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vector Pointing to Safer Aviation
January / February 2010
Aircraft Certification Changes
Hire or Reward Under Part 91
Performance-Based Navigation
AvKiwi Safety Seminars
vector In this issue...
3
Hire or Reward
Under Part 91
Hire or Reward Under Part 91 3
Operating under Part 91 does not mean
that you are necessarily operating Aircraft Certification Changes 4
‘privately’. Hire or reward operations
can be conducted under Part 91. Performance-Based Navigation 6
Wire Strike! 7
Don’t Be Left Powerless 8
4
Threat and Error Management 10
Aircraft Certification
Changes AvKiwi Safety Seminars –
Mountain Flying 13
We give you pointers to get your
aircraft certification changed from the
Woodbourne Control Zone Changes 14
Experimental category, to one of the six
possible categories in the revised Part 21,
Hot Refuelling 16
by the deadline of 3 December 2010.
Avoiding an Auto 18
Flight Planning for Maximum Efficiency 20
6
Performance-Based Clearance Shorthand 22
Navigation
How to Get Aviation Publications 23
Performance-Based Navigation will
move the aviation industry away from Planning an Aviation Event? 23
traditional ground-based navigation
systems, to greater dependence on Aviation Safety Advisers 23
satellite-based airborne navigation
technology. Canopy Safety and Handling 24
Accident Briefs 25
13
GA Defects 26
AvKiwi Safety Seminars
Photo Competition 27
This year’s AvKiwi Safety Seminars on
Mountain Flying kick off in Tauranga at
SportAvex on 6 February 2010. This is
followed by the South Island series, Cover: There are 77 examples of the Rans RV series
starting 1st March. of amateur-built aircraft on the New Zealand register.
These two RV-7As, and the other 75, will need to
transition to the new amateur-built certification
category by 3 December 2010. Photo: Gavin Conroy
Published by Publication Content Free Distribution Change of Address
The Communications and Safety Education Unless expressly stated as CAA policy, the Vector is distributed automatically to all Readers receiving Vector free of charge
Unit of the Civil Aviation Authority of views expressed in Vector do not necessarily New Zealand flight crew, air traffic controllers, should notify info@caa.govt.nz of any change
New Zealand, P O Box 31–441, reflect the policy of the Civil Aviation Authority. aircraft maintenance engineer licence holders, of address, quoting your CAA Client Number.
Lower Hutt 5040, New Zealand. Articles are intended to stimulate discussion, aircraft owners, most organisations holding Paying subscribers should notify The Colour Guy.
Tel: +64–4–560 9400, and nothing in Vector is to be taken as an aviation document, and to certain other
Fax: +64–4–569 2024, overriding any New Zealand civil aviation persons and organisations interested in Paid Subscriptions
Email: info@caa.govt.nz. legislation, or any statements issued by the promoting safer aviation. Vector is available on subscription only from
Published six times a year, in the last week Director of Civil Aviation or the Civil Aviation The Colour Guy, P O Box 30–464,
Authority of New Zealand. In the case of flight crew and air traffic
of every odd month. Lower Hutt 5040, Freephone 0800–438 785.
controllers, a current aviation medical
Reader comments and contributions are certificate must be held, and a current
Manager Communications Bill Sommer. Copyright
welcome and may be published, but the Editor
New Zealand address given, to ensure Reproduction in whole or in part of any item in
Editor Peter Singleton. reserves the right to edit or abridge them,
magazine entitlement. Vector, other than material shown to be from
Safety Education Publishing Team and not to publish those that are judged not to
contribute constructively towards safer aviation. Holders of Pilot Certificates issued by Part 149 other sources or named authors, is freely
Clare Ferguson, Lakshmi Guda, Anna
Reader contributions and correspondence certificated organisations can also apply to permitted, providing that it is intended solely
Walkington, Rose Wood.
regarding the content of Vector should be receive a free Vector (see the CAA web site for the purpose of promoting safer aviation,
Design addressed to: Vector Editor, P O Box 31–441, for details). Vector also appears on the CAA’s and providing that acknowledgment is given
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2 vector January / February 2010 ISSN 1173-9614
Hire or Reward
Under Part 91
Part 91 operations are not necessarily private operations. Part 91 General
Operating and Flight Rules sets the basic standard that other Parts build on.
It is not ‘private operations’, as some may think.
W Flight Training
henever there is a hire of an aircraft, or a reward is
received, then the operation is considered to meet
Flight training carried out under Part 91 is a hire or reward
the definition of hire or reward. An aircraft can be
operation when the student is paying for the flight.
operated for hire or reward under Part 91.
Instructors and students are not considered passengers,
and there are no goods carried, therefore an instructional
Hire or Reward
flight is not required to be undertaken under an AOC and can
To determine if you are operating for hire or reward, you need
operate under Part 91.
to look at the definition of hire and the definition of reward.
The word hire means engaging the services of a person, Frost Protection
or the use of a thing for payment. It is important to note that
Frost protection is another example of a hire or reward
money is not the only determining factor when deciding
operation that can be carried out under Part 91 – as long as
if there was a hire. Payment does not necessarily have to be
the only person on board the helicopter is the appropriately
in money.
qualified pilot. As soon as the pilot puts another person in
A reward is a return, or recompense, for service or merit. the helicopter, for example the vineyard/orchard owner,
Money does not need to change hands in order for it to be then they are carrying a passenger on a hire or reward
considered a reward. flight, and the flight would need to be conducted under a
The operation stops being a Part 91 hire or reward operation Part 119 certificate.
as soon as any passengers or goods are carried. This then
falls under the definition of an “air operation” (see Part 1 Maintenance
Definitions and Abbreviations) and requires the flight to be Maintenance standards are an important consideration with
conducted under an Air Operator Certificate (AOC) issued Part 91 hire or reward operations. If you are conducting hire
under Part 119 Air Operator – Certification. or reward operations under Part 91, then your maintenance
There is a provision for equally programme must reflect this. In particular, you will not be
sharing the costs of a private able to run your aircraft engines or components beyond
flight. See Part 1 Definitions the manufacturer’s Time Before Overhaul (TBO) limit without
and Abbreviations. a CAA approved maintenance programme.
