Various novel insecticides are less toxic to humans, more specific to key pests
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REVIEW ARTICLE
t
Various novel insecticides are less toxic to humans,
more specific to key pests
Elizabeth E. Grafton-Cardwell
Larry D. Godfrey
William E. Chaney
Walter J. Bentley
t
A number of novel insecticides have
recently been registered for insect
control in agriculture. A major advan-
tage of these new products is that
they act on insect biological processes
that humans do not experience, such
as molting. Many also have greater
selectivity to target specific species,
so they are less likely to harm natural
enemies when compared with the While often effective at controlling specific pests, less-toxic new
insecticides can also have unintended impacts. When pyriproxyfen was
broader spectrum organophosphate, sprayed to control red scale in citrus, it also caused gross abnormalities in
carbamate, neonicotinoid and pyre- vedalia beetle pupae, left (normal) and right (abnormal). Vedalia beetles,
inset (adult stage), are predators needed to control cottony cushion scale;
throid insecticides. Such novel insec- as a result, secondary outbreaks of the scale occurred.
ticides currently in use include four
targeting lepidopteran pests, three
selectivity and so are less likely to the novel insecticides have fairly short
targeting sucking insects, one specific
harm natural enemies than the broad- residual activity or affect only immature
to dipteran leafminers and one insect
spectrum organophosphate (OP), car- stages of insects, so the treatment timing
growth regulator that controls a wide bamate, neonicotinoid and pyrethroid is less flexible compared with broad-
range of insects. One negative aspect insecticides. As such, they are less likely spectrum insecticides. Finally, the cost
of these insecticides is that because to cause outbreaks of secondary pests of the new insecticides is usually signifi-
of their narrower range of activity — that are well controlled by natural en- cantly higher than the older products.
controlling only a limited number of emies, and may be used as “clean-up” It is fortuitous that in recent years
pests — growers may need to apply sprays to manage outbreaks of pests insecticides from different chemical
caused by broad-spectrum insecticides. classes have been registered to control
additional pesticides for secondary
The registration of these insecticides has lepidopteran (primarily moths) and ho-
pest groups that have poor biological mopteran (primarily scales and white-
helped to greatly reduce OP and carba-
control, increasing the total number mate insecticide use in California. This flies) pests, because many insects in
of treatments per acre and total pest- has had an especially significant impact these groups have developed resistance
control costs. in cotton, citrus and stone fruits, where to the older pesticides. The simultane-
OP and carbamate use has been reduced ous registration of insecticides with
A number of novel insecticides with
unique modes of action were reg-
istered during the late 1990s and early
by as much as 70% since the late 1990s.
The new insecticides also have some
disadvantages. Because of their nar-
unique modes of action allows growers
to alternate the insecticides used, reduc-
ing the rate at which resistance devel-
2000s for insect control in agriculture. rower range of activity, each insecticide ops. Insecticide resistance in key pests
These new insecticides have several generally controls only one pest group will continue to be a major impetus for
advantages over older classes of insec- within a crop. The grower may need adopting novel insecticides.
ticides. First, most of the products in to apply additional insecticides for
this group act on insect processes that secondary pests that have inadequate Insecticides for Lepidoptera
humans do not experience, such as natural control, increasing the total Four insecticides that have activ-
molting. Low mammalian toxicity al- number of treatments per acre and total ity primarily affecting lepidopteran
lows for short re-entry and preharvest pest-control costs. In addition, many of pests — indoxacarb (Avaunt, Steward),
intervals, allowing the insecticides to
be easily incorporated into pest con- Insecticide resistance in key pests will continue to
trol programs. Many also have greater be a major impetus for adopting novel insecticides.
