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The Green City Index A summary of the Green City Index research series A research project conducted by the Economist Intelligence Unit, sponsored by Siemens
“Cities are the growth engines of the future, offering their
populations greater opportunities for education, employ-
ment and prosperity. Yet, the negative effects of their growth
can also result in traffic congestion, informal settlements,
urban sprawl, environmental pollution, exploitation of
Dr. Roland Busch resources and a significant contribution to climate change. Contents
Member of the Managing Board of Siemens AG
CEO Infrastructure & Cities Sector Efficient and intelligent technology holds the answer A summary of the Green City Index research series
to many of these urban challenges. That’s why Siemens
has created the Infrastructure & Cities Sector to provide
cities and their related institutions with the best possible
products, solutions and services.
To make a major contribution to the debate about
Introduction: The regional Indexes:
environmentally sustainable cities, we have commissioned Helping cities learn from each other 4 European Green City Index 12
the Green City Index. The research series now covers more Latin American Green City Index 16
Overview of Index cities: Asian Green City Index 20
than 120 cities worldwide. It has helped city stakeholders More than 120 evaluated around the world 6 US and Canada Green City Index 26
to better understand their specific challenges, provides African Green City Index 30
Methodology:
them insights into effective policies and best practices and What the Green City Index measures 8 Worldwide comparisons:
supports their decision making. Where the data allows 34
Action points:
This Green City Index summary report provides you with Seven steps to a greener city 38
the key lessons on how to build a greener city and a num- Conclusion:
ber of global comparisons between regions and cities.” Cities need to take the lead 46
2 3
Helping cities learn from each other
Introduction
The unprecedented growth of cities management, sewer systems, and transport networks. Therefore, in More and more people are living in cities creating a unique tool that helps cities benchmark their performance and
order to tackle climate change, avoid lasting damage to vital ecosystems Urbanisation in the different Index regions between 1950 and 2050
share best practices.
More than half of the world’s people now live in cities and the figure will and improve the health and wellbeing of billions of people, solutions to 100% US and
The series began in 2009 and covers more than 120 cities in Europe,
rise to more than two thirds by 2050, according to United Nations fore- these problems must be sought at the municipal level. At the same time, 90 Canada Latin America, Asia, North America and Africa. Seven cities in Australia
casts. North and South America are the most urbanised regions, with environmental sustainability must go hand-in-hand with other impor- Latin and New Zealand will be included in late 2012. Each report contains
80
slightly over 80% of residents on both continents residing in cities. Eu- tant goals such as promoting economic development, reducing poverty America overall lessons for the region as well as detailed city profiles describing
70 Europe
rope is not far behind at just over 70%. The share in Asia and Africa is and improving quality of life. Indeed, the green agenda is a necessary part individual performances and best practices. The many lessons contained
about 40%, however, both continents are undergoing an unprecedented of holistic, city-led strategies for economic, social and environmental sus- 60 World in the series are intended to help cities learn from each other as they de-
migration to cities from the countryside. In Africa, for example, the num- tainability. 50 Asia bate policies and strategies to minimise their environmental footprint.
ber of city residents is expected to more than double from over 412 mil- 40 Africa This is while at the same time accommodating population growth, pro-
lion today to 870 million by 2035. Sharing best practices: The objective 30 moting economic opportunity and safeguarding life for urban dwellers
Urbanisation has enormous environmental consequences, both of the Green City Index research series today and the generations to come.
