Transporting Koi A Research Paper done for the Koi Health Advisor Program January 09
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Transporting
Koi
A Research Paper done for the
Koi Health Advisor Program
January 09
Authors (listed alphabetically): Ken Austin, Terri Janas,
Karen Pattist, Kay Rice
© 2009 Ken Austin, Terri Janas, Karen Pattist, Kay Rice
Disclaimers:
The authors did not have unlimited time and money. One product was tested and it
worked. Therefore, there was only data to back up the recommendation for that one product,
ULTIMATE®. This does not in any way mean that the group endorses ULTIMATE® as a
preference over other identical products. It just means that those other products were not tested
and therefore there was no data to compare. A further discussion of ULTIMATE® may be found
in the Appendix.
The AKCA Board of Directors has requested that this disclaimer be added to apprised readers
that the entire Board was not given the opportunity to review and comment on this report and/or
summary and therefore neither is endorsed by the AKCA.
Table of Contents
SCOPE OF THIS PAPER
INTRODUCTION
1.0 STRESS
1.1 Physiological Response to Stress
1.2 Ammonia Stress
1.3 Transport Water Composition Changes and Stress
1.4 Controlling Variations in Water Parameters
1.5 Delayed Mortality Syndrome (DMS)
1.6 Other Indications of Stress in Koi
1.7 General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
1.8 Parallels with Human Health
2.0 STRESS RESEARCH DONE FOR THIS PAPER
3.0 PREPARATION FOR TRANSPORT
3.1 Attention to Stressors
3.2 Fasting
3.3 Holding Tank Considerations
3.4 Holding Tank
3.5 Attention to Slime Coat
3.6 ULTIMATE® and Gills
4.0 TRANSPORT CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 Minimizing Stress While Catching Koi
4.2 Quick and Efficient Transport
4.3 Organizing to Transport Koi
4.4 Bag/Transport Tank Water
4.5 Un-bagging Koi
4.6 The Recovery and Quarantine Tank
4.7 Transport Injuries
5.0 TRANSPORT ADDITIVES
5.1 Detoxification of Ammonia
5.2 Detoxification of Chlorine and Chloramines
5.3 Slime Coat Enhancement
5.4 Treatment of Osmotic Stress
5.5 Detoxification of Heavy Metals
5.6 Disinfecting the Water
5.7 Buffering the Water
5.8 Increasing Oxygen
5.9 Sedation
Table of Contents (Cont’d)
5.0 TRANSPORT ADDITIVES (Cont’d)
Page 2, TRANSPORTING KOI, Austin, Janas, Pattist and Rice5.10 Darkness
5.11 Additive Conclusions & Recommendations
6.0 EQUIPMENT AND SUPPLIES
6.1 Equipment and Supply List
6.2 Seine net
6.3 Pole Net
6.4 Koi Bowl
6.5 Koi Bags
6.6 Rubber bands
6.7 Ice Packs
6.8 Containers
6.9 Oxygen
6.10 Emergency Kit
6.11 An Alternative – Live Haul Tanks
7.0 SUMMARY – 50 Things You Should Know about Transporting Koi
7.1 Stress and Koi
7.2 Preparation to Transport
7.3 Netting and Bowling Koi
7.4 Shipping Bags
7.5 Shipping Containers
7.6 Un-bagging Koi
7.7 Recovery and Quarantine after Transport
References
Glossary
Appendix
Table 1 Relative Ammonia Toxicity as a Function of Temperature and pH
Table 2 Solubility of oxygen in water in milligrams per liter
Table 3 Bagging Survey Results
Table 4 Salt Amounts to get a solution of .3% table salt in a given volume
of water
Table 5 Recommended Tank Loading Restrictions for Koi Shows
ULTIMATE® Product Data Sheet
ULTIMATE® and why it was chosen for this paper
Maintaining Stable pH and Calcium in a Holding, Recovery or
Quarantine Tank
Koi Food Notes
Water Borne Antibiotics
Web sites with information about moving large Koi
Web sites with information about quarantine procedures
Biographies
Page 3, TRANSPORTING KOI, Austin, Janas, Pattist and RiceSCOPE OF THIS PAPER
This paper was created to both examine the current research about transporting
Koi, and to add to that body of knowledge by doing some original research. Koi
are transported for many reasons, and doing it correctly involves preparation and
an understanding of the factors involved. Too often, Koi become ill after
transport, and many things are blamed when the primary cause was a lack of
understanding of the stressors involved at each step in the process. Every effort
must be made to minimize stress each time the Koi are handled. Proper
equipment and supplies are discussed and methods are recommended to assure
that Koi arrive at their destination in the best possible condition. Alternatives
must be weighed at each step so that the health of the Koi can be maximized.
Transporting Koi also involves an understanding of the ever-changing chemistry
of the shipping water within the bag. The product ULTIMATE® is referred to
throughout this paper, as it was the only one tested in association with this paper.
There is a discussion in the Appendix regarding why this product was chosen
and why only one product name is mentioned. The paper concludes with a list of
recommendations for transporting Koi. Words in italics may be found in the
glossary.
INTRODUCTION
Koi are moved many times in their lives. Breeders move fry to grow out ponds
and for culling. The longer a Koi is kept by a breeder, the more times it is moved
and handled. Eventually, the Koi is purchased by a dealer and shipped to the
dealer’s facility, where it may be moved and handled many more times before it
is ultimately purchased by a pond owner. The hobbyist/pond owner moves the
Koi from a quarantine tank to the pond. The hobbyist may also choose to
transport their Koi to shows, to a veterinary surgeon, to exhibitions or seminars,
to an indoor facility for the winter and an outdoor pond for the summer, or just
between ponds.
Transporting Koi correctly is more complicated than many realize, but there is a
safe way to do it. The purpose of the paper is to provide detailed information on
the safest methods to move Koi, regardless of the purpose for moving them.
Failure to transport Koi correctly will cause the Koi harm and even death. This
paper will consider the effects of transportation on the physiology of the Koi, and
will recommend a process of how Koi should be transported to incur the least
amount of harmful stress and injury in order to maintain the health and safety of
the Koi.
Page 4, TRANSPORTING KOI, Austin, Janas, Pattist and Rice1.0 STRESS
1.1 Physiological Response to Stress
“Fish are easily stressed by handling and transport, and stress can result
in immuno-suppression, physical injury or even death. …The stress
caused by handling, grading and transporting can be considerable. …The
major concerns in transporting aquatic animals are the management of
handling stress, mechanical shock, heat stress and water quality [1].
