called shifting cultiva ��������� ern part of the countryl (FAOSTAT). � ����� ����� ��������� tion practices involved the growing ������ Indonesia and Malaysia are major ��� ��������� ������ ��� ���������� of crops for a few years, followed by a ����������� ������� producers of palm oil: in 2006 these ���������������������� ���������������������� fallow period during which the forest two countries accounted for 85 per & 20 Vital Forest Graphics Vital Forest Graphics 21
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