One example of a Part
91 hire or reward Licensing Requirements
operation is flight Rule 61.155 Privileges and limitations allows a
training. Private Pilot Licence holder to act, but not for
remuneration, as pilot-in-command of an
aircraft that is not operated for hire or reward,
and to carry passengers in that aircraft.
Rule 61.205 Privileges and limitations
allows a Commercial Pilot Licence holder
to act as pilot-in-command of an aircraft operated for
hire or reward.
However, if the CPL is pilot-in-command of a flight that is
operating for hire or reward and carrying passengers or goods,
then that operation must be carried out under a Part 119
certificate, as it is an air operation. See rule 119.5 Requirement
for certificate.
vector January / February 2010 3
Aircraft Certification
Changes
Six sub-categories of the Special Category
airworthiness certificate are now available, following
rule changes that became effective in December 2009.
Until then, Special Category – Experimental was used
for a very broad range of aircraft and purposes.
M
ost aircraft certificated as Special Exhibition
Category – Experimental will now
The Exhibition category is for aircraft used
need to transition to one of the
mostly for airshows, aerobatic compet-
new categories by 3 December 2010.
itions, or the film industry. These aircraft
This will affect over 300 aircraft.
may be factory-built but will not be type-
The owners of many aircraft in the certificated. Single-seat warbirds, replica
restricted category will also want to aircraft, and one-off unlimited aerobatic
transition them to one of the new designs will be eligible for this category.
categories. For example, a classic war-
bird owner may wish to place their Amateur-built
aircraft in the Exhibition category, or the
This category is for aircraft that have
Limited category.
been built by their owners for their own
The six sub-categories for Special education and recreation. Most people
Category airworthiness certificates are: affected by this change will be existing
Experimental, Exhibition, Amateur-built, owners of amateur-built aircraft.
Primary, Light Sport Aircraft (LSA),
New amateur-built aircraft will complete
and Limited.
a flight evaluation process under
The first step to transition your aircraft “Experimental” and then have a new
from one category to another, is to airworthiness certificate issued in this
download and complete CAA form category. If, however, the aircraft is
24021/06 Application for a Special modified at a later date, it may be required
Category Airworthiness Certificate. This to go back into the Experimental category
form is also used for new aircraft, for further flight evaluation until the
or newly imported aircraft, that will be modification has been proven.
certificated under Special Category.
As we prepare Vector, two LSA aircraft Primary
and one Amateur-built aircraft have been This certification standard originates in
certificated under the new system. the United States – the category allows
for future imports.
Experimental
Under the new categories, Experimental Light Sport Aircraft (LSA)
will mean what it says – basically, it will This category has gained international
be used for aircraft undergoing test acceptance, and has standards agreed
flying, flight evaluation, research, etc. by participating countries. You may own
Once a test flight requirement is an aircraft that is accepted as an LSA
satisfied, the aircraft will have a new in another country, but was issued
airworthiness certificate issued in one with a Special Category – Experimental
of the other five categories, if it is a airworthiness certificate, because that Some one-off unlimited aerobatic aircraft
Special Category aircraft. was all that was available. will be eligible for the Exhibition category.
4 vector January / February 2010
To transition to the LSA category, in
addition to filling in the 24021/06 form,
you must supply a certificate of
conformity signed by the manufacturer.
This states that the aircraft was
manufactured to what is known as the
international consensus standard (or you
may see reference to F37 under ASTM
International in your documentation).
If any modification or repair has been
carried out since the manufacturer's
certificate was issued, those changes
must be approved in writing by the
manufacturer.
The first Light Sport Aircraft (LSA) Special Category airworthiness certificate was issued to this
The New Zealand LSA applies only to Jabiru J120-C. Photo courtesy of Euro Flight International (NZ).
factory manufactured aircraft (S-LSA).
Kit-built versions (E-LSA) will be certifi- (Part 115 Adventure Aviation will first year requirement, it can go to the
cated in the amateur-built category. address that issue). biennial review.
New aircraft in this category are now Exhibition and Limited category aircraft The new rules in 91.105(e) place
being imported. must be operated in accordance with an significant restrictions on the use of
operator statement that is issued under Special Category – Experimental aircraft.
Limited Part 47 and is associated with the As all the existing Special Category
Aircraft eligible for the Limited sub- certificate of registration for the aircraft. aircraft are currently certificated as
category will be ex-military and vintage Also, as is currently required, a Special Special Category – Experimental, except
aircraft produced in a series and factory- Category aircraft must be maintained those with a special flight permit,
built in a controlled environment, but not in accordance with a maintenance there is a transition provision in rule
type-certificated. They will normally be programme approved under rule 91.607. 91.105(k) to allow the continued current
multi-seat aircraft used for private There are some additional maintenance use of existing Special Category aircraft
operations. requirements in 91.607(d) for Exhibition until 3 December 2010.
and Limited category aircraft. There is an amendment to Part 43 that
As passengers may be carried, the rule
seeks to mitigate risk by limiting the Also, under 91.607(f) a maintenance includes a new Subpart F which prescribes
number of passengers in both aero- programme approved under 91.607 for some additional procedures for the
planes and helicopters, issuing oper- a Special Category aircraft is only valid maintenance of Special Category aircraft.
ations specifications to the operator, for the period that the certificate of
and ensuring that maintenance is registration for the aircraft remains valid. What’s Next?
controlled by a named principal maint- Any change of “ownership” means that These rule changes pave the way for
enance provider. Provision is made in the new “owner” must apply to the some aircraft without Type Certificates to
the rule for Limited category aircraft to Director for the approval of a new carry out hire or reward activities under
be eligible for hire or reward operations. maintenance programme for the aircraft, the proposed Part 115 Adventure Aviation.
and also for a new operator statement
Operating Limitations under Part 47, if the aircraft is certificated More Info
and Maintenance in the Exhibition or Limited categories.