Stress may be defined as a condition in which the dynamic equilibrium of animal
organisms, called homeostasis, is threatened or disturbed as a result of the
actions of intrinsic stimuli, commonly defined as stressors [2]. Bartelme [3] says,
“A simple definition of a stressor in fish could be a stimulus that requires a
physiological response by the animal in an attempt to adapt to that stimulus.”
Stress may be quantified as the amount of disturbance of homeostasis. Stress
should be considered cumulative - becoming greater by stages or additions.
Stress is typically not a single phenomenon. Stressors can be multiple or
continuous and vary in intensity. Stress can have a chemical cause or a physical
cause or even just a perceived threat can trigger a stress response. Koi display
a wide variation in their physiological responses to stress (called stress-
response), which is clearly evident in the catecholamine hormone and plasma
corticosteroid changes that occur following a stressful event [4]. Catecholamine
changes (primarily adrenalin and noradrenalin) are typically an immediate
response to stress and cause increases in cardiac output, blood sugar,
respiration, oxygen uptake, and blood flow to the gills. Corticosteroid changes
(primarily cortisol) are typically a response to chronic stress and affect the Koi’s
osmotic balance and metabolism.
Transportation of Koi creates a combination of stressors and the response is
variable and complex:
“The length of time between discrete stressors, the effect of multiple
stressors and the severity of continuous stressors are important factors
that will likely influence how Koi respond [2].”
“Because the integrated stress response compromises many non-specific
elements, most notably the drain of metabolic energy and susceptibility to
diseases, many effects of stressors are additive [5].”
A single stressor may thus reduce the capacity of Koi to tolerate subsequent or
additional stressors. Take, for example, a Koi that has been exposed to sub-
lethal levels of ammonia. Stoskopf [6] says,
“Un-ionized ammonia levels of 0.2 ppm can cause rapid death and levels
as low as 0.02 ppm cause severe chronic problems. Even levels as low
as 1 ppb can irritate gills and cause temporary damage. Ammonia burns
the gills and mucous membranes of the skin, mouth and intestines.”
Page 5, TRANSPORTING KOI, Austin, Janas, Pattist and RiceThe response to the stressors of transportation, which include handling,
crowding, and confinement, exacerbates any existing impaired gill function due to
the influence of Cortisol, a hormone excreted under stress. Acute stress limits
the Koi’s capacity to osmoregulate (defined as keeping the body's fluids from
becoming too dilute or too concentrated), and prolonged periods of extreme
stress may lead to osmotic shock and death [4]. Sink et al [9] goes as far as to
suggest that: “Stress and the concurrent physiologically high concentrations of
Cortisol are more highly correlated to disease susceptibility than bacterial
pathogen load”.
The next sections examine the effects of known stressors as they relate to
transporting Koi.
1.2 Ammonia Stress
Ammonia is the final product of nitrogen metabolism in fish, and most of it is
eliminated through the gills into the water. Fasted fish that are metabolizing
mostly body fat, which contains no nitrogen, still produce ammonia, but to a
much smaller extent.
Ammonia exists in two molecular forms: the NH3 molecule and the NH4+ ionic
molecule. The ratio of these 2 forms depends on the pH and water temperature.
The Koi’s gill epithelial cell walls (walls of the cells that form the tissues of the
gills) are comparatively impermeable to the ammonia ion, but molecular
ammonia (NH3) easily penetrates, and thus is toxic. As explained in the next
section, the transport water pH tends to decrease and the water should be at a
cool temperature. Under these conditions the ammonia in the transport water is
mostly in the NH4+ ionic form, and as a consequence, ammonia toxicity during
transport should be less of a problem. Existing ammonia passes from the water
through the gills to the blood and then into the tissues. Ammonia has a high
affinity for the brain and Koi subjected to ammonia will exhibit nervous symptoms
[10]. Both higher pH and higher temperature increases ammonia toxicity. (see
Table #1, Appendix)
If the elimination rate of the ammonia is reduced for any reason, the ammonia
level in the blood increases, and may eventually reach a fatal level. This
condition is called ammonia autointoxication [10, 11]. It is important to
remember that there are two factors involved; the metabolism of nitrogen and the
elimination rate of ammonia through the gills. Koi that have been fully fasted for
a week are producing less ammonia. The less ammonia there is in the
bloodstream of the Koi, the less likely it is that ammonia autointoxication can
occur. However, Koi that are fed a standard high protein diet are producing a
large volume of ammonia and require healthy gills to eliminate it from their
bloodstream. When Koi are then cooled in preparation to or during shipping, the
ammonia builds in the bloodstream because the cooler temperatures have
reduced respiration and therefore reduced ammonia transfer from the gills. This
is why autointoxication may occur during transport. The elimination rate of
ammonia is a function of the health of the gill structure and the metabolic levels
of the Koi. Various extremes in water parameters, toxins and stress can cause
Page 6, TRANSPORTING KOI, Austin, Janas, Pattist and Ricemorphological changes to the gill structure and thus reduce its ability to eliminate
ammonia. The gill structure can also be damaged by parasites, bacterial, viral
and fungal diseases. The metabolic level of Koi can be reduced by cold water
temperatures or the use of anesthesia. At low metabolic levels, respiration is
reduced and so is the ammonia elimination rate. Understanding the danger of
ammonia autointoxication can help in the formulation of a few rules to safely
transport Koi.
Fully fast Koi for a week prior to transport.
Do not use anesthetics in transport water.
Do not transport Koi in cooled water when not fully fasted.
Maintain high water quality during transport by:
neutralizing gill damaging agents like chlorine
binding ammonia during transport.
Minimize stress to Koi during the entire transport process.
Do not transport Koi with existing gill damage.
1.3 Transport Water Composition Changes and Stress
The hobbyist should always ensure that Koi are kept in excellent water quality.
This is especially true in preparation for transport because poor water quality is a
stressor, and can additionally cause physical impairment, such as damage to the
gills caused by ammonia, and bleeding from the gills [11, 12]. The chemistry of
the water within the bag is more complicated than simply the ammonia level,
because the toxicity is linked to the pH. As the Koi breathe, more and more CO2
is trapped and builds up in the bag (which would normally de-gas into the
atmosphere), or it is converted into carbonic acid. Either way, the pH decreases.
Because there is much less of the toxic component of the ammonia at the ever
decreasing pH in the bag, Koi can actually survive a much higher ammonia level
while shipping than they could in the pond. When Koi bag water is tested after a
24 hour trip from Japan to the East Coast of the United States, the ammonia
level may be very high and the pH may be very low. Koi can survive this due to
the small amount of toxic ammonia at the low pH.