Source: United Nations
20
global and local. Already city dwellers are thought to be responsible for
10
up to 70% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions. Sprawling urban de- The Green City Index series is a research project conducted by the Econ-
0
velopment consumes arable land and vital green spaces. Growing num- omist Intelligence Unit (EIU) and sponsored by Siemens. It seeks to focus 1950 ‘60 ‘70 ‘80 ‘90 2000 ‘10 ‘20 ‘30 ‘40 2050
bers of city residents put pressure on energy and water resources, waste attention on the critical issue of urban environmental sustainability by
4 5
US and Canada German European Asian
Green City Index Green City Index Green City Index Green City Index
(27 cities) (12 cities) (30 cities) (22 cities)
Atlanta, USA Berlin Amsterdam, Netherlands Bangkok, Thailand
Boston, USA Bremen Athens, Greece Beijing, China
Calgary, Canada Cologne Belgrade, Serbia Bengaluru, India
Charlotte, USA Essen Berlin, Germany Calcutta, India
Chicago, USA Frankfurt Bratislava, Slovakia Delhi, India
Cleveland, USA Hamburg Brussels, Belgium Guangzhou, China
Dallas, USA Hanover Bucharest, Romania Hanoi, Vietnam
Denver, USA Leipzig Budapest, Hungary Hong Kong, China
Detroit, USA Munich Copenhagen, Denmark Jakarta, Indonesia
Houston, USA Nuremberg Dublin, Ireland Karachi, Pakistan
Los Angeles, USA Stuttgart Helsinki, Finland Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Miami, USA Istanbul, Turkey Manila, Philippines
Minneapolis, USA Kiev, Ukraine Mumbai, India
Montreal, Canada Lisbon, Portugal Nanjing, China
New York City, USA Ljubljana, Slovenia Osaka, Japan
Orlando, USA London, United Kingdom Seoul, South Korea
Ottawa, Canada Madrid, Spain Shanghai, China
Philadelphia, USA Oslo, Norway Singapore, Singapore
Phoenix, USA Paris, France Taipei
Pittsburgh, USA Prague, Czech Republic Tokyo, Japan
Sacramento, USA Riga, Latvia Wuhan, China
San Francisco, USA Rome, Italy Yokohama, Japan
Seattle, USA Sofia, Bulgaria
St Louis, USA Stockholm, Sweden
Toronto, Canada Tallinn, Estonia
Vancouver, Canada Vienna, Austria
Washington DC, USA Vilnius, Lithuania
Warsaw, Poland
Zagreb, Croatia
Zurich, Switzerland
More than 120 evaluated around the world
Overview of Index cities
The Green City Index series has Latin American
measured the environmental Green City Index
(17 cities) African
performance of more than 120 cities Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Green City Index
(15 cities)
throughout the world, with seven Bogotá, Colombia
Brasília, Brazil Accra, Ghana
more to be included from Australia Buenos Aires, Argentina Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
and New Zealand in late 2012. Curitiba, Brazil
Guadalajara, Mexico
Alexandria, Egypt
Cairo, Egypt Australia and
The Economist Intelligence Unit Lima, Peru Cape Town, South Africa New Zealand
Medellín, Colombia Casablanca, Morocco Green City Index (Late 2012)
chose cities on the basis of size Mexico City, Mexico Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (7 cities)
and importance. Most are capital Monterrey, Mexico Durban, South Africa
Montevideo, Uruguay Johannesburg, South Africa Adelaide, Australia
cities, large population hubs and Porto Alegre, Brazil Lagos, Nigeria Auckland, New Zealand
Puebla, Mexico Luanda, Angola Brisbane, Australia
business centres. Quito, Ecuador Maputo, Mozambique Melbourne, Australia
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Nairobi, Kenya Perth, Australia
Santiago, Chile Pretoria, South Africa Sydney, Australia
São Paulo, Brazil Tunis, Tunisia Wellington, New Zealand
6 7
What the Green City Index measures
Methodology
● Green action plan ● CO2 intensity
● Green management ● CO2 emissions
● Public participation ● CO2 reduction strategy
in green policy
● Nitrogen dioxide
Environmental CO2 ● Energy consumption
Governance
● Sulphur dioxide ● Energy intensity
● Ozone ● Renewable energy consumption
The Green City Index methodology was developed by the Economist In- ing more renewable energy, traffic-congestion-reduction policies and air ● Particulate matter ● Clean and efficient energy policies
● Clean air policies Air
telligence Unit (EIU) in cooperation with Siemens. Cities were selected for quality codes. Measuring quantitative and qualitative indicators together quality Energy
their size and importance (mainly capital cities and large population or means the Indexes are based on current environmental performance as European
business centres). They were picked independently, rather than relying well as the city‘s intentions to become greener. Index
on requests from city governments to be included or excluded, in order The specific indicators differ slightly from Index to Index, taking into Water Buildings
to enhance each Index’s credibility and comparability. account data availability and the unique challenges in each region. For ● Water consumption ● Energy consumption of residential
The Green City Index series measures cities on approximately 30 in- example, the African Index includes indicators measuring access to elec- ● System leakages buildings
● Wastewater system treatment Waste & ● Energy-efficient buildings standards
dicators across eight to nine categories depending on the region. It cov- tricity and potable water, and the percentage of people living in infor- ● Water efficiency and treatment policies ● Energy-efficient buildings initiatives
land use Transport
ers CO2 emissions, energy, buildings, land use, transport, water and mal settlements.