We’ve created a web page to keep
An associated amendment to Part 91, Special Category aircraft that are not you informed on the Part 21 transition
in particular rule 91.105, prescribes the used for hire or reward should have a process. See the CAA web site,
activities that can, and more importantly review of airworthiness completed in www.caa.govt.nz, “Aircraft – Part 21
that cannot, be performed with the the first year that the airworthiness Changes – Aircraft Certification”. If you
various types of Special Category aircraft. certificate is issued after construction want to keep informed about develop-
Some of these aircraft will be able to (rule 91.615(2)), but can then go to a ments relating to Part 115, subscribe
be used for flight training, but not for biennial review (91.615(1)(ii)). If your to our free email notification service –
the carriage of fare paying passengers Special Category aircraft has passed the the link is on the home page.
vector January / February 2010 5
Performance-Based
Navigation
The drive towards greater efficiency and responsible environmental
management is gaining momentum in every sphere of our lives.
Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) is aviation’s way of contributing
towards these global goals. PBN will reduce fuel burn, airport and airspace
congestion, and aircraft emissions.
T
he days of flying fixed tracks from one ground- designed to detect navigation errors and are an added safety
based navigation aid to another are numbered. PBN will net, in addition to pilots monitoring their own navigation
move the aviation industry away from traditional performance.
ground-based navigation systems, to greater dependence
In 2007, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
on satellite-based airborne navigation technology.
passed a General Assembly resolution calling on States to
More precise point-to-point navigation will make it easier for complete an implementation plan for PBN by the end of 2009.
Air Traffic Control to predict when flights will cross significant
The CAA’s new Airspace and Environment Policy Unit is
points, and when they will arrive at their destination. This will
responsible for preparing New Zealand’s PBN implementation
allow ATC to manage traffic flows in a more strategic manner,
plan. The Plan outlines three major phases for the
meaning fewer routing changes due to ATC requirements.
implementation of PBN in New Zealand, with target dates
Pilots will also be able to select with certainty a top of
of 2012, 2017, and 2020.
descent point for a flight idle, continuous descent approach,
until established on finals. The New Zealand PBN implementation plan was lodged
with ICAO on 18 December 2009. The process will require Civil
This will result in reduced fuel burns. More direct routing
Aviation Rules to be amended to allow the use of GNSS as a
will reduce sector flight times, as well as increasing schedule
sole, or primary, means of navigation. The next phase
reliability, improving ‘on time’ performance, allowing greater
is the actual implementation, and a work plan is under
fleet utilisation over an operational day, and reducing
development with identified working groups, including
environmental emissions.
technical representatives, to address issues to ensure the
More precise navigation will also have a significant safety PBN Implementation Plan is progressed.
benefit. Standard Instrument Departures, Standard Instrument
For more information about PBN, visit the CAA web site,
Arrivals, and approach procedures, will be designated as
www.caa.govt.nz. You will find PBN under Quick Links on
either Area Navigation (RNAV) or Required Navigation
the home page, and you can subscribe to the PBN email
Performance (RNP). Both are extremely accurate
notification service for updates.
forms of navigation. The fundamental difference is
that the equipment on board an aircraft The Airspace and Environment Policy Unit are also
flying an RNP procedure must be able to tasked with developing New Zealand’s National
automatically detect navigation errors and alert Airspace and Air Navigation Plan, and integrating
the crew. Aircraft flying an RNAV procedure do this plan with other Government strategies on
not need this automated capability. transport, energy, and the environment.
ATS surveillance systems such as radar,
ADS-B, or multilateration, are
Photos: ©istockphoto.com/Thomas Vogel/Macroworld
6 vector January / February 2010
I learnt about flying from that …
Wire Strike!
By Dean Lithgow
On Saturday, 7 November 2009, my day Yes, it was a wire and, no, the farm We pilots are all taught thoroughly
started at 5.30 am, flying my AS350. manager had not been aware of it. about wires when we are training and
It was just another perfect spray All the electric fence wires on the I am no exception. I think I do thorough
morning. But little did I know it was not property run along the tops of the posts, briefings but the scary part of the
going to stay that way for long! The job this one took a short cut across a gut whole experience is that if I were to
was spraying out hill country for cropping, (small gully). The wire had struck the do the job again tomorrow morning I
so as you all know, boundaries need pitot tube and run up along the believe there is nothing that I would
quite a lot of care with glyphosate. windscreen protector into the scissor do differently in respect to my approach
section. It had then broken the wire at to identifying hazards on this job.
While conducting the day’s briefing, that point, as it is designed to do. Hazards were discussed with the
the farm manager showed me a set
I know there was no one else to blame farmer. He identified the ones he was
of power lines that ran through the
but myself. The irony was that the Wire aware of and again checked with me
block with another set of lines branching
Strike Protection Kit (WSPK) that was just before I commenced the job,
off these. A telephone cable ran
fitted to my machine had actually sat on to ensure that I had not forgotten the
through the block as well. He repeated,
the bench in the company hangar for hazards he had identified.
“You have got those wires, Deano?”
I replied, “Yes, thanks.” three years before being fitted. Since Wires can appear in the strangest of
then, the helicopter has done around places and you may not be told about
I completed the first part of the block, 800 hours. The fitting of the kit saved them. So, if your helicopter does not
and then I proceeded along an internal my life and the helicopter too. have a WSPK, invest in one. You may
boundary on my second load, due to an
I know I am not the first pilot and not plan on flying through a wire, but it
awkward shape. Nearing the end of my
unfortunately, I won’t be the last, to have may save you, as it did me.
run there was a loud bang, like a 308 gun
going off. The machine shook but con- a wire strike. But had the kit still been I believe I was trained by two of the best
tinued flying with a very slight vibration. on the hangar bench, I would probably in the industry years ago. Both drummed
not be here writing this article and the danger of wires into me, both in
there may be some red faces around. basic training through to commercial,
then during my Ag training.
I am not proud of hitting a wire but I am
grateful my company installed the wire
strike kit.
To my knowledge this is the first
wire strike of a Squirrel helicopter in
New Zealand with a kit on it. Usually,
the outcome is a lot more severe.
I hope this spiel has not bored you but
enlightened some. If a life or an aircraft
can be saved through speaking out,
it must be beneficial.