CO2 gases-off when the bag is opened, which causes a subsequent upward pH
shift and a subsequent increase in ammonia toxicity. That is why Koi should be
removed from the bag promptly after it is opened. Floating the bag before
opening it helps Koi adapt to any change in water temperatures. Some
references suggest that pH should also be equalized between the new tank/pond
and the bag water, but the damage done by the exposure to ammonia far
exceeds the stress incurred by rapidly changing pH. In fact, Koi acclimate to pH
changes within several minutes, and while it is a stressor, it is far less detrimental
than the gill burning that occurs with exposure to ammonia.
1.4 Controlling Variations in Water Parameters
Water quality parameters can differ significantly from the starting pond to the final
pond or tank. Additionally, the parameters in the transport container are
constantly degrading with time. Changes in water quality are one source of
stress during and after transport.
Page 7, TRANSPORTING KOI, Austin, Janas, Pattist and RiceProper transportation of Koi involves being aware of the water parameters at
each stage of transport and being prepared to adjust or manage the variations.
Source water, bag water and destination water should all be tested before
transport in order to better control the stress caused by changing water quality.
The goal should be to try to attain pH differences of less than 0.2 pH points and
temperature differences of less than 5 Degrees F. Where adjustments need to
be made to narrow the variation, it is preferable to raise the lower parameter than
to lower the higher one. A water additive that contains a buffer will help to
reduce stress by controlling the pH shift during transport and is beneficial so long
as the ammonia being produced by the Koi is bound (by another chemical) as
soon as it appears . An ice pack that is insulated and taped to the top of the
shipping box will help to keep a cooler water temperature, which is also beneficial
in reducing stress.
1.5 Delayed Mortality Syndrome (DMS)
Rapid changes in water parameters, including pH, temperature and hardness,
can stress Koi even if the changes are within the Koi’s normal range of
adaptation. Adding the stress caused by relatively small water quality changes to
the stress caused by netting, confining and transporting Koi can result in death.
Although the Koi may survive the transport and seem fine in the new
environment, they can become sick several days to even weeks later. This is
called Delayed Mortality Syndrome. It is often associated with opportunistic
infections which take advantage of the stressed Koi’s diminished immune
system. According to Noga [13],
“While infections that are caused by delayed mortality syndrome are
usually evident within 2-5 days of the stressful event, they may not appear
until over 1 week later. A critical period of about 2 to 3 weeks after the
acute stress is the most likely time that fish will become sick because of
DMS; thus close observation is warranted.”
The mechanism responsible for DMS is not well understood, although it is
observed in most species of fish. While Koi are considered relatively resistant to
DMS compared to other species, it is always prudent to quarantine Koi after
shipping. During that time, Koi should be closely inspected for disease, and
water may be salted to 0.3% (see Table #4, Appendix) if the Koi seem stressed
or injured in order to ease the osmoregulatory load [13] so that the Koi have
more energy reserves that they can recruit for healing.
1.6 Other Indications of Stress in Koi
Stress can manifest itself differently in each Koi. Stress may be exhibited in Koi
as general redness in the Koi’s skin, fins or bleeding from the gills. Stress
causes capillaries to become visible because they are engorged with blood due
to increased blood pressure. It can be seen as overall redness or red veining in
the white skin of the Koi. Some Koi bleed from their gills [22] during a particularly
stressful event. While neither of these symptoms will kill Koi directly, they
indicate the extent of the problem.
The altered chemistry and residual effects of stress are well known. One
indicator of a Koi’s stress level is the level of cortisol in the blood [2, 9]. Cortisol
levels in the blood increase after stressful situations, and significant mortality
Page 8, TRANSPORTING KOI, Austin, Janas, Pattist and Ricerates have been seen in test subjects with increased cortisol levels [9]. A study
by Svobodova et al [14] also confirms that the stress hormone cortisol is highly
correlated with the increased susceptibility of fish to infection and mortality. An
extrapolation of the trend shown in the chart from the research done by Iwama,
Afonso and Vijayan [15] indicates that cortisol levels may take up to 60 hours to
return to normal. During the period of elevated cortisol, the Koi will have a
compromised immune system and may succumb to parasites, bacteria or fungus
in the water.
Stress also increases the permeability of the surface epithelium, including the
gills, to water and ions, and thus induces systemic osmoregulation disturbances.
Koi may become “stressed to death” due to hyponatremia, or low blood salts [9].
Stressors also affect the branchial structure of the gills and result in
osmoregulation imbalance. The effects of such an osmotic imbalance can result
in what is termed as “noninfectious dropsy”, a condition where the fish bloats. As
an example, a Koi being unpacked at a Koi show was observed to be hugely
bloated. The Koi was put in a .6% salt bath and returned to a more normal
conformation after 4 hours.
Increased permeability of the gills is one of the main reasons for the high
vulnerability of fish to water pollutants. And, the more intense the stress, the
more likely it is that the fish may finally be in a distressed state. The stress
response in fish includes a marked increase in the oxygen uptake rate of the
gills. Stress that is severe or chronic can cause harmful physical changes in the
gill structure [5].
Additional stress may be fatal while the Koi is in a weakened state from a
previous stressor, and as discussed earlier, stress may be thought of as
cumulative. Studies have been done to determine the amount of time required
for Koi to recover from a major stressor. While the evidence is not definitive
because the act of drawing blood to test the Koi is, of itself, stressful and skews
the results; it is thought that some of the physiological indicators may not return
to normal for several months. Because there are so many uncontrollable
variables in studying stress, the amount of time it takes for physiological
indicators to return to normal may not be as certain as earlier research has
suggested [15]. Koi do adapt to stress, but given the evidence, the authors of
this paper do not recommend shipping Koi more often than every 3 months.
Shipping Koi is defined as any time the Koi are bagged and boxed. Simply
moving Koi within a premise does not constitute shipping, and the 3-month time
period does not apply. Unless the health of the Koi is in peril, the authors of this
paper would not recommend moving Koi more often than every 3 days, in order
for the cortisol levels to return to normal.
1.7 General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
Koi responses to stress are a part of a series of physiological reactions called the
General Adaptation Syndrome. The term was first discussed in a paper by Selye
[16] done in 1936. This syndrome is divided into three phases: the alarm
reaction when stress hormones are released; a stage of resistance during which
Page 9, TRANSPORTING KOI, Austin, Janas, Pattist and Riceadaptation occurs; and if the Koi cannot adapt, a stage of exhaustion followed by
death.
The stress response is described as being both adaptive and maladaptive [2].