http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • JANUARY- MARCH 2005 29
tebufenozide (Confirm), methoxyfeno- to each other, as well as spinosad and emphasizes the need for the rotation of
zide (Intrepid) and emamectin benzoate Bt, helping to reduce the rate that insec- indoxacarb with emamectin benzoate,
(Denim, Proclaim) — are registered for ticide resistance develops. the dibenzoylhydrazine insect growth
a number of crops in California. The Indoxacarb. Indoxacarb is an oxadia- regulators (IGRs) and other insecticides
greatest uses of these insecticides are zine insecticide that blocks the sodium to maintain the efficacy of all groups of
in cotton, cole crops, lettuce, nuts, and channels in insect nerve cells, causing insecticides.
stone and pome fruits (table 1). lepidopteran larvae to stop feeding Tebufenozide. Tebufenozide is a
In stone fruit, the use of these insec- within 4 hours, become paralyzed and dibenzoylhydrazine stomach poison
ticides — in combination with Bacillus die within 2 to 5 days (McCann et al. that acts as an IGR specifically for Lepi-
thuringiensis (Bt) products, spinosad 2001). It is more effective as a stomach doptera. It mimics a molting hormone
and mating disruption during the poison than as a contact poison. Indoxa- and blocks the completion of the nor-
growing season — has greatly reduced carb is fairly selective, having activity mal molting process (Retnakaran et al.
the need for dormant sprays of OP, car- primarily against lepidopteran larvae 2001). The insect stops feeding within a
bamate and pyrethroid insecticides for and certain species of sucking insects few hours and undergoes a premature
peach twig borer (Anarsia lineatella). This such as Lygus bugs. However, the activ- lethal molt within 3 to 7 days, becom-
has benefited the stone fruit industry by ity of indoxacarb against the sucking ing trapped within the shedding head
reducing pesticide residues in surface wa- insects is weaker than for Lepidoptera capsule. Tebufenozide must be ingested
ter, by preserving natural enemies needed because of its slower bioactivation, to take effect and is thus slow-acting,
for other pests such as San Jose scale lower sensitivity and a less favorable with a residual activity of 14 to 21 days.
(Diaspidiotus perniciosus), and by reducing method of oral uptake in the sucking in- Application timing is critical, because
secondary outbreaks of spider mite pests sects. Indoxacarb allows most predators it is more active on early larval stages
caused by broad-spectrum-insecticide dis- and immature wasp parasites to survive (Waldstein and Reissig 2001). It is non-
ruption of their natural enemies. (Hewa-Kapuge et al. 2003; Studebaker toxic to honeybees and is selective, not
The Central Coast Vegetable Inte- and Kring 2003). However, the wet resi- affecting most natural enemies (Dhad-
grated Pest Management Program for dues of indoxacarb are toxic to bees and ialla et al. 1998).
pest management in lettuce provides adult wasp parasites. The crops for which tebufenozide is
another example of the significant Indoxacarb controls important currently registered include cole crops,
role that these narrow-spectrum in- pests in alfalfa, apples, cole crops, cot- cotton, grapes, lettuce, tomatoes and
secticides play in Lepidoptera control. ton, lettuce and pears. Populations of some nuts, pome and stone fruits. Low
Lettuce is highly susceptible to pest obliquebanded leafroller (Choristoneura levels of resistance to tebufenozide
damage at the seedling stage and rosaceana) in Michigan (Ahmad et al. have been found in codling moth (Cydia
during head formation. Many of the 2002) have exhibited resistance to in- pomonella), beet armyworm and oblique-
seedling pests — such as crickets, flea doxacarb in regions where it has not banded leafroller populations that were
beetles, aphids and whiteflies — are been used, suggesting cross-resistance not exposed to this insecticide (Moulton
controlled with broad-spectrum OP, to older groups of insecticides. This et al. 2002; Ahmad et al. 2002), suggest-
carbamate, pyrethroid or neonicotinoid
Jack Kelly Clark
insecticides. These insecticides reduce
or eliminate the natural enemies that
attack the lepidopteran pests, some-
times causing outbreaks; selective in-
secticides help to bring the Lepidoptera
back under control without creating
additional problems.