sanitation, waste management, air quality and environmental gover- Each city receives an overall Index ranking and a separate ranking for The European Green City
nance. About half of the indicators in each Index are quantitative – usu- each individual category. The results are presented numerically (for the Eu- Index evaluates 16 quantitative
ally data from official public sources, for example, CO2 emissions per ropean, and the US and Canada Indexes) or in five performance bands from ● Municipal waste ● Use of non-car transport and 14 qualitative indicators.
production ● Size of non-car transport
capita, water consumption per capita, recycling rates and air pollutant “well above average” to “well below average” (for the Asian, Latin American ● Waste recycling network The methodology for Europe
● Waste reduction policies ● Green transport promotion
concentrations. The remainder are qualitative assessments of the city’s and African Indexes). Bandings are used in regions where levels of data ● Green land use policies ● Congestion reduction policies
was adapted for the other
environmental policies – for example, the city's commitment to sourc- quality and comparability do not allow for a detailed numerical ranking. regional Indexes
8 9
Apples to apples – the challenge of collecting com- source. The EIU attempts first to collect data at the metropolitan level.
parable data worldwide When metropolitan data is lacking, data for the central city or state is
used according to availability. In all cases the EIU uses statistically robust
Data collection is a challenge to some extent in all of the regions cov- methods to ensure the data is comparable across indicators and cities.
More than 20 global experts in urban environmental sustainability from ■ Inter-American Development Bank ered by the Green City Index series. Many cities diligently collect key en- One additional challenge relates to developing cities, where acquiring
the following organisations advised the EIU in developing the method- ■ Karlsruhe University vironmental data and update it regularly and others do not. The data on informal settlements, which have huge environmental impacts,
ology for the Green City Indexes: ■ Natural Resources Defense Council challenge comes when comparing information across cities. For exam- proves especially difficult. Overall, across the Green City Index regions
■ New York University ple, in Europe, one of the regions with more accessible environmental there are very few instances in which one single data point – CO2 emis-
■ African Development Bank ■ OECD (Organisation for Economic data, around one third of the 30 cities in the Index do not measure the sions per capita for example – is measured and reported in the same way
■ Cambridge University Cooperation and Development) full amount of energy consumed or the associated CO2 emissions. In in each region. This limited comparability is a call to action in itself. Es-
■ CITYNET (Regional Network of Local Authorities for the ■ Regional Plan Association many cases, the EIU makes statistical estimates (extrapolating from par- tablishing a set of agreed-upon global metrics for urban carbon emis-
Management of Human Settlements) ■ Technical University Munich tial data or national figures) to fill data gaps. Overlapping jurisdictions sions, energy consumption, air quality and other key environmental
■ European Commission ■ UN-Habitat within regions are a challenge too. Data for energy, transport or air qual- performance indicators would be a major step towards providing policy-
■ Ford Foundation ■ University of Pennsylvania ity may be collected at the metropolitan level in some jurisdictions, at the makers with a comprehensive assessment of their cities’ current envi-
■ Harvard University ■ URBACT municipal level in others or in some cities not at all. A related problem is ronmental footprint. More importantly, a consistent set of sustainability
■ ICLEI (Local Governments for Sustainability) ■ Vienna Institute for Urban Sustainability that urban agglomerations, which need to be integrated into municipal indicators would help reveal the most appropriate municipal policies and
■ ISOCARP (International Society of City and Regional Planners) ■ World Bank planning for sustainability policies to be effective, often lack a single data efficient investments to improve green performance.
10 11
European Green City Index
Published December 2009 in Copenhagen, Denmark
“Campaigns to motivate lifestyle change are Some interesting findings from the European Green City Index:
an important tool. We work hard to involve citizens
in developing solutions to problems.” Oslo uses the highest share of renewable energy at 65%. The Index average is 7%.
Ritt Bjerregaard, former Lord Mayor of Copenhagen
Copenhagen’s and Berlin’s residential buildings consume almost 40% less energy than the Index average.
In Stockholm, 68% of people cycle or walk to work, the highest percentage in the European Index.
Best city: Copenhagen sions. In 2009 it set a target to become CO2 neutral by In contrast, in Helsinki, another Scandinavian city of similar size, only 16% do so.