For example, a primary response to stress is the release of cortisol. It makes the
gills more permeable and allows for increased oxygen uptake. The fish have
adapted by obtaining more oxygen from their gills when the body needs it for a
fight or flight response. When the stress is severe or long lasting, the increased
permeability of the gills results in electrolyte loss and increased water uptake (in
freshwater fish). Thus, the stress response that was initially helpful, now
becomes maladaptive, and threatens the fish’s life.
Koi can easily adapt to all sizes of ponds and holding tanks as well as to a wide
variety of water quality parameters. Many who have studied GAS in fish have
also found that desensitization to stress reduces the physiological reactions to
stress. It would be optimal to preclude the alarm reaction by having the Koi
already adapted to netting and confinement before transport. Koi can easily be
de-sensitized to nets. This is done in three phases, and starts by simply leaving
the nets in the same place in the pond several hours a day while the Koi are
being observed. This de-sensitization will probably take several weeks. Care
must be taken so that all possible ways that Koi could become trapped in the net
are considered and eliminated. If there is any danger of Koi becoming trapped,
the nets should not be left in the pond, and nets should not be left if someone will
not be there to observe the Koi and guarantee their safety. The Koi should be
fed over the nets, and should be observed routinely swimming over and around
the nets without reaction before advancing to the next step. Next, the nets
should be slowly moved to a slightly different location on a daily basis for several
weeks. The Koi should not be constrained by the nets – the purpose is to merely
acquaint the Koi with net movement. Once the net movement does not cause
alarm, the final phase can be initiated. The goal of this phase is to net the Koi
and release them without stress. The Koi should first be slowly seined into a
relatively large area such as 1/2 to 1/3 of the pond, and then immediately
released. This should be repeated occasionally for several weeks, and
eventually the Koi should not increase the speed of their swimming while being
restricted, nor should they exhibit any other stress indicator. After several
instances of calm behavior while being seined into a large area, the Koi can be
further restricted to a smaller area, and then released.
Once they are not agitated by being restricted to a small area, then they can be
de-sensitized to a capture net. The Koi should be directed with the capture net to
one corner, kept in the area for several seconds and released daily for several
weeks, one Koi at a time. As the Koi adapt and are less agitated, they may be
held for longer times or even bowled for a medical exam. Once Koi learn to
accept netting, the lessons must be reinforced at least once a month. If the time
is taken to adapt Koi to being netted, the Koi will be much less stressed by
transport and even showing. During the training process, all Koi must be closely
observed for disease. The goal is to adapt the Koi to stress slowly, so they do
not succumb to parasites or other pathogens. If any of the Koi become ill during
desensitization, or show excessive resistance to netting, such as bleeding from
Page 10, TRANSPORTING KOI, Austin, Janas, Pattist and Ricethe gills (a stress indicator), the desensitization process should be halted and
only re-started when all the Koi have recuperated.
1.8 Parallels with Human Health
Many large hospitals recognize that there is a short window of opportunity to
stimulate the human immune system so that treatment is more effective.
Hospital surgical ICUs amend other treatments with high doses of antioxidants
for the first 3 days of care. Several Koi vets, including Dr. Sandra Yosha, DVM,
PhD (see Biographies, Appendix) recommend the inclusion of an equal dosage
of Vitamin C along with any antibiotic injection. Dr. Eric Johnson [17]
recommends supplemental feeding of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) enhanced feeds
as an ancillary treatment to all disease. The goal of the antioxidant is to
stimulate the organism’s immune system so that the medicine works better. This
holds for both Koi and people. Because antioxidants are routinely used in human
ICUs when the patient’s immune system is extremely stressed, it makes sense to
also use antioxidants when Koi are stressed. Koi stress easily, and the required
handling for treatment or shipping is accompanied by even more stress. Thus it
is critical to consider the effects of stress and include antioxidants as part of
recuperation in any situation where Koi are handled. A good way to accomplish
this is to ascertain that the feed being used is new, and has a high concentration
of stabilized Vitamin C.
2.0 STRESS RESEARCH DONE FOR THIS PAPER
Testing Koi for stress has always been problematic. By taking a blood sample,
cortisol levels and thus stress levels can be accurately determined, but the
drawing of blood is in itself extremely stressful. If the blood is drawn under
anesthesia, the capture and restraint, induction and recovery from anesthesia all
add to stress. If the goal of the blood draw is simply to determine cortisol levels,
then blood testing may be useful. If the goal is to quantify stress or determine
recovery time, a less invasive and stressful test is required to get meaningful
results.
A study done in 1976 by Smith and Ramos [18] proved the use of a cheap and
commonly available human diagnostic test to quantify the level of stress in fish.
Mullet, milkfish, bonefish and butterfly fish were tested, and it was found that all
species released free hemoglobin into their skin mucus when stressed. The
amount of hemoglobin in the mucus correlated to the known results derived by
testing cortisol levels. The hemoglobin was detected by swiping the mucus with
a Hemastix® Reagent Strip, and the change in color quantified the amount of
stress. The strips look similar to pH test strips, and are made of plastic with a
small pad on one end. The pad is swiped in the mucus on the fish’s back (when
that section of the back is out of water), and the pad changes color to indicate the
amount of stress nearly immediately. The color change is compared to a chart,
and is a good indicator of the associated stress level. Smith and Ramos
ascertained that the reaction in the Hemastix® was only caused by hemoglobin
Page 11, TRANSPORTING KOI, Austin, Janas, Pattist and Ricein the mucus rather than by any water contaminates. The Hemastix® test is
simple, quick and accurate and produces very little stress to the fish. The fish
being tested must only be positioned such that an area on their back is out of
water long enough to swipe a Hemastix®. Hemastix® are available over-the-
counter at many pharmacies, and cost approximately $50 for 50 test strips. It
was decided to use the Hemastix method to test the efficacy of the product called
ULTIMATE®. The goal was to try to verify the manufacturer's claim that the
product reduces stress in fish [49]. ULTIMATE® was the only product tested in
association with this paper.
The results of some simple testing done by Karen Wepfer Pattist indicate that the
methodology suggested by Smith and Ramos does work with Koi. The number
of Koi tested was not statistically significant, and no formal research paper could
be written from the limited testing that was done. However, some of the general
trends and observations from the testing were interesting, and perhaps worthy of
more rigorous study in the future.