Photos courtesy of Dean Lithgow
Dean points to where
the wire struck the
helicopter.
vector January / February 2010 7
Don’t Be Left Powerless
The loss of one generator or alternator in flight is an urgency condition
requiring careful management of your electrical load. A complete electrical
failure is a race against the clock, as the exact life of your battery is
dependent on many factors.
I One Down
n a twin-engine aircraft, the single screens) can use between 10 and 15
biggest drain on power is operating percent, depending on the technology
If you lose one alternator or generator,
the landing gear. 30 to 40 percent in use. Of these, transponders and
follow the Flight Manual procedures
of the total load capacity of both communications transmitters are the
to attempt to reset it. If you are unable
alternators (or generators) is taken up heaviest users. Flaps use 5 to 10 percent,
to, look carefully at your electrical load,
by raising or lowering the gear. Next and environmental controls, such as
and turn off anything non-essential,
biggest, is the cumulative drain from ice air-conditioning, use 5 percent.
to minimise stress on the generation
protection systems. Having pitot heat, Even with both alternators or generators system.
stall vein heat, prop heat, windscreen working perfectly, the electrical system
heat, and fuel anti-ice turned on, plus Is your remaining alternator or generator
in most light twins will not have a lot of
activating de-icing boots, can use 25 to coping? If it appears to be coping with
spare capacity if you have everything
35 percent of what is available. Lights the load, monitor it carefully, but be
switched on at the same time and
aware that it may no longer cope if you
(both external and internal) use up to then extend the gear. It therefore
have to descend through cloud
25 percent, with the landing light alone stands to reason that if you lose one,
and need to turn on ice protection,
using 15 percent. Avionics equipment you may need to conserve electrical
or when you need to extend the gear.
(navigation, communications, and display load immediately.
The key is to anticipate when you will
require more capacity, and adjust your
load accordingly. If one alternator or
Conserve the battery by minimising radio transmissions generator is not coping, or it is only
and equipment use. The Flight Manual will usually provide just coping, start load shedding.
Climb or descend out of icing conditions
guidance on load shedding and managing the electrical so you can turn all ice protection
system if the generation system fails. Make sure you are systems off. By day, turn off all lights,
and at night, minimise your use of
familiar with this section. lights as much as possible. Use a torch
8 vector January / February 2010
Photo: ©istockphoto.com/Scot Spencer
instead of cabin lights if necessary, temperature, and general condition of Single-Engine Aircraft
and delay turning on your landing the battery have significant influence
Electrical problems in a single-engine
light until you are on the approach. over the actual battery capacity. aircraft are usually more time-critical,
Turn off the air-conditioning and any Having non-essential loads on (such as so consider a diversion to land as
unnecessary LCD screens and avionic ice protection systems) could reduce soon as possible when any electrical
equipment. Follow the procedures in issue develops.
this time to 10 to 15 minutes.
your Flight Manual and divert to land
as soon as possible. It is important to have a rough idea Monitoring the ammeter and low
voltage annunciator (if fitted) will enable
of how long your battery will last,
The worst case scenario would be if you to detect electrical malfunctions.
you were unable to escape from icing but it is impossible to know for sure how
Problems are not always related to an
conditions. If you have to keep your long you have to get the aircraft on insufficient rate of charge. Also watch
ice protection systems on, you will the ground. for an excessive rate of charge, as this
be using close to the maximum load can result in the battery overheating
The PA-31 Navajo Flight Manual states:
available from one alternator or if the alternator is not turned off.
generator. So when you select gear “If load shedding procedures have been
Follow the Fight Manual procedures
and/or flap, the power required to run carried out, the battery will provide to attempt to reset your alternator or
that mechanism will be drawn from the electric power for approximately generator. If your annunciator illuminates
battery. Since you are near the end 35 minutes to complete a landing under again it is essential to minimise the
of the flight, drawing from the battery IFR conditions, including only a single current drain on the battery and divert to
is perfectly reasonable. land as soon as possible.
flap extension and use of landing lights
If it is critical to lighten the load, consider for a limited time. Climb or descend to avoid icing
turning off the ice protection, and if still conditions, so you can switch off any
“The time above depends upon the
in below zero conditions after the gear ice protection equipment fitted to your
condition of the battery, temperature,
and flap is lowered, you could turn aircraft. Make sure your landing, taxi,
it back on. and the time elapsed between alternator and strobe lights are off. Turn off
failure and load shedding.” COM 2, NAV 2, and your autopilot if so
equipped. If you are in VMC, consider
Battery Only Conserve the battery by minimising
turning off your GPS.
If you end up running on the battery radio transmissions and equipment
only, this is an emergency situation use. The Flight Manual will usually To minimise the number of radio calls
you make, you may be able to use your
requiring an immediate mayday. provide guidance on load shedding and
cellphone to contact Air Traffic Control,
Design requirements for IFR aircraft managing the electrical system if the
or consider diverting to an unattended
specify that the battery must last for at generation system fails. Make sure you aerodrome if joining there would
least 30 minutes, but the charge state, are familiar with this section. require less radio calls.
vector January / February 2010 9
Photo: ©istockphoto.com/Prebranac
Threat and Error
Management
There’s a new international buzzword that will affect all pilots. If you haven’t
yet heard of it, you will definitely need to, but the good news is that you’re
probably doing some of it already.
What is TEM? called common sense. In all probability, of their operations. The danger here is
Orville and Wilbur Wright practised that it is often easy to normalise these
Threat and Error Management (TEM)
some form of TEM when they made conditions and fail to appreciate the
is a concept that has evolved gradually
their first controlled flight with the threat it poses. Without mitigating
from the constant drive to improve
Wright Flyer in 1903. strategies to accommodate the inevitable
safety in aviation operations. For the
TEM accepts that threats and errors are turbulence, wind gusts, windshear, and
pilots out there, TEM is similar to
everyday events that flight crews must potential crosswind, the likelihood of a
many concepts you already know,
manage to maintain safe flight. Therefore, safe approach and landing is increasingly
understand, and practise, such as
flight crews that successfully manage diminished,” says John.