2025, which if met would make it the first large
In Europe, Copenhagen leads the Index, with the carbon-neutral city in the world. The city aims to Riga offers the longest public transport network at 8.6 km per km²,
neighbouring Nordic cities of Stockholm and Oslo achieve 10% of its CO2 reductions through construc- almost four times the Index average of 2.3 km per km².
close behind. The Danish capital is also joint first (with tion and renovation projects, with plans to upgrade all
Brussels, Helsinki and Stockholm) in the individual cat- municipal buildings to the highest standards for en- In Kiev, 74% of the population uses public transport to get to work.
egory of environmental governance, in part for its ergy efficiency. Copenhagen also has an extensive This is the highest figure in the European Index and the best result for Kiev, which ranks 30th overall.
strong collaborative efforts to set policies. The city ap- public transport system, including a metro system,
points environmental coordinators for each adminis- suburban railway and bus networks, and virtually all Tallinn consumes the least amount of water – only 138 litres per person per day,
trative unit who meet regularly to exchange experi- residents live within 350 metres of public transport. In compared with the Index average of 288 litres.
ences. Above all, Copenhagen's standout attribute is addition, the Danish capital aims to become the “world’s
consistency. The city finishes among the top five for all best cycle city” by raising the share of residents who Amsterdam has the lowest water leakage rate of 4%, in Sofia this is 61%.
categories, except one – waste and land use. Copen- regularly use a bicycle to commute from 36% in 2009
hagen is also very ambitious on limiting carbon emis- to 50% by 2015. The city has outstanding green land Helsinki recycles 58% of its waste, compared with the Index average of only 18%.
12 13
Overall Results
Rank City Score
Comparison of the European Index cities with other regions: 1 Copenhagen 87.31
2 Stockholm 86.65
3 Oslo 83.98
use policies as well. Between 2000 and 2009, 80% of Bratislava has the highest share of people taking pub- 4 Vienna 83.34
new developments were built on brownfield sites. lic transport to work, there has also been a surge in Among the developed Index cities worldwide, Amsterdam 5
6
Amsterdam
Zurich
83.03
82.31
newly registered cars in the last decade. consumes the least water, at 146 litres per person per day. The leading city 7 Helsinki 79.29
Key finding: The east-west divide in North America, New York City, consumes 262 litres, and the leading 8 Berlin 79.01
Spotlight on Vilnius developed city in Asia, Yokohama, consumes 300 litres. 9 Brussels 78.01
10 Paris 73.21
While there has been much progress to bridge the po- 11 London 71.56
litical and economic gaps between eastern and west- Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania, ranks 13th in the Eu- 12 Madrid 67.08
ern Europe in the past 20 years, a marked environ- ropean Index, making it the best performing city in Also among developed cities in the Indexes worldwide, Oslo emits 13
14
Vilnius
Rome
62.77
62.58
mental divide remains. Thirteen of the top 15 Euro- eastern Europe and the best among lower-income the lowest amount of CO2, at 2.2 tonnes per capita. This is compared to the European 15 Riga 59.57
pean Index performers are in western Europe; 11 of cities in the Index. It performs very well in the air qual- average of 5 tonnes and the US and Canada average of 15 tonnes. 16 Warsaw 59.04
17 Budapest 57.55
the bottom 15 are part of the old eastern bloc. East- ity category, ranking first, boosted by its relatively 18 Lisbon 57.25
ern cities are still dealing with the fallout from decades small size, lack of heavy industry and the presence of 19 Ljubljana 56.39
of environmental neglect during the communist pe- large tracts of forest in the immediate area. Vilnius has 63% of the population in the European Index use green forms of transport 20
21
Bratislava
Dublin
56.09
53.98
riod. For example, even though polluting industries taken the initiative in several areas to improve policies to get to work. In the best cities it’s more than 90%, the lowest is 33%. In the US and Canada 22 Athens 53.09
have mostly disappeared in the face of market com- and invest in environmental infrastructure. For exam- Index only 13% of the population on average does not use a car to commute. 23 Tallinn 52.98
24 Prague 49.78
petition, there is still an abundance of poorly insulated, ple, the city as part of a national plan, offers tax 25 Istanbul 45.20
concrete-slab mass housing. breaks, grants and concessional loans to incentivise 26 Zagreb 42.36
An area of concern for the future is how eastern Eu- energy-efficient retrofitting for housing. A biofuel-fired The average concentration levels of air pollutants 27
28
Belgrade
Bucharest
40.03
39.14
ropean cities will balance rising prosperity with envi- power generation plant, in operation since 2006, pro- measured (SO2, NO2, PM10) across the European cities are about 25% lower 29 Sofia 36.85
ronmental sustainability. For instance, although vided 10% of the city’s heating in 2009. than in Latin American cities and about 50% lower than in Asian cities. 30 Kiev 32.33
14 15
Latin American Green City Index
Published November 2010 in Mexico City, Mexico
“Many cities are reactive, and address environmental issues Some interesting findings from the Latin American Green City Index:
one at a time where the most visible gains can be made,
rather than setting a forward-looking, integrated strategy.”