The first test was done to ascertain that Koi would also release hemoglobin into
their mucus when stressed, just as did the species in the Smith and Ramos
paper. The Hemastix® clearly showed that hemoglobin was released nearly
immediately when Koi are stressed, but it also showed that the test is extremely
sensitive. The Hemastix® showed the maximum measurable amount of released
hemoglobin with anything but the most gentle of netting and bowling. It was
eventually possible to very slowly and carefully net and bowl the Koi such that no
stress was detected by the Hemastix®. It was very easy to roughly net the Koi
and obtain a test result of maximum measurable stress. The extreme sensitivity
of the test made exact results hard to obtain, and each Koi can stress differently
each time it is handled such that any results are difficult to verify. The
Hemastix® reagent strips were developed to test human stool samples for
minute quantities of blood. While the previous research ascertained the
relationship between hemoglobin in the mucus and stress in fish, the measured
changes in resulting stress level are probably more significant than a single test
result in this case, due to the extremely small sample size. No Koi being
sampled bled from the gills, but it is noted that blood polluted water would
destroy test results.
A sample of 6 large Koi and 10 small Koi were netted and bowled 5 days in a
row. A log was kept of the results of each Koi. In general, it was found that large
Koi stressed much less during netting and bowling than did small Koi. Some Koi
always indicated higher stress, while some Koi always indicated lower stress.
In another test, a Koi that had just tested low in stress was released, and more
roughly netted and bowled again. The Hemastix® clearly indicated an increase
in the stress level. The best way to assure that most of the Koi had the least
amount of stress during netting and bowling was to move extremely slowly. It
was not unusual to take up to 5 minutes to net a Koi out of a show tank in order
for that Koi to indicate zero stress. It was never possible to get the lowest
reading while testing Koi less than 8”. The remaining testing was done only on
Page 12, TRANSPORTING KOI, Austin, Janas, Pattist and Ricelarge Koi that had become adapted to netting and bowling and would consistently
have the lowest stress indication after being netted and bowled.
Recovery time was tested next. Five larger (over 22”) Koi were stressed by
chasing them with a net such that the Hemastix® test showed the highest stress
level. The Koi were then put in a show tank with well-oxygenated, filtered water
and very gently tested at approximately 12-hour intervals to see how long it took
the Koi to indicate zero stress. 1 of the Koi indicated zero after 48 hours. 3 Koi
tested zero at the 72 hour mark, and the remaining Koi still did not indicate zero
stress after 96 hours. The test was repeated, except ULTIMATE® was added to
the tank water. (for a discussion about ULTIMATE®, see Appendix) 6 hours
after testing maximum stress, the Koi were re-tested, and 1 Koi had already
reached zero stress. 2 more reached zero when tested after 12 hours, and 1
tested 0 after 24 hours. The last Koi in that test never reached the 0 level, and
the testing was halted after 72 hours. It seems reasonable to say that the use of
ULTIMATE® reduced stress recovery time in the majority of Koi that were tested.
It is not clear which component of the ULTIMATE® was most beneficial in aiding
stress recovery, but as the recovery tank had a filter that would have consumed
ammonia, it may be hypothesized that the quicker recovery was based on the
slime-coat enhancing properties of ULTIMATE®.
Testing was then undertaken to see if the amount of time in a shipping bag
increased stress. For this test, 5 larger (over 22”) Koi were very gently netted,
bowled and bagged. The Koi were triple bagged alone in 40” bags, and the bags
placed in regular shipping boxes. After 1 minute, the Koi were released from the
bag, re-bowled and tested. All 5 Koi indicated maximum stress. Larger bag
sizes and greater amounts of oxygen were tried with similar results. In fact, all
Koi indicated maximum stress each time they were tested after they were left in
the bag 1 minute, 1 hour, 4 hours or 8 hours. The test was repeated using
ULTIMATE® as a bag additive at the rate of one teaspoon per gallon of water.
All the Koi still tested maximum in stress in all but the 4 and 8 hour tests. In the 4
hour test, 3 Koi showed reduced stress. At the 8 hour test, 4 Koi showed
reduced stress. From these tests, it is obvious that no matter how gently we net,
bowl and bag our Koi, they will be stressed. Some Koi seem to calm down after
being in the box for several hours, while others seem to continue to be highly
stressed. ULTIMATE® seems to help reduce bag stress, if the Koi spend more
than a few hours in the bag. Certainly, ULTIMATE® would bind the ammonia to
assure that the Koi arrived without the added stress of Ammonia burns. Also,
keeping the slime coat barrier in tact should have a beneficial effect by protecting
the Koi from the invasion of pathogens while their immune system is
compromised from the stress.
There were many more tests that could have been performed. In general, the
differences between individuals was at least as large as the differences derived
from the testing, such that very large samples of similarly sized Koi would need
to be used in order to gain reliable and significant results. While specific
conclusions cannot be drawn, the existing observations would seem to indicate a
beneficial effect from using ULTIMATE® in the recovery tank, and also as a bag
additive. The Koi which were handled most often during the 3 months of testing
Page 13, TRANSPORTING KOI, Austin, Janas, Pattist and Ricehad less stress in general after being netted and bowled at the end of the testing
than they did at the beginning, and had adapted quite well. Some Koi appear to
rapidly acclimate to stressful conditions, while others acclimate much more
slowly. Any Koi may have a previously compromised immune system, and the
stressor may never be known. That is another reason why a large sample size
would be needed to reduce the significance of a single, atypical result.
Perhaps the most important fact that can be derived from this testing is that Koi
do release hemoglobin into their slime coat extremely readily when stressed.
Every aspect of handling and keeping Koi should be evaluated in an attempt to
reduce stress where ever possible, especially as the additive effects of all the
multiple stressors involved in shipping will have a detrimental impact on Koi.
Hobbyists might find it useful to keep Hemastix® on hand and test their Koi
whenever stress is suspected, but it must be noted that the stress of restraining
the Koi to be tested can easily invalidate the results. It is possible to say that
Hemastix® are an excellent tool for further research into the stress of Koi, and
even an occasional test done by a general hobbyist could certainly be
illuminating and useful in trying to learn how to handle Koi in the least stressful
way possible. To achieve a zero result with the Hemastix® can certainly be
considered an accomplishment and a testimonial to both the careful handling of
that Koi, and the Koi’s adaptive response to handling.
3.0 PREPARATION FOR TRANSPORT
3.1 Attention to Stressors
Transporting Koi involves moving them from the source water at the point of
origin to the water in the transport container. At the destination, the Koi are
moved again, this time from the transport container to the final destination-pond
or tank. Stress and physiological stress-responses are caused by netting,
handling and moving Koi, as well as by exposure to water changes [5].