Personal Minimums, Human Factors,
CRM, and Health and Safety. these events increase their potential for Although TEM sounds similar to risk
maintaining adequate safety margins, management (RM), it is different. RM is
TEM focuses on threats, errors and
according to Captain John Martin, the process of deciding whether or not
undesired aircraft states (UASs). It is a
Head of Safety Programmes, Air Nelson. operations can be conducted at an
way of pinpointing the mistakes you may
“For example, many pilots who spend a acceptable level of risk (go or no go),
make (errors) and identifying the hazards
significant amount of time operating in whereas TEM is the concept applied
you encounter (threats) on your flight,
Wellington airport have experienced its to managing and maintaining the safety
and seeking a proactive way to limit
notorious north-westerly wind. But with of a particular flight.
them so that they do not lead to a UAS.
time, this becomes a common aspect
TEM’s principles are not new to aviation.
It is the formalisation of what could be
10 vector January / February 2010What’s in TEM? classified as one of three types: aircraft says that Australian applicants for PPL,
handling errors, procedural errors, or CPL and ATPL licences have been
TEM basically addresses the three
communication errors. required to be assessed in TEM since
issues of threats, errors, and UASs.
1 July 2009.
UASs – UASs that result from ineffective
Threats – A threat or hazard is any
threat and/or error management may “So far, the feedback from a number of
situation, event, or circumstance that
lead to compromised situations. This is flying schools has been very positive,
may affect the safety of flight. Threats
often the last stage before an accident as the development and integration of
are not errors, but they increase the
or incident. The TEM model groups single-pilot human factors and TEM
potential for error. Some threats can be
UASs into three basic categories: competencies provides the opportunity
anticipated, others can be unexpected,
to formalise what many experienced
and yet others can be latent. The threats aircraft handling, ground navigation,
instructors already know is best
that pilots face can come from many and incorrect aircraft configurations.
practice,” says Ben.
different sources such as weather,
“The new competency standards ensure
ATC, airports, terrain, aircraft, cabin, TEM in Licence
maintenance, documentation, etc. students and new flying instructors
Syllabuses have clearer guidance to understand
Errors – Errors are usually the result The International Civil Aviation Organization the practical application of these skills,
of past activities. They are the (ICAO) has recognised the importance and how to best develop them to
consequences of an action or inaction,
of TEM training and has recommended improve TEM, flight standards and
and reduce the margin of safety, and
it for all pilot licences. The European aviation safety.” Ben acknowledges the
increase the probability of accidents or
Aviation Safety Agency plans to include work of the late Phil Astley (Flight
undesirable events. It is human nature to
TEM competence as a requirement for Standards Officer) who was instrumental
make errors, so error management is a
all flight instructors. in setting up the new competency
vital safety device. Errors are normally
standards for CASA.
Ben Cook, Manager Human Factors,
Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA), In New Zealand, the CAA is to introduce
TEM for all licence types (RPL, PPL, CPL
and ATPL) and ratings within the current
Continued over »
vector January / February 2010 11» Continued from previous page
rewrite of Part 61 that is expected to be
completed sometime this year. TEM in Action the crew (team) concept for identifying
threats, trapping errors, and preventing
CAA Manager, Personnel Licensing, Threat and error management is fast
undesired aircraft states,” says John.
John McKinlay, says, “The CAA is becoming a core element of the
working on introducing TEM into the operating philosophy at Air Nelson. Line operations, pilot training, Crew
PPL and CPL syllabuses as international Resource Management, Line Orient-
“TEM is a progressive, well-proven,
best practice supports the ICAO ated Flight Training, and OCAs squarely
and well-researched international
requirement for this type of training focus on the concepts of TEM.
concept and has many safety benefits
(TEM) to be incorporated from day one.” Additionally, all pilot documentation is
to it,” says Captain John Martin, Head being updated.
TEM will appear in the Flight Test of Safety Programmes at Air Nelson.
Standards Guides as a skill to be “Previously, items worthy of note
“Air Nelson’s pilots are being educated were contained within the paragraphs
assessed. on the need to look through different of an airfield description. Now, they
“In the flight test for a PPL licence, eyes. This includes assessing what are specifically highlighted as threats
demonstrating TEM is likely to take a may have once been considered a and described as such in approach and
form that is similar to defensive driving ‘normal’ set of operational circum- departure briefings.”
for motorists,” says CAA Flight Testing stances, to identifying the threats
Officer John Parker, who is currently This discussion on threats is empha-
contained within, establishing manage-
working on incorporating TEM into the sised at the end of the briefing.
ment strategies, and monitoring the
“The reasoning behind this is that
licence syllabus. effectiveness of those interventions.”
the principles of human recall suggest
“The pilot taking the PPL test would There have been enhancements to that we remember best what we hear
be asked to verbalise the decision- Air Nelson’s Operational Compet- first and what we hear last. Hence,
making process. They would be asked ency Assessment (OCA) programme. the repetition of the threats at the
to identify any hazards they might Previously, despite operating in a two- end of the briefing,” says John.
encounter on their flight (eg, adverse pilot environment, only one pilot at
He sums it all up by saying, “TEM
weather), pinpoint (trap) and rectify a time used to be scrutinised as part
promises to be a mainstay in our
errors (eg, incorrect heading bugged) of the OCA programme. That pilot
operations. Crews that develop contin-
and what steps to take to minimise the was examined on his ability to
gency management plans, such as
effect of the error, so that they don’t lead manage the aircraft in all respects,
proactively discussing strategies for
to a UAS (in this case, off heading),” including the need to identify any
anticipated threats, tend to have
explains John. threats, trap their own errors, and to
fewer mismanaged threats; crews
manage those events, albeit on a
that exhibit good monitoring and
Acknowledgements and largely sole means basis.
cross-checking usually commit fewer
further information:
“However, modern thinking acknow- errors and have fewer mismanaged
• GASCo Flight Safety, Threat and Error ledges that as human beings we all errors; and finally, crews that exhibit
Management, p5, Vol 45 No. 3.
More information at www.gasco.org.uk. make mistakes (errors). It is simply the strong leadership, enquiry, and work-
• http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/
way we function. There is little to be load management, typically tend
Threat_and_Error_Management (TEM). gained, therefore, if the impetus for to have fewer mismanaged errors
• Material from Air Nelson and The LOSA trapping errors is placed on a single and undesired aircraft states than
Collaborative. individual. The OCA now emphasises other crews.”