In addition, there are a number of
lepidopteran pests that attack both
head and leaf lettuce, including cabbage
looper (Trichoplusia ni), beet armyworm
(Spodoptera exigua), corn earworm (He-
licoverpa zea) and tobacco budworm
(Heliothis virescens). Lepidopteran pests
can destroy seedlings, bore holes and
leave frass or insect body contaminants
throughout the growth cycle of the let-
tuce, necessitating multiple treatments.
Indoxacarb and tebufenozide provide Because lettuce is highly susceptible to insect damage at the seedling stage, many
growers spray broad-spectrum insecticides. Some newer, more selective insecticides
unique, selective chemistries for these can bring lepidopteran pests under control without hurting their natural enemies and
pests and act as rotational alternatives causing secondary pest outbreaks.
30 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE, VOLUME 59, NUMBER 1
Photos: Jack Kelly Clark
Omnivorous leafroller moth Peach twig borer larva
attacking almond
ing that there may be cross-resistance to
older classes of compounds, including
OPs. There is also likely to be cross-
resistance between tebufenozide and
methoxyfenozide, because they have the
same mode of action. These insecticides
will need to be used infrequently, alter-
nated with other insecticide chemistries,
and coupled with alternative methods
of control, such as mating disruption, to
delay resistance in key pests.
Methoxyfenozide. Methoxyfenozide
is a dibenzoylhydrazine IGR, similar TABLE 1. Novel insecticides primarily targeting Lepidoptera*
to tebufenozide in its mode of action,
Indoxacarb
its ability to induce a lethal molt and Crop Pests controlled
its specificity for Lepidoptera (Carlson
Alfalfa Egyptian alfalfa weevil (Hypera brunneipennis), various Lepidoptera
et al. 2001). Methoxyfenozide was only
Apple, pear Codling moth (Cydia pomonella)
recently (2003) registered in California
Cole Various cutworms, cabbage looper (Trichoplusia ni),
and its use is likely to increase due to its
diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella)
better binding with lepidopteran recep-
Cotton Cabbage looper, beet armyworm (Spodoptera exigua),
tors and longer residuality compared western yellow-striped armyworm (Spodoptera praefica);
with tebufenozide. Methoxyfenozide (Lygus hesperus)
has a much lower ability to bind with Lettuce
suppression of Lygus bug
Corn earworm (Helicoverpa zea), tobacco budworm (Heliothis virescens),
receptors in nonlepidopteran species, beet armyworm, various loopers
making it a highly selective insecticide Stone fruit† Codling moth, oriental fruit moth (Grapholita molesta)
and useful in a number of crops. Low
levels of resistance to methoxyfenozide Tebufenozide
in codling moth, beet armyworm and Crop Pests controlled
obliquebanded leafroller have been Cole Cabbage looper, diamondback moth
found, necessitating prevention precau- Cotton Alfalfa looper (Autographa californica), cabbage looper,
tions similar to those for tebufenozide. saltmarsh caterpillar (Estigmene acrea), western yellow-striped armyworm
Emamectin benzoate. Emamectin Grape Various leafrollers, skeletonizer (Harrisina brillians)
benzoate is a second-generation aver- Lettuce Various loopers, beet armyworm
mectin analog with exceptional activ- Stone fruit Codling moth, peach twig borer (Anarsia lineatella), oriental fruit moth,
ity against lepidopterans, acting by omnivorous leafroller (Platynota stultana),
decreasing the excitability of neurons. obliquebanded leafroller (Choristoneura rosaceana)
Shortly after contact or feeding expo- Tomato Beet armyworm
sure, the insect larvae stop feeding, be- Walnut, pistachio, Codling moth, obliquebanded leafroller, green fruitworms
come irreversibly paralyzed and die in pear, apple (Orthosia hibisci, Amphipyra pyramidoides)
3 to 4 days. Emamectin benzoate toxic-
ity is broader spectrum than methoxy- Methoxyfenozide
Crop Pests controlled
fenozide, tebufenozide or indoxacarb,
which is a benefit in that it kills a wide Artichoke Artichoke plume moth (Platyptilia carduidactyla)