Whenever Koi are stressed, cortisol is released and can be measured to indicate
the severity of the stress. However, the important concept is to pay attention to
the stress, not the cortisol level. Stress harms the Koi by decreasing the
effectiveness of its immune system. A less than perfect immune system
increases the risk of infection or other health problems to the Koi being
transported, and may increase the possibility of transmitting disease to other Koi
already at the destination [19]. Transferring fish from pond to pond is a common
way to spread disease and parasites. Add to that equation stressed fish with
suppressed immune systems that are highly susceptible to disease.
3.2 Fasting
Koi are poikilothermic, and that makes them different from the other animals we
keep as pets. The old term was “cold-blooded”, but that term has been
outdated (see Glossary for further discussion). “Warm-blooded” animals,
including humans, dogs and cats, maintain a consistent body temperature
Page 14, TRANSPORTING KOI, Austin, Janas, Pattist and Riceregardless of the surroundings. Poikilotherms are different, because their
metabolism is tied to the temperature of their environment [20]. Koi can survive
water temperatures from about 35 to 90 [21]. In cool water temperatures, a Koi’s
metabolism slows down and they appear to go dormant. That condition is
correctly called torpor. Torpor is an endogenous suppression and activation of
metabolic processes creating a dormant state where dormancy is interrupted with
periodic arousals, indicating that torpor is not temperature driven. During the
periods of arousal, fish will eat flora and fauna living on the bottom of the pond.
When the Koi's metabolism is slowed, food takes longer to digest, and medicine
takes longer to disperse and be circulated in their bodies.
Warm-blooded animals cannot go without food for several weeks without harmful
consequences, but Koi can. During winter, Koi in some areas of the country do
not eat food fed by humans for over 6 months (most experts recommend not
feeding Koi when the water temperature is below 50 degrees). Koi survive these
long periods in cold water because their reduced metabolism requires less food,
and the required food can be acquired by eating algae from the sides and
bottoms of the pond. Even when the water is warmer, Koi are not harmed by
fasting for a few weeks [23]. According to Stoskopf [6] “The most common
trouble with fish during a vacation is overfeeding by an inexperienced and
overzealous friend or neighbor.” Before shipment, Koi should be fasted for a
week so that all food clears their systems. It is important that Koi owners
understand that it is not appropriate to assume that our discomfort from a week
of hunger would be the same for our poikilothermic pets [23].
Fasting prior to transport clears the intestine and thus reduces the possible
pollution in the transport water [19]. The fasting/holding period needs to be long
enough for the food to clear the gut and for the fasting to have its effect on the
metabolism, i.e. the amount of ammonia released into the blood stream is
reduced. This takes a few days. A Koi’s metabolism increases with feeding and
digestion, resulting in increased oxygen demand [24]. Koi metabolism slows
down during fasting, so fasted Koi will consume less oxygen during transport.
Koi are evolutionarily adapted to intermittent feeding and the speed at which food
clears the Koi’s gut is affected by water temperature and stress, and therefore it
may take considerable time for fasting to produce a physiological effect.
A study done by Phillips and Brockway [25] showed that using cooler transport
water and fasting prior to transport had double benefits. First, less ammonia was
released into the transport water and secondly, less oxygen was consumed by
the fish during transport. While this study was done on trout, we can apply the
same principles to Koi and many other fish being transported. If Koi are in ponds
prior to transport, they will continuously consume algae in the absence of other
food. A total fast can only be accomplished in a clean holding tank. Koi stress
when held alone, so at least 2 Koi should always be kept in a holding tank, even
if the extra Koi will not be transported [6].
3.3 Holding Tank Considerations
It is always critical to weigh alternatives when handling Koi. If Koi are being
transported to a Koi Show, a quarantine tank will be required for the returning
Page 15, TRANSPORTING KOI, Austin, Janas, Pattist and RiceKoi, and it is just as easy to set up the tank before the show and use it as a
holding tank to fast the Koi. If the Koi are going on a one-way journey, it may be
easier to leave the Koi in the pond and fast the pond, understanding that a total
fast will not be achieved. If the proposed journey is shorter than 6 hours and
ULTIMATE® is used as a bag additive, the bag pollution caused by the algae in
the gut should be less of a problem. The short duration of the transport and the
use of ULTIMATE® should mitigate the dangers of not achieving a full fast.
3.4 Holding Tank
Optimally, Koi would be moved to a clean holding tank at least 1 week before
transport. In the holding tank, Koi can be watched, fasted and allowed to recover
from the stress of being captured and removed from the pond. The rest of the
Koi in the pond may continue to consume a regular diet. Temperature, pH and
total alkalinity in the holding water should be kept stable. The water should be
tested daily, and baking soda and/or calcium may be added as needed. (see
Appendix for a discussion on “Maintaining a Stable pH and Calcium” in a holding
or quarantine tank)
Koi should have adequate water volume so that they do not experience stress
from crowding, and at least 100 gallons for each Koi over 15” is recommended
[26]. A more accurate system would be to use the tank-loading formula
developed to maintain good water quality at Koi Shows. (see Table #5,
Appendix, for Tank Loading formula) Fish crowding is the behavioral
requirement of fish for physical space, and is different from fish loading which is
the carrying capacity of the tank water in terms of oxygen availability and toxin
build-up. Both crowding and loading need to be considered when choosing a
holding tank. There should be sufficient aeration to reach oxygen saturation at
the given water temperature (see Table #2, Appendix). ULTIMATE®® should be
used in the water, and will serve several purposes. First, it will neutralize any
chlorine or chloramines from the supply water and it will bind all ammonia
produced by the Koi. Secondly, it will replace any slime coat that may have been
removed when the Koi was netted and handled, and third, it will bind heavy
metals.
Holding tank water changes should optimally be achieved by a slow, continuous
trickle of fresh water rather than more stressful major water changes. Well water
that contains no chlorine or chloramines should be used if possible. If the
incoming water contains chlorine or chloramines, additional ULTIMATE® should
be added at each water change to treat the volume of water changed. The total
daily dose of ULTIMATE® will be determined by the amount of water changed
and the number of Koi in quarantine. If ULTIMATE® is being used to both
detoxify ammonia and to treat incoming water; an additional dosage may be
needed if the combined ammonia, chlorine or chloramines present exceed 3 ppm
[49]. (for product dosages, see Appendix for the ULTIMATE® Product Data
Sheet) The tank should have filtration that is suitable for a fish habitat of that
water volume. ULTIMATE® should not be used as a substitute for a working
filter.