Photo: Above Ground Level
12 vector January / February 2010Mountain Flying
have the opportunity to enjoy those mountain flying, completely free and
flights. Those skills will also help before general release.
you out when operating low level,
This year our presenters are Jim Rankin,
or any time you can’t see a clearly
RNZAF Instructor, and Carlton Campbell,
defined horizon.
You are never far away from a mountain, CAA Training Standards Development
or from being affected by one, in Because of New Zealand's challenging Officer – both have spent years flying in
New Zealand – they’re unavoidable. terrain, mountain flying will be part of the mountainous terrain of New Zealand.
Many pilots avoid flying in the mountains, the pilot syllabus from 2011.
Here are the venues and dates for the
while some underestimate the dangers
This year’s AvKiwi Safety Seminars first set of seminars. More venues and
and give themselves a scare.
will give you a head start, along with dates will be published in the March/
You need a complete set of skills (ideally some tips to help you fly safely April Vector, and a complete list of
specialised training) to fly safely in the and comfortably in the mountains. seminars will be on the CAA web site,
mountains, and once you learn those When you attend you will receive a www.caa.govt.nz, see “Seminars and
skills, you and your passengers will brand new CAA-produced DVD on Courses” – so keep an eye out.
Nelson Aerodrome
Thursday 25 March, 7:00 pm
Tauranga Aerodrome
Nelson Aero Club
SportAvex 2010
Motueka Aerodrome
Saturday 6 Feb, 8:30 am
Thursday 25 March, 10:00 am
Tauranga Aero Club
Nelson Aviation College
Also from the CAA at SportAvex: Hokitika Aerodrome
Friday 5 February, 2:30 pm Monday 22 March, 7:00 pm
Rex Kenny on Sport Aviation Regulation Hokitika Aero Club Omaka Aerodrome
Saturday 6 February, 9:30 am (Blenheim)
Claude Preitner on The Ageing Pilot
Friday 26 March, 7:00 pm
Marlborough Aero Club
Christchurch Aerodrome
Friday 19 March, 3:00 pm
International Aviation Academy
Franz Josef Aerodrome Friday 19 March, 7:00 pm
Tuesday 23 March, 7:00 pm Canterbury Aero Club
Air Safaris (NZ) Ltd – Terminal Building
Ashburton Aerodrome
Friday 5 March, 7:00 pm
Mid Canterbury Aero Club
Oamaru Aerodrome
Queenstown Thursday 4 March, 7:00 pm
Monday 1 March, 6:00 pm North Otago Aero Club
St John Ambulance Centre,
10 Douglas Street, Frankton
Followed by pizza and Dunedin
refreshments across the Wednesday 3 March, 7:00 pm
road at Wakatipu Aero Club Kingsgate Hotel Dunedin, 10 Smith Street
Invercargill Aerodrome
Tuesday 2 March, 7:00 pm
Southland Aero Club
vector January / February 2010 13Woodbourne
Control Zone Changes
A new Omaka VFR Transit Lane is up and running, so here are some
important considerations for IFR traffic approaching and departing
Woodbourne, and for VFR traffic at Omaka.
O What Does this Mean for
n 19 November 2009, the within NZT 658, so a good listening
Woodbourne Control Zone watch, while essential, will not give you
changed. It is now smaller, no
IFR Operations? a complete picture. Both these sources
longer extending as far to the south-east, The boundary of NZT 658 allows VFR of information should be backed up
and the Maxwell, Taylor, and Fairhall traffic to operate only 0.9 NM south of
with effective visual scanning. Although
Sectors have gone – with the airspace the final approach track for Runway 24,
Woodbourne Tower are not responsible
below 1500 feet largely replaced by the and the departure track for Runway 06,
for providing traffic information, they
Omaka VFR Transit Lane (NZT 658). The at Woodbourne.
will continue to monitor aircraft
Transit Lane stretches from The Diversion Woodbourne Tower are no longer operating near the controlled airspace
VRP at the north-eastern corner of the required to give IFR aircraft traffic boundary.
CTR, south through the instrument sector, information about aircraft operating
to the south-eastern corner of the zone, VFR at Omaka. Although NZT 658 is IFR aircraft flying the VOR/DME
and then west, encompassing Omaka not transponder mandatory, aircraft approach to Runway 24 can descend
Aerodrome and continuing to the south- equipped with transponders should be to 1300 feet when tracking 242 degrees
western corner of the zone. VFR traffic operating them on mode A and C so inbound to the aerodrome between
can operate within NZT 658 from the ACAS-equipped aircraft can identify LUTKA, and 5 DME WB. Those on the
surface to 1500 feet, by day, without a potential traffic conflicts. It is also RNAV (GNSS) RWY 24 approach can
clearance from Woodbourne Tower. possible for NORDO aircraft to operate descend even lower, to 1200 feet.
WOODBOURNE
E
22°
NZT 658
14 vector January / February 2010Aircraft may descend to the 1200-foot VFR Operations When joining for Omaka, make sure
Photo: Sourced from Orthophoto BR28 and BQ28. Crown Copyright Reserved.
or 1300-foot hard height if they are you stay within the boundaries of
attempting to get visual in order to
To and From Omaka NZT 658. If you wish to fly above
break off the approach, and proceed Marlborough Aero Club CFI, Kevin Wilkey, 1500 feet for terrain clearance, to avoid
VFR to another aerodrome. says that after a few weeks of using the turbulence, or due to traffic congestion
new transit lane, “Things are going really (a typical bottleneck being between
While between LUTKA and 5 DME
well so far and the locals are enjoying
aircraft will pass through T658, where Watertank VRP and Vernon Works VRP),
having less restrictions placed on them
VFR aircraft could be operating up to then you must contact Woodbourne
by Woodbourne Tower.”
1500 feet, without transponders and Tower for a clearance. Similarly, if you
without making radio calls. If you fly the Kevin emphasises that, “Accurate pos- wish to track more directly to Omaka
advisory altitudes, however, these will ition reporting is even more important through the CTR/D, you must contact
provide at least 1000 feet of separation now that Woodbourne Tower are not Woodbourne Tower.
from any traffic in NZT 658 and keep required to pass on traffic information.”