variety of lepidopterans (Argentine et Cotton Beet armyworm, western yellow-striped armyworm; suppression of Heliothis species
al. 2002). However, its broad-spectrum Grape Omnivorous leafroller, grape leaffolder (Desmia funeralis),
activity also makes fresh residues toxic orange tortrix (Argyrotaenia citrana)
to natural enemies (Studebaker and Nuts, stone fruit Navel orangeworm (Amyelois transitella), peach twig borer, oriental fruit moth,
various leafrollers
Kring 2003). Natural enemy survival
improves after about 5 days due to Pome fruit Various leafrollers; codling moth suppression in conjunction with mating disruption
rapid photodegradation. The toxic activ- Vegetables, cole Various armyworms, cabbage looper; suppression of diamondback moth
ity lasts longer for the pest because the
photodegradate moves through plant Emamectin benzoate
Crop Pests controlled
tissue (translaminar activity) and is
toxic to the plant-feeding pest. Cole Cabbage looper, tobacco budworm, beet armyworm, various loopers
Emamectin benzoate is used primar- Lettuce Corn earworm, tobacco budworm, beet armyworm, various loopers
ily against pests in cole crops and let- * Current uses in California.
tuce. (It is registered for cotton in other † Likely to be registered within a few years.
http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • JANUARY- MARCH 2005 31
states, but not California.) Emamectin ate have shown only slight levels of re- pyriproxyfen is not fully compatible
benzoate provides a rotational insecti- sistance (Waldstein and Reissig 2001). with natural enemies because it is high-
cide for the control of caterpillars and so ly toxic to predatory coccinellid beetles,
helps to reduce the development of re- Treatments for sucking insects halting both egg hatch and pupation
sistance. Populations of obliquebanded Three insecticides — pyriproxyfen (Grafton-Cardwell and Gu 2003). The
leafroller tested with emamectin benzo- (Esteem, Knack, Seize), buprofezin heavy use of pyriproxyfen in citrus for
(Applaud, Courier) and pyme- California red scale control created a
trozine (Fulfill) — have activity cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi)
Photos: Jack Kelly Clark
Silverleaf whitefly nymphs and pupae
primarily affecting sucking in- problem due to the loss of vedalia beetle
sect pests such as whiteflies and (Rodolia cardinalis). It may also be re-
armored scales, many of which sponsible for pest resurgences in other
have developed resistance to OP, crops due to its effect on coccinellid
carbamate or pyrethroid insecti- predators of armored scales, mealybugs
cides. The greatest uses of these and mites.
insecticides for whitefly control Second, pyriproxyfen has a narrower
are in cotton and tomatoes, for range of activity compared with the car-
California red scale (Aonidiella au- bamate and OP insecticides. Pyriproxy-
rantii) in citrus, and for San Jose fen has no effect on the secondary pests
scale in nuts, and stone and pome forktailed bush katydid (Scudderia fur-
fruits (table 2). Their cost is often cata) or citricola scale (Coccus pseudom-
significantly higher than OPs, agnoliarum), which lack natural enemies,
carbamates and pyrethroids. and so these insects have become pri-
Pyriproxyfen. Pyriproxyfen mary pests that must be controlled with
is a pyridine compound that acts additional insecticide treatments. In
as a juvenile hormone mimic past years, katydids and citricola scale
IGR, inhibiting egg production were easily controlled by the OP treat-
San Jose scale and the metamorphosis of im- ments applied for California red scale.
mature stages into adults (Ishaa- Currently, pyriproxyfen is used in
ya et al. 1994). It is most effective California to control pests in apples,
TABLE 2. Novel insecticides targeting sucking insects*
in late-stage larvae or nymphs citrus, cotton, nuts, pears, and stone
Foliar-applied pyriproxyfen
and early pupal stages when and pome fruits. In bait form, it is effec-
Crop Pests controlled juvenile hormone is normally tive against the protein-feeding native
Apple Apple leafminer (Phyllonorycter species) low. It is active primarily against southern fire ant (Solenopsis xyloni).