Page 16, TRANSPORTING KOI, Austin, Janas, Pattist and RiceAdding Calcium to the water during both the holding and quarantine period may
help stressed Koi [13, 48]. This requires knowledge of the calcium ion content of
the water. Adding calcium to calcium rich water produces no benefits. Adding
calcium too quickly to water with very low hardness can produce significant pH
changes, which may irritate the Koi, but this is only a concern in very-low-
hardness water, and is more of an issue if calcium hydroxide is used than if
Calcium Chloride is used. Calcium is an electrolyte and reduces the permeability
of the gills to water, thus reducing water and electrolytic flux [7]. The gills of
stressed Koi have increased permeability due to the cortisol effect and up to
about 80mg/L calcium can be used to offset the increased permeability. Again,
all factors should be considered before adding anything to the water, but it should
be understood that any reduction in oxygen uptake as a result of adding calcium
is relatively unimportant compared to the dropsy and osmotic shock that calcium
helps to prevent. Adding calcium chloride to water does not release chlorine ions
which would have to be neutralized with de-chlorinator. (see notes, Table #4,
Appendix)
Note that calcium ion content is not the same as alkalinity (KH), or hardness
(GH). The test for hardness (GH) does not distinguish which ions are causing
the hardness. There are calcium ion specific test kits on the market
manufactured by Hagen (sold under the Nutrifin label), Salifert, Aquarium
Pharmaceuticals, and Red Sea Fish Pharmaceuticals, and others that can be
used to easily and accurately determine the calcium ion content of water.
3.5 Attention to Slime Coat
The primary defense that Koi have against pathogens is their slime coat. The
slime coat or cuticle is part of the epidermis layer of the Koi’s skin. It contains
natural antibiotics and provides a barrier to parasites and bacteria. Netting and
bagging Koi in even the most careful way is bound to strip some slime coat. If
there is a small gap in the slime coat and pathogens are present, Koi may
become infected. While that infection is usually handled by the Koi’s immune
system, if the immune system is weakened by stress, the probability of infection
greatly increases.
Small amounts of salt, such as the .3% that is recommended for use in transport
bags and isolation tanks, also has the effect of increasing slime coat. This works
because salt is a mild irritant which stimulates mucus secretion [50, 51, 52].
However, large amounts of salt, such as 1-3% that may be used as baths or dips,
will strip slime coat [53], and would kill Koi in any prolonged exposure.
A case can be made to enhance slime-coat and thus close the portal of entry for
pathogens whenever Koi are handled. Older chemicals marketed for the
purpose of increasing slime coat in Koi functioned by irritating the Koi into
producing more slime. Not only did being exposed to the chemical irritants add
stress to the Koi, but the greatly increased slime also coated the gills and
stressed the Koi further by reducing their ability to extract oxygen from the water.
Koi often suffocated, or quickly succumbed to pathogens, and the older slime-
coat enhancing products fell from favor. Current technology has produced a
product called “ULTIMATE®,” a polymer-based product that, according to the
Page 17, TRANSPORTING KOI, Austin, Janas, Pattist and Riceproduct literature, preferentially replaces slime coat only where it is missing, and
does not coat the gills [49].
If the portal of entry through the skin is closed and the Koi has an unbroken layer
of slime coat, a Koi is much less likely to succumb to pathogens even if it is
exposed when its immune system is challenged. The instantaneous replacement
of the slime coat due to the polymer is in the water means that the primary portal
of entry is always closed. The authors of this paper therefore suggest that
ULTIMATE® be used before, during and after transport to minimize the likelihood
that the stress of transport will later cause disease.
Before Transport - ULTIMATE® is recommended while the Koi are being
fasted before shipment
During Transport - ULTIMATE® is recommended as a bag additive
After Transport - ULTIMATE® is recommended as a recuperative aid for
the period that Koi are quarantined after shipment.
3.6 ULTIMATE® and Gills
To check the claim that ULTIMATE® does not coat gills [49], one of the authors
of this study, Karen Wepfer Pattist, did a simple test. 6 Koi were anesthetized
and gill scraped, and the slides observed under a microscope to check the level
of mucus. These 6 Koi were then placed in a tank containing ULTIMATE® at 5x
the dosage recommended on the label. After 24 hours, each of the Koi was
again anesthetized and gill scraped, and no increase in mucus was observed
under the microscope. The test was repeated after 48 hours and again after 72
hours with the same result. As a control, another Koi anesthetized and was
placed in water containing another over-the-counter stress product. When that
Koi was again anesthetized and tested after 24 hours, there was an estimated
12-fold increase in mucus. While the sample size was not statistically significant,
and while the observations were subjective, the observer was a trained Koi
Health Advisor that has seen many slides with excessive mucus secretions.
There was no observable change in the amount of mucus in any of the slides
from the Koi kept in ULTIMATE® as seen under the microscope. These results
would tend to corroborate the claim that ULTIMATE® and Stress-X® (the
component of ULTIMATE® responsible for replacing slime coat) does not tend to
suffocate the Koi with excess mucus in the gills. (see Appendix for a more
detailed discussion of ULTIMATE®)
4.0 TRANSPORT CONSIDERATIONS
Next, the physiological responses of Koi to all aspects of transport will be
considered, and recommended preparations and procedures for transport will be
explained.
4.1 Minimizing Stress While Catching Koi
Page 18, TRANSPORTING KOI, Austin, Janas, Pattist and RiceThe use of a holding tank to fast Koi means that the Koi do not have to be moved
until assistance is available, which allows the move to take place in an orderly
fashion with reduced stress to the handlers as well as the Koi. The Koi can be
leisurely moved to the holding tank in advance of transport, and then easily
bagged from the tank. It is imperative that stress should be minimized as Koi are
netted, bowled and bagged. Any handling of Koi is a stressor [14]. The key to
minimizing stress is for all the people involved to move slowly. A Koi’s fight-or-
flight response [26] will be triggered by any quick movements. While netting Koi,
a slow and persistent demeanor is always preferable to any fast movement. Five
minutes may seem forever to have to slowly move a net in order to get a Koi into
the bowl, but taking five minutes to approach the Koi slowly and let them get
used to the net is always faster than netting scared Koi.
Once Koi are scared, they will swim very rapidly and it often takes more than 30
minutes for Koi to slow down enough to be captured. The frightened Koi will be
stressed. Stressed Koi bleed more easily out of their gills, and any blood will
instantly pollute the shipping water or holding tank water. Stress is easily
observed in Koi with white in their pattern, as the stress brings capillaries to the
surface, and the Koi may appear to blush (turn “pink”) or have discernable red
veining in the white. The red muscle lies closest to the skin and has the most
veins in it. Veining in the white muscle area may not be as visible, but does not
necessarily indicate the absence of stress.