Pablo Vaggione, former General Secretary, ISOCARP
Mexico City has the highest level of energy efficiency, only using 0.3 gigajoules of electricity to generate US$1,000 of GDP
(Index average: 0.8 gigajoules).
All cities regularly monitor air pollution and have some kind of code to improve air quality.
Best city: Curitiba performance is a long history of taking a holistic
Curitiba is the clear leader in the Latin American Index.
approach to the environment, which is unusual in the
region. Integrated planning allows good performance
Rio de Janeiro and Curitiba have the longest public transport networks,
with an estimated 8.7 km per km² and 8.5 km, respectively, compared with the Index average of 5 km.
The Brazilian city is the birthplace of bus rapid transit in one environmental area to create benefits in others.
(BRT) and Brazil’s first major pedestrian-only street. Its For example, successful public transport has had a
environmental oversight is consistently strong and it strong influence on Curitiba’s good results in air qual- Wastewater is often not treated adequately: 8 of 17 cities treat 50% or less of their wastewater before discharging it.
has among the best environmental policies in the ity. Another standout initiative for Curitiba is its
Index in each category. Since 2009, for example, the
city’s environmental authority has been conducting an
now-renowned recycling programme, launched in
1989. Residents separate recyclable materials, includ-
In Medellín only seven in 100 residents own a car or motorcycle. In Buenos Aires this figures is 66 in 100 residents.
ongoing study on the CO2 absorption rate in Curitiba’s ing glass, plastics, paper and old electronic devices,
green spaces, as well as evaluating total CO2 emissions which the city collects from households three times a Water leakage is a challenge for all cities. The lowest water loss is 21% in Monterrey;
in the city. The key reason for Curitiba’s outstanding week. the highest amount is lost in Rio de Janeiro, at more than 58%.
16 17
Key finding: Brazilian cities lead strength is an indication of likely future improvements Comparison of the Latin American Index cities with other regions:
the way on policy in the situation on the ground. Overall Results
well above average
Five of the six best-performing cities in the Latin Ameri- Spotlight on Bogotá Curitiba
can Index are from Brazil – Belo Horizonte, Brasília, Cu- Latin American Index cities have thehighest water leakage rate above average
ritiba, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. One overriding Bogotá has a comparatively low per capita GDP in the worldwide at 35%. That is more than 50% higher than for the other regions on average. Belo Horizonte
Bogotá
asset that is common among the Brazilian cities is Latin American Index, at US$8,400 (Index average is Brasília
strong environmental policies. This point comes US$11,100), but despite that ranks among the better Rio de Janeiro
through clearly when the quantitative indicators are cities in the Index. It performs especially well in six of Latin American Index cities have the most green space average
São Paulo
removed from the analysis. Five of the six Brazilian the Index’s eight environmental categories, including among the African and Asian Index cities, at 255 m² per person on average, Medellín
cities perform at least as well, and often significantly energy and CO2, land use and transport. In the last versus 74 m² in Africa and 39 m² in Asia. Mexico City
Monterrey
better, when only policy indicators are assessed. São decade the city has gradually replaced buses that run Porto Alegre
Paulo, for example, has one of the most robust climate on carbon-intensive fuel with buses that run on natu- Puebla
change action plans in the Latin American Index. Belo ral gas, which are part of the city’s TransMilenio bus 64% of the electricity in Latin America is generated Quito
Santiago
Horizonte performs well for its eco-buildings, water rapid transit fleet. The total number of vehicles oper- from renewable sources. The figure for the below average
and air quality policies, while Rio de Janeiro stands out ating on natural gas in Colombia as a whole rose from Asian Index is only 12%. Buenos Aires
Montevideo
for its clean energy policies. Environmental issues have about 9,000 in 2002 to 300,000 in 2009. In addition, well below average
received a growing priority, and although there are the city’s urban planning framework requires designers Guadalajara
many longstanding environmental challenges, policy to set aside green space for new developments. Lima
18 19Asian Green City Index
Published February 2011 in Singapore
Best city: Singapore government has set a target to recycle 65% of waste by Some interesting findings from the Asian Green City Index:
2020, up from 56% in 2008. Authorities distribute re-
Singapore is the top performer in the Asian Green City cycling bags or bins to households – with successful
Index and shows consistently strong results across all results: Household participation in recycling rose from Tokyo created the first cap and trade system in Asia in April 2010.