Citrus California red scale (Aonidiella aurantii)
sucking insects such as scales, An extensive resistance-management
pear psylla (Cacopsylla [Psylla] program has been developed for cotton
Cotton Silverleaf whitefly (Bemisia argentifolii)
pyricola) and whiteflies. It is also that limits the number of applications of
Pear Pear psylla (Cacopsylla [Psylla] pyricola)
effective against fire ants and pyriproxyfen to one per growing season
Stone fruit, apple leafminers (Phyllonorycter to reduce the rate of resistance devel-
pome fruit, nuts San Jose scale (Diaspidotus perniciosus)
species). Because of its persis- opment. Caution should be exercised
tence and efficacy, pyriproxyfen by growers as to the frequency of ap-
Buprofezin
Crop Pests controlled has been extremely effective in plication, because resistance has begun
Almond San Jose scale, apple leafhopper
reducing California red scale to develop in whitefly populations in
and San Jose scale populations other areas of the world, even when the
Citrus California red scale
that developed resistance to OP number of applications per season was
Cotton Silverleaf whitefly
insecticides. It is safer for hy- limited to one (Horowitz et al. 2002).
Grape Mealybugs (Pseudococcus species and menopterous parasites than OP Buprofezin. Buprofezin is a thia-
Planococcus ficus), leafhoppers
(Erthroneura elegantula and E. variabilis)
insecticides, greatly increasing diazine IGR that disrupts molting by
parasite numbers and so improv- preventing chitin development (Uchida
Stone fruit† San Jose scale
ing the control of both target et al. 1985). It is active primarily
Pymetrozine
and nontarget pests within crop against sucking insects such as scales,
Crop Pests controlled systems. Pyriproxyfen is toxic whiteflies, mealybugs and leafhoppers,
Cole, lettuce, Various aphids, various whiteflies to crustaceans, limiting its use although it also has activity against
celery, tomato around bodies of water. beetles. Buprofezin is slow-acting
Cotton Cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii) Citrus provides an example but persists a long time. It has poor
* Current uses in California. of two potential problems as- ovicidal activity, but treated adults
† Likely to be registered within a few years. sociated with the use of IGR of some pest species may lay sterile
insecticides in agriculture. First, eggs. It has little or no effect on lepi-
32 CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURE, VOLUME 59, NUMBER 1
Photos: Jack Kelly Clark
dopteran (moths), dipteran (flies) or
hymenopteran (wasp) insects. Bupro-
fezin is toxic to crustaceans, limiting its
use around bodies of water.
In citrus, buprofezin is not as ef-
fective as pyriproxyfen in controlling
California red scale because it requires Liriomyza leafminer adult Tunnels produced by leafminer larvae
the majority of the scale population to
be in an immature stage (Grout and TABLE 3. Current uses of cyromazine in California
Richards 1991). Buprofezin is less toxic
Crop Pests controlled
than OPs and carbamates to a number
Cole, lettuce, pepper, spinach, Dipteran leafminers (Liriomyza species)
of natural enemies, especially wasp
celery, tomato, cucurbit
parasites, allowing their numbers to
greatly increase. However, similar to
pyriproxyfen, it is highly toxic to coc-
cinellid beetles, preventing larval molt- Pymetrozine is active against impor- tance to the older groups of insecticides
ing (Grafton-Cardwell and Gu 2003). tant pests in cole crops, lettuce, celery around the world. Because leafminers
Buprofezin use has led to outbreaks of and tomatoes. It has been registered for often require multiple insecticide treat-
cottony cushion scale in citrus due to California cotton since 2001 to control ments, it will be important to rotate
the loss of vedalia beetle. It also may cotton aphid (Aphis gossypii), but has not cyromazine with other insecticide
be responsible for pest resurgences in yet been incorporated into management chemistries to combat resistance.