The ‘Ponds’ VFR arrival and departure
you out of the ‘no man’s land’ where you
Pilots of transponder-equipped aircraft procedures for Omaka published in
have no protection.
should ensure they are operating on AIP New Zealand have been cancelled
When carrying out a visual approach Mode A and C at all times. by NOTAM. A new procedures page will
from the south it is safest to stay become effective 11 February 2010.
The circuit direction for Runways 01, 07,
above 1500 feet until clear of NZT 658,
and 12 at Omaka changed to right hand The new Omaka VFR Transit Lane will
or alternatively track to LUTKA (15 DME
on 19 November 2009, so that all circuits be subject to review. VFR pilots must
to the east of the aerodrome) and begin a
turn to the south – away from the NZT be diligent at remaining within the
visual approach from there.
658 boundary. boundaries of the transit lane, and only
On a left hand visual departure from enter the CTR/D when cleared to do so.
It is essential for VFR pilots to know
Runway 24, if you start to turn as soon If a high level of compliance is not
where New Renwick Road is, so they do
as you reach 500 feet (depending on achieved, and traffic conflicts with IFR
not stray into the Woodbourne IFR
your aircraft type), you may cross into aircraft occur, then the transit lane may
approach and departure sector.
NZT 658 before you have climbed be disestablished and area surrounding
through 1500 feet. Consider tracking Also, pilots using Runway 01 cannot fly
Omaka returned to controlled airspace
the extended centerline for longer to a standard circuit pattern. It is not possible
in future.
avoid this. Similarly, if you are on a right to fly a square crosswind leg within T658.
hand visual departure from Runway 06, To avoid busting controlled airspace, For more information about weather
ensure you are above 1500 feet before a low level turn is required after takeoff, conditions in the Woodbourne and
crossing New Renwick Road and and a crosswind leg that converges Omaka area refer to the September/
potentially entering T658. towards the downwind is necessary. October 2005 issue of Vector.
242°
0.9 NM
New Renwick Road
OMAKA
vector January / February 2010 15H T
Hot refuelling is refuelling with the engine(s)
running. It is permitted with Jet A-1 fuel,
but prohibited with Avgas, because it is so much
more dangerous with Avgas due to its low flashpoint.
In fact, people have set themselves alight through
refuelling with Avgas.
H
“ ot refuelling with Avgas is fraught with danger and »» You should be familiar with the minimum requirements
Photos: ©istockphoto.com/Hidesy/HerbertusT/Sbayram
is extremely unsafe,” says Simon Spencer-Bower, for refuelling in rule 91.15.
an 18,000-hour pilot and owner of Wanaka Helicopters.
»» Part 135 operators must have documented procedures in
“It’s good to see that the rules now forbid this, which means their expositions (rule 135.73).
that individuals who used to undertake this dangerous
»» A fire extinguisher should be immediately available.
practice in the past, are not legally allowed to anymore.”
Locate it several metres from the refuelling point.
The argument for hot refuelling is to reduce engine cycles on
»» Only those essential to the refuelling operations should
turbine engines and save maintenance costs. So it’s about
be near the aircraft.
saving money, and sometimes time, but there are inherently
more risks. »» The fuel nozzle should always be attended while refuelling.
The main increased dangers of hot refuelling are: »» No cigarettes or cellphones near the refuelling operation.
»» moving rotors or propellers; »» Within the vicinity of the refuelling operation, no radio
»» noise and rotor/prop blast can create confusion – transmissions should be made, or electrical switches
people can do silly things in a perceived ‘rush’; and operated.
»» increased chance of static electricity build-up. »» Only refuel to about 95 percent to avoid overflows.
Recommendations to mitigate these risks are: »» Always be aware of the potential for static electricity
build-up and check that bonding to earth is in place.
»» Only consider hot refuelling when allowed by the rules
(ie, never with Avgas), and also when permitted in the »» For aeroplanes – engine at ground idle; for helicopters –
Flight Manual (not all manufacturers allow hot refuelling). collective at flat pitch.
16 vector January / February 2010Refuelling
“Hot refuelling with Avgas is fraught with
danger and is extremely unsafe.”
»» For aeroplanes, it should be possible to stop the engine Splashing of Fuel: If splashing or spraying occurs during the
and move the aircraft in the event of a fuel spillage. refuelling process (most likely during top-loading of a tank)
a charged mist or foam can be produced.
»» For helicopters, it is recommended that the pilot remains
at the controls, to facilitate flying the helicopter clear, Hot and Dry: Hot and dry conditions pose the greatest
should there be a fuel spill. atmospheric risk of fuel flammability.
»» Do not refuel on elevated helipads when upward draughts Dangers of Synthetic Clothing: Polar fleece, polyester,
of air may be present, as this can displace some fuel. nylon and other synthetic materials are static hazards.
Avoid wearing such clothing, but if you are, never remove it
Static Hazards near a refuelling operation.
There is increased risk of a static build-up on an aircraft Chamois Leather: Studies have found that the use of a
with the engine(s) running. But remember that static can chamois as a filter can be a static hazard. Synthetic chamois
also build up on your clothing, or other items close to the are even more of a hazard.
refuelling operation, such as plastic funnels. Just one spark
from a static build-up can ignite fuel vapour.
Bonding
Andy Brown, of Coast to Coast Helicopters, points out that, Static electricity will take the quickest path to earth (or ground).
“People need to realise that static electricity can be present If this means leaping the air in the form of a spark, there is a
when refuelling. We had this very clearly demonstrated to great risk of igniting fuel vapour. This is mitigated by providing
us recently at dusk, when we watched a colleague refuelling. an electrical connection between earth, the fuel pump,
He was wearing 100 percent nylon shorts, and although he and the aircraft – often referred to as bonding.
was using an anti-static, anti-drip nozzle, we could still see
All bonding connections between ground equipment and
static sparks from 25 metres away.
the aircraft should be completed before tank filler caps are
“We have a bigger than standard extinguisher on site. A 2.5 kg removed, and should be maintained until the filler caps have
extinguisher always needs to be handy, but we now take an been replaced.
additional 4.5 kg extinguisher on every spray-support unit.