individual categories. Singapore’s impressive environ- 15% in 2001 to 63% in 2008. The scheme aims to cut energy related CO2 emissions by 6% by 2015 and an additional 17% by 2020.
mental performance is a legacy of its history. Since the Singapore also performs very well in the water cat-
city gained independence in 1965 the government has egory. Suffering from a limited water supply within its Population density ranges from fewer than 1,000 people per km²
emphasised the importance of sustainability through territory, Singapore has has installed five world- in Wuhan to more than 27,000 people per km² in Mumbai.
holistic planning, high-density development and renowned water-reclamation plants, called NEWater
green-space conservation. Furthermore, the self-con- factories, which treat wastewater through micro-fil- Seoul stands out with the densest public transport network in the Asian Green City Index.
tained city state has installed cutting-edge water recy- tration, reverse osmosis and ultraviolet technology. 6.6 km per km² versus the average of 1.7 km per km².
cling plants and waste-to-energy facilities, and has These deliver one-fifth of the city‘s water supply.
made major investments in its transport system. Likewise, the city has ambitious transport goals, Tokyo has the lowest water leakage rate in the Asian Index,
Singapore is the best city in the waste category, with a target to have 70% of trips taken during the at 3%, compared with the Index average of 22%. Jakarta had the highest water leakage rate, at 50%.
generating only 307 kg of waste per person per year, morning commute to be on public transport by 2020,
compared with the Asian Index average of 380 kg. The up from 59% in 2008. In order to reach this goal it has In Manila, only 12% of the population has access to sanitation.
20 21made significant investments in its public transport greenhouse gases. The Chinese government, in offi- wide with a total length of 420 km. Nanjing generates “Not too long ago, the motto (in China)
network and has developed more seamless connec- cial reports, has acknowledged serious problems the third lowest amount of waste among the 22 Asian was ‘develop first, clean up later’. This is
tions between bus and rail services. Singapore’s poli- with water pollution, air pollution and acid rain. cities and Guanghzou has the largest amount of green no longer considered acceptable.”
cies also support this target, with a vehicle quota China’s poor environmental record can be attributed spaces.
Professor Yue-Man Yeung, emeritus professor of geography,
system that controls the number of vehicles in the to explosive economic development as a result of Chinese cities are also strong on environmental Chinese University of Hong Kong
city. More licenses are available for smaller, fuel-effi- being the “factory to the world”. So it is no surprise that policies that should yield improvements in the long
cient cars. The city also operates a road pricing pro- the five mainland Chinese cities in the Asian Index – run. Shanghai, for instance, supports investments in
gramme. Beijing, Guangzhou, Nanjing, Shanghai and Wuhan – wind farms and energy-efficient buildings. The Chi-
generate some of the highest CO2 emissions per capita nese national government has tightened emissions
Key finding: China's environmental and suffer from high levels of airborne particulate mat- standards for passenger cars and commercial vehicles.
performance – beyond air quality and ter, nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide. However, Beijing has gone farther, and was the first
carbon emissions China’s economic development is bringing huge city in China to introduce emissions standards on pas-
environmental challenges, but a closer look at its senger cars equivalent to those operating in Europe.