other crops due to its effect on coccinel- programs to any extent. Pymetrozine
lid predators. must be applied when populations of A product with broad activity
Currently, buprofezin is used in cotton aphids are low, but in Califor- Diflubenzuron (Dimilin, Micromite)
California to control pests in almonds, nia the treatment threshold for aphid is a benzoylphenylurea chitin-synthesis-
citrus, cotton and grapes. Buprofezin populations has traditionally been fairly inhibitor IGR that disrupts molting. It
has been an important component of high. When used for whitefly control, is slow-acting, requiring up to 14 days
the silverleaf whitefly management pymetrozine causes adults to stop feed- for population reduction, because it is
program for cotton, where it has helped ing, but it must be used in combination active against all molting stages. The
delay resistance to insecticides. In with other insecticides such as IGRs to symptoms of diflubenzuron poisoning
grapes, buprofezin can be rotated with reduce whitefly populations below the in grasshoppers include slowed move-
the neonicotinoids to control mealybugs economic threshold. ment, uncoordinated jumping, loss of
and leafhoppers and so help to man- legs, decreased feeding and malformed
age resistance. Because of its selectiv- Controlling dipteran leafminers wings (Weiland et al. 2002). It is used
ity favoring hymenopteran parasites, Cyromazine (Trigard) is a triazine against a variety of insects including
buprofezin and parasites work together insecticide used as a chitin-synthesis- rice water weevils (Lissorhoptrus ory-
to control grape and vine mealybugs. inhibitor IGR, which disrupts the molt- zophilus), beetles, various Lepidoptera,
Buprofezin is likely to receive registra- ing of larval and pupal cuticles. It has grasshoppers, Mormon crickets (Ana-
tion for San Jose scale in stone fruit in translaminar activity that quickly pen- brus simplex) and katydids. It does not
the near future. etrates into leaves. It is active against cause mortality to adults, but does ster-
Pymetrozine. Pymetrozine is a pyri- a very narrow range of insect pests, ilize the females of some species.
dine azomethine. It is active primarily notably the larval stages of dipteran Because diflubenzuron is primar-
against sucking insects such as aphids leafminers. Because of its high level ily active through ingestion, it is less
and whiteflies. Its mode of action is not of specificity, cyromazine is much less toxic to a number of natural enemies,
fully understood, but differs from other toxic to natural enemies, compared with especially wasp parasites. Similar
insecticide groups. It interferes with IGRs such as diflubenzuron, making it to other IGRs, the eggs and imma-
feeding behavior, resulting in the com- highly compatible with integrated pest ture stages of predatory beetles, as
plete cessation of feeding within hours management (IPM) programs (Schuster well as lacewings, can be sensitive
of contact (Harrewijn 1997). Aphids 1994). Cyromazine is nontoxic to crusta- to diflubenzuron (Ables et al. 1977).
remain alive for 2 to 4 days before they ceans, bees, fish and birds. However, effects such as reduced egg
die of starvation. Pymetrozine has The current uses of cyromazine are hatch can be rapidly reversed when
been shown to reduce both direct dam- for Liriomyza leafminers in cole crops, the predators enter an untreated
age and virus transmission by aphids lettuce, peppers, spinach, celery, toma- environment (Peleg 1983). Difluben-
(Bedford et al. 1998). Because of its toes and cucurbits (table 3). Cyromazine zuron is toxic to crustaceans; however,
specificity for sucking insects, it is rela- is important as a new chemistry for populations recover rapidly because it
tively nontoxic to most natural enemies controlling dipteran leafminers, as a rapidly dissipates in water.