“Pink” Koi are the result of some stressor, and can often be observed at Koi
shows, and pink skin shows an obvious stress-related problem. Certainly, any
Koi may be stressed without necessarily showing it and this symptom may be
harder to see in Koi with background colors other than white. It is obvious that
“pink” Koi have been stressed, and while the stressor may have been
unavoidable, a “pink” Koi will not be judged as highly as it could have been.
According to head judge Burt Ballou (see Biographies, Appendix), if the U.S.
judge can’t tell what the skin quality is because of the “pinkness,” or if there are 2
Koi with comparable skin quality and all other factors are equal except that one is
“pink,” the Koi with the “pink” skin will be judged as inferior. In Japan, “pink” skin
is always judged as a fault, because showing Koi is thought to require the
knowledge of how to make Koi look their very best, and “pink” skin shows an
obvious stress-related problem.
When bagging Koi, a new bag should always be used to avoid contamination.
Koi should always be transported with a minimum of 2 bags, both to help
maintain water temperature and as a safety precaution against leaks. A re-used
bag may be employed as the second or outer bag, if it is desirable to save
money.
Some people prefer to move Koi from the bowl to the bag with a sock net. Using
a sock net is another opportunity for stress. Only sock nets that hold water
should be used. Sock nets that do not hold water will strip the slime coat at
exactly the time when the Koi need all of their defenses to counteract the effects
of stress. Even a sock net that does hold water will agitate the Koi, and must be
well supported so that the spine of the Koi remains straight while the Koi is being
Page 19, TRANSPORTING KOI, Austin, Janas, Pattist and Ricemoved. Sock nets are designed to provide the fish a one-way travel path through
the net. Koi should always enter a sock net nose first in order to minimize the
danger of tearing fins during release. Another technique is to direct Koi to the
handlers with a pole net, and then scoop them up using a transport bag directly
from the water. A sock net could be substituted for the bag, but is not
recommended as it introduces another handling step. Bagging directly from the
tank is impractical unless the tank water is being used as transport water, and
even if tank water is to be used, it is difficult to capture the right amount of water
in the bag along with the Koi without agitating the Koi. This technique can panic
skittish Koi, and must be performed slowly and gently. In general, the least
stressful and safest system is to bag Koi from a bowl. It should be noted that
spooked Koi are likely to try and jump from a bowl, and the bowl may be covered
with a net for several minutes to see if the Koi will calm down before it is handled.
If the bag water is to be different from the source water, the Koi may be lifted by
hand into the bag. This is done more safely while the bowl is still floating in
water, such that if the Koi jumps or is dropped, it lands in the water and the
chance of injury is reduced.
Choices for moving Koi to bags or transport containers:
• Bowl the Koi, and lift the Koi by hand directly from the floating bowl into
the bag or transport container. This takes skill and ability, but if the Koi is
dropped, it is likely to land back in the water.
• Bowl the Koi, then move the covered bowl out of the water to a location
where access is better and lifting is easier, and then lift the Koi into the
bag or transport container. This makes the lifting and moving easier, but if
the Koi is dropped, it is likely to land on the ground.
• Bowl the Koi, then use a sock net to transfer the Koi to the bag or
transport container. This will mean that at least some of the bowl water is
used in transport, will add the additional stress of another step to the
transport experience, and will remove some slime coat from the Koi.
• Bowl the Koi, and then bag the Koi directly from the bowl using the water
in the bowl as transport water. This can be the least stressful to the Koi,
but the water in the bowl needs to be suitable transport water. This
system does not allow additives to be put into the bag water in advance.
• Use a pole net to direct the Koi, and then bag the Koi directly from the
tank. This technique should only be used if tank water is to be used as
transport water. This system does not allow additives to be put into the
bag water in advance.
Things to consider:
How skilled and physically capable is the person that will lift and move the
Koi by hand?
How much assistance is available to help lift and move the Koi and/or the
bowl?
Is there a concern about dropping the Koi?
Should the source water be used in the transport container?
4.2 Quick and Efficient Transport
Page 20, TRANSPORTING KOI, Austin, Janas, Pattist and RiceKoi should be transported quickly and efficiently for two reasons. First, stress is
minimized, and second, the physical harm inherent to the time the Koi are
exposed to the contaminated water during transport is minimized. It should be
noted that only the efficient transport of bagged Koi is being discussed, and
speed in capturing and bagging Koi is not being advocated. This quickness and
efficiency of transport requires proper preparation and planning.
In order to make the transportation of Koi as quick and efficient as possible, plan
for the following:
• Have all the proper Koi handling and transportation equipment ready.
• Have enough assistance at each stage where the Koi are being handled.
• Have the necessary water testing equipment ready, so that the water can be
tested for the critical parameters at each stage of the move.
o Test the source water for Ammonia, Nitrite, pH, Alkalinity and
Temperature.
o Test the transport water (if not using the source water) and the
destination water for pH, Alkalinity and Temperature.
o Be prepared to adjust the pH/Alkalinity with baking soda, and the
temperature with heat or ice packs.
• Know as much as possible about the transport effort at the receiving end.
Where is the fish going, how is it going to be handled? By whom? Water
considerations? Water parameters??
The possibility of transportation delays must be considered. The water
temperature should remain stabile and dissolved oxygen should be sufficient for
the entire time that the Koi are bagged, regardless of reasonable delays. A
sufficient supply of oxygen is even more important for larger Koi, as they will
succumb to low oxygen long before smaller Koi [6]. It is always recommended to
ship the Koi in good water and as much pure oxygen as possible. Stoskopf [6]
says that “…oxygen is much more important than water, and there should be
twice as much air space in the sealed bag as water space.” Koi are often
shipped together in bags from dealers or farms to minimize shipping costs. In
order to maximize the health of the Koi, it is recommended to ship each Koi in a
separate bag. The use of bags smaller than approximately 20 x 40” is not
advocated. Koi over 18” should be triple bagged. The bags should be placed in
boxes that are lined with Styrofoam or other insulation on all sides. Many Koi
farms suggest using coolers to maintain a more even temperature (instead of
boxes) for valuable Koi. (A list of breeders and dealers interviewed can be found
in Table #3, Appendix)
4.3 Organizing to Transport Koi
The most important item needed for transporting Koi is organization. Before the
Koi are to be handled, everything must be prepared. The need to keep the Koi in
a holding tank to which ULTIMATE® has been added has already been
discussed. The Koi are fasted during that time so that homeostasis returns to
normal after the stress of being netted from the pond, and food clears their
digestive system. Koi travel best at cooler temperatures. The optimal shipping
temperature is around 45 degrees, according to a majority of Koi farms
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