In 2009 China overtook the US as the world’s largest cities reveals a more nuanced picture. Shanghai, for The city also has “no-car days” and park and ride sys-
energy user, and for several years previously it already example, has one of the lowest water leakage rates in tems. Nanjing has a comprehensive mass transport
held the dubious distinction of producing the most the Index as well as the longest metro network world- policy, including an integrated public transit pricing
22 23Comparison of the Asian Index cities with other regions: Overall Results
well above average
Singapore
above average
Hong Kong
Osaka
system called “one card for all”, which can be used for strating just how much can be achieved with limited Asian Index cities have by far thehighest population density Seoul
Taipei
bus, metro, ferry or taxi travel. resources and popular support. among the regional Indexes, at 8,200 people per km². The US and Canada Index cities have the lowest, Tokyo
Indeed, public engagement is often a prerequisite at 3,100 people per km² on average. Yokohama
average
Spotlight on Delhi for successful policies in any city, developed or devel- Bangkok
oping. Delhi hosted the Commonwealth Games in Beijing
Delhi has one of the lowest levels of GDP per capita in 2010, which spurred city officials to embrace green Cities in the Asian Index are also themost populous , with an average population Delhi
Guangzhou
the Asian Green City Index, at an estimated US$2,000. policies. They created a separate “eco-code” for the of 9.4 million. Latin American Index cities have 4.6 million, African cities 3.9 million, Jakarta
Yet the Indian city still achieves an average overall rat- event, setting goals for energy and water efficiency, European cities 2.5 million and North American cities 1.4 million people on average. Kuala Lumpur
Nanjing
ing, with very strong results in the waste category, air pollution and waste management, among other Shanghai
generating 147 kg per capita – the least amount of green aims. The city advertised the event as the first- Wuhan
waste in the Index. This is in part because of what has ever “green Commonwealth Games”. The government Delhi only produces 147 kg of waste per capita per year. This is the least amount out of all cities, below average
Bengaluru
been called Delhi’s “traditional culture of careful con- has also created “eco-clubs” in about 1,000 schools to with comparable data, in all the regional Green City Indexes. Hanoi
sumption”, a tendency to re-use and recycle as much educate children about environmental protection. Kolkata
Manila
as possible. Building on this, however, Delhi has in- Under the programme, schools have set up a number Mumbai
troduced advanced policies, including relatively robust of projects including tree planting, rainwater harvest- 19 out of 22 Index cities in Asia have conducted an environmental review in the last 5 years, covering well below average
strategies to reduce, re-use and recycle waste, demon- ing and paper recycling. the major environmental categories. In Latin America it was only four out of 17 and in Africa five out of 15 cities. Karachi
24 25US and Canada Green City Index
Published July 2011 in Aspen, USA
“A lot of environmental performance in the US Some interesting findings from the US and Canada Green City Index:
is based on the individual actions of cities rather than
a centrally regulated and monitored system.”
Andreas Georgoulias, Harvard University Graduate School of Design
Electricity consumption by cities ranges widely,
from 10 gigajoules per capita in Cleveland to 152 gigajoules in Atlanta.
New York is the most densely populated city in the Index, with almost 10,700 residents per km²,
compared with the Index average of 3,100.
Best city: San Francisco places the onus on company bosses to promote environmentally-friendly
commuting by requiring all businesses with more than 20 employees to
San Francisco tops the US and Canada Index, driven by strong policies offer them a pre-tax benefit for mass transit expenses or to pay for these Atlanta has almost three times as many LEED-certified energy-efficient buildings as the Index average
across all categories. Waste management is a particular strength. In 2009 expenses directly. San Francisco ranks second in the buildings category, (18.3 buildings per 100,000 people versus the Index average of 6.4 buildings).
San Francisco became the first US city to require that all residents and in part for its regulations covering commercial buildings in the city. Own-
businesses separate waste and compost material from normal trash. As ers of commercial buildings smaller than 10,000 square feet (equals
a result, the city boasts the best municipal recycling rate, at 77%, in the 930 m2) have been required to track and publish energy-consumption Vancouver has the longest public transport network in the US and Canada Index,
US and Canada Index. The city has also been a trailblazer in partnering data every year since 2008. Commercial buildings larger than 10,000 but it’s New Yorkers who use public transport most frequently to get to work (37%).
with the private sector on innovative green initiatives. These include en- square feet are required to complete energy-efficiency audits every five
ergy-efficiency awareness programmes paid for by business and low-cost years. The city estimates that through compulsory audits, commercial
loans to property owners to fund green improvements. The city also buildings can reduce energy use by up to half within 20 years. About 90% of US residents use their cars to get to work.
26 27Overall Results
Rank City Score
1 San Francisco 83.8
2 Vancouver 81.3
Comparison of the US and Canadian Index cities with other regions: 3 New York City 79.2
4 Seattle 79.1
Key finding: US and Canadian cities face challenges change. US and Canadian cities also slightly outperform European cities 5 Denver 73.5
but excel in many areas in their commitments to international environmental covenants and in CO2 emissions from US Index cities (nearly 16 tonnes per person), 6
7
Boston
Los Angeles
72.6
72.5
regularly publishing environmental reports. are almost double those for Canada (8.1 tonnes), more than double the emissions for mainland 8 Washington DC 71.4
Environmental problems in US and Canadian cities are well-documented: Chinese cities (7.6 tonnes), and triple the level of emissions from Europe (5.2 tonnes). 9 Toronto 68.4
10 Minneapolis 67.7
greenhouse gas emissions are high by any standard and urban sprawl Spotlight on Vancouver 11 Chicago 66.9
remains a challenge. However, water infrastructure, recycling levels and 12 Ottawa 66.8
environmental governance mechanisms are comparable to the best cities Vancouver ranks second overall in the US and Canada Index. It is first for San Francisco and Los Angeles recycle an astonishing 77% and 62%, 13
14
Philadelphia
Calgary
66.7
64.8
in other Green City Index regions. For example, the average water leak- CO2 and air quality and among the top 10 cities for all other Index cate- respectively, of their waste – more than any city in Europe, except one, Leipzig, at 81%. 15 Sacramento 63.7
age rate for the US and Canada, at 13%, is lower than in any other con- gories. This performance comes despite having one of the lower per 16 Houston 62.6
17 Dallas 62.3
tinent, and 26% of waste is recycled, compared with 28% for the richest capita GDPs in the Index, at US$37,500 (the Index average is 18 Orlando 61.1
15 cities in Europe. US$46,000). A particular highlight is Vancouver’s commitment to re- Among the regional Indexes, US and Canadian Index cities consume the most water, at 590 litres 19 Montreal 59.8
Americans and Canadians are also innovative when it comes to envi- ducing greenhouse gas emissions, which has resulted in the lowest CO2 per person per day on average. This is more than double the other cities worldwide. 20 Charlotte 59.0
21 Atlanta 57.8
ronmental initiatives. For Americans in particular, the private sector and emissions per capita in the Index. In 2010 Vancouver unveiled plans to 22 Miami 57.3
non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are driving forces behind envi- reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 33% by 2020 from 2007 levels. The 23 Pittsburgh 56.6
ronmental activities and innovation. For example, the Clinton Climate city also set a target for all residents to live within a five-minute walk of Only 2 out of 27 cities in the US and Canada Index have not developed 24
25
Phoenix
Cleveland
55.4
39.7
Initiative – an American NGO – recently joined forces with C40 Cities, an a park, greenway or other green space – and for planting 150,000 new their own green energy projects like wind farms or thermal heating. This is much better 26 St Louis 35.1
international organisation of large cities, to jointly combat climate trees by 2020. than in Europe, where 13 out of 30 cities have not yet done so. 27 Detroit 28.4
28 29African Green City Index
Published December 2011 in Durban, South Africa
“Cities need political institutions that can take the lead in urban Some interesting findings from the African Green City Index:
planning and design. Once you have that, investment, job creation
and improving quality of basic services for citizens will come.”
Dr Joan Clos, executive director, UN-Habitat
South African Index cities generate on average 3 tonnes of CO2 emissions from electricity consumption per person.
That’s more than five times the figure for North African Index cities and 60 times the figure for the other seven Index cities in sub-Saharan Africa.
Cairo is by far the most densely populated city, with 19,000 residents per km²,
compared with an average of 3,500 in the other African cities.
South African cities lead on policy ban Climate Change Partnership, a collaboration with the private sector
and non-governmental organisations to undertake numerous projects. Cape Town and Johannesburg have the most green space in the African Index,
In the African Index, Cape Town, Johannesburg and Durban are among This includes retrofitting the Moses Mabhida Stadium to make it more en- at an estimated 290 m² and 231 m² per person, respectively. The Index average is 74 m².
the leading cities in the Index mainly for their commitment to strategies, ergy efficient and a reforestation project at the Buffelsdraai landfill site.
codes and plans to monitor the urban environment. Cape Town, for ex- An estimated 38% of residents live in informal settlements across the 15 cities; in