It is also advisable to keep the nozzle in contact with the side
It is important to remember that the fire extinguisher should
of the tank filler neck.
be placed about four metres or so away from any refuelling
activity, so that in case of a fire, the extinguisher is still If you are refuelling from cans or drums, you must take some
easily accessible.” measures to reduce the risk of an electro-static discharge.
Remember, the risk of a static electricity build-up is greater
Some common static hazards: when hot refuelling.
Fuel Flow Rate: The need for fast refuelling of aircraft results The Fuel Management Good Aviation Practice booklet
in higher fuel transmission speeds, which means greater risk has information on fuelling procedures and precautions.
of static electricity build-up and also more fuel splashing. Email: info@caa.govt.nz for a free copy.
vector January / February 2010 17Avoiding an Auto
A helicopter carrying out autorotational training can be hurtling towards the
ground at up to 2000 feet per minute. Fixed-wing pilots operating nearby
should know the limitations of a helicopter in an autorotation, and where to
look for this traffic.
O What is an Autorotation?
n 17 February 2008, a Cessna The Transport Accident Investigation
152 and an R22 collided in Commission report into the accident
An autorotation is essentially a forced
mid-air over Paraparaumu, states:
landing for a helicopter. The engine
resulting in three deaths. At 11:11, “The pilots in the helicopter should have normally turns the rotors. If the engine
the aeroplane pilot transmitted understood what was meant by a standard fails, the collective is lowered to reduce
“Paraparaumu Traffic – Echo Tango overhead rejoin and the general flight path the angle of attack on the rotor blades,
Yankee overhead the field 1500 feet, an aeroplane would have followed when and begin a descent. The relative airflow
commencing standard overhead rejoin flying the procedure to runway 34 seal. coming up through the rotor disk can
34 seal”. The helicopter was early into Equally the aeroplane pilot should have then keep the rotors turning. With the
its crosswind turn for the opposing understood what was meant by an rotors still turning, it is possible to
grass 34 circuit. Thirty eight seconds autorotation, as this was taught to local maintain control of the helicopter.
later, the helicopter pilot transmitted, students early in their training. He should
The descent rate during an auto is
“Paraparaumu Traffic – Hotel Golf certainly have known where the helicopter
generally between 1000 and 2000 feet
Victor is close in downwind grass 34, was when the helicopter pilot transmitted
per minute. When approaching the
practice 180 autorotation to the centre that the helicopter was ‘close in downwind
ground, the pilot slows the descent to a
grass 1000 feet”. grass 34, practice 180 autorotation to the
manageable rate by using aft cyclic to
The two aircraft collided at 90 degrees centre grass 1000 feet’.”
flare. The flare must be timed so that the
to each other at 1000 feet as the C152 But how many fixed-wing pilots really descent rate goes to zero just above
was turning left to cross the upwind know what an autorotation is, where a the ground. The helicopter is then put
end of sealed runway 34, and the helicopter in an auto will be positioned into a level attitude and collective is
helicopter was midway along a close (compared to a normal circuit), and what used to cushion the touchdown.
downwind leg for grass runway 34. to do if they hear one being conducted?
18 vector January / February 2010A standard “straight-in” autorotation is If you hear a helicopter commencing rotation and a stable descent, when
carried out after the helicopter has been an auto overhead from 1000 feet, their ability to respond to a traffic con-
positioned on finals. Once a student is it may look as though you have plenty flict is compromised. For a trainee, the
competent at this manoeuvre, they will of time to taxi across the runway or transition from the engine generating
be taught the 180 degree autorotation. the area they are aiming for. But with the required rotor rpm, to the relative
This is commenced from a downwind descent rates of up to 2000 feet airflow generating it, is a high work
position, turning through 180 degrees to per minute, it will only take them around load time, requiring split-second timing
land into wind. 30 seconds to touch down right and decision-making. During this brief
where you may be considering taxiing. period, a helicopter pilot’s attention is
What to Expect They will take considerably less time focussed inside the cockpit.
to get on the ground than a fixed-wing A fixed-wing aircraft joining will normally
Here are some important considerations
glide approach would. be descending at around 600 feet
for fixed-wing aircraft operating at an
aerodrome where helicopter autorotation per minute. If you compare this to the
In the Air helicopter’s descent rate of up to 2000
training is carried out.
If you are about to join, and you hear feet per minute, it becomes clear that
On the Ground a helicopter intending to carry out a a fixed-wing pilot’s ability to react and
If you are at a hold point waiting to cross 180 degree auto (particularly to a parallel avoid a conflict is much greater than
a grass runway, or needing to taxi past runway with an opposing circuit a helicopter pilot’s ability during this
any area used for helicopter autorotation direction), then it is not advisable to fly critical period.
training, a thorough lookout is essential. a standard overhead join, as there will be
Once established in an auto, however,
no non-traffic side. If there is no ATIS or
Where to look: helicopters can go around and be
AWIB to tell you the wind direction,
responsive to traffic conflicts.
»» A helicopter doing a standard auto circle overhead at least 500 to 1000 feet
(straight-in) will be a lot higher above the aerodrome circuit altitude, Communication, a listening watch,
on finals than one on a powered to determine the wind. If you have not an appreciation of the other aircraft’s
approach profile. positively identified the helicopter and capabilities, and a thorough lookout,
its phase of flight, then vacate the area are essential for safe operations. The
»» A helicopter doing a 180 degree
completely to descend to circuit height, safest course of action is to give a
auto will start overhead the aero-
before returning to join straight in or helicopter performing an autorotation
drome, usually between 1500 and
downwind for the appropriate runway. a very wide berth.
1000 feet agl, and often in a very
close downwind position. The aircraft There is a critical period of time while
roof could make it very hard to see a helicopter pilot is transitioning to auto-
traffic in this position.
R22 ZK-HGV (left) and C152 ZK-ETY
(right) collided in midair over
Paraparaumu in 2008.
vector January / February 2010 19You can also read