(Sechser et al. 2002). number of species have developed resis- Currently, diflubenzuron is used to
http://CaliforniaAgriculture.ucop.edu • JANUARY- MARCH 2005 33
Jack Kelly Clark
Devastating Grasshopper.
grasshopper
Harrewijn P. 1997. Pymetrozine, a fast-
acting and selective inhibitor of aphid feed-
control pests in artichokes, citrus, cot- ing. In-situ studies with electronic monitoring
of feeding behavior. Pesticide Sci 49:130–40.
ton, rice, nuts and stone fruits (table 4). Hewa-Kapuge S, McDougall S, Hoff-
Diflubenzuron is also registered to man AA. 2003. Effects of methoxyfenozide,
treat grasslands infested with grass- indoxacarb, and other insecticides on the
beneficial egg parasitoid Trichograma nr.
hoppers — which often devastate brassicae (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae)
nearby crops — providing an impor- under laboratory and field conditions. J Econ
tant replacement for OP and carbamate TABLE 4. Current uses of diflubenzuron
Entomol 96:1083–90.
insecticides. Resistance to diflubenzuron Horowitz AR, Kontsedalov S, Denholm I,
in California
Ishaaya I. 2002. Dynamics of insecticide resis-
in codling moth populations occurs in tance in Bemisia tabaci: A case study with the
France (Sauphanor et al. 2000), indicat- Crop Pests controlled insect growth regulator pyriproxyfen. Pest
ing the need for the careful rotation of Almond, stone fruit Peach twig borer Manage Sci 58:1096–100.
Ishaaya I, De Cock A, Degheele D. 1994.
this insecticide with insecticides that Artichoke Armyworms, artichoke Pyriproxyfen, a potent suppressor of egg
have different modes of action. plume moth hatch and adult formation of the greenhouse
Citrus Citrus leafminer whitefly (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). J Econ
Pros and cons (Phyllocnistis citrella), Entomol 87:1185–9.
citrus peelminer McCann SF, Annis GD, Shapiro R, et al.
Novel insecticide classes play a criti- (Marmara gulosa); 2001. The discovery of indoxacarb: Oxadi-
cal role in the IPM of many California being tested for katydid azines as a new class of pyrazoline-type insec-
crops. Excellent efficacy, high selectivity (Scudderia furcata) ticides. Pest Manage Sci 57:153–64.
and low mammalian toxicity make them Moulton JK, Pepper DA, Jansson RK, Den-
Cotton Beet armyworm
nehy TJ. 2002. Pro-active management of
attractive replacements for OPs and car- Grassland (near crops) Grasshopper, beet armyworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
bamates, and the majority are considered Morman cricket resistance to tebufenozide and methoxyfe-
by the U.S. Environmental Protection nozide: Baseline monitoring, risk assessment,
Rice Rice water weevil
and isolation of resistance. J Econ Entomol
Agency to be “reduced risk” insecticides. (Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus)
95:414–24.
However, their high level of selectivity Walnut Codling moth Peleg BA. 1983. Effect of 3 insect growth
can increase the need for other insecti- regulators on larval development; fecundity
cides if they allow secondary pests that and egg viability of the coccinelid Chilocorus
bipustulatus [Col.: Coccinelidae]. Entomopha-
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insecticides are not always completely of diflubenzuron on beneficial arthropods 2001. Mode of action of the ecdysone agonist
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Nonetheless, major impetuses for Michigan. Pest Manage Sci 58:834–8. populations (Cydia pomonella). Pest Manage
the adoption of these chemistries in- Argentine JA, Jansson RK, Halliday WR, Sci 56:74–82.
clude human health concerns and pest et al. 2002. Potency, spectrum and residual Schuster DJ. 1994. Life-stage specific toxic-
activity of four new insecticides under ity of insecticides to parasitoids of Liriomyza
resistance to OPs, carbamates and glasshouse conditions. Florida Entomol trifolii (Burgess)(Diptera: Agromyzidae). Int J
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modes of action is extremely helpful for Bedford ID, Kelly A, Banks GK, et al. 1998. Sechser B, Reber B, Bourgeois F. 2002. Py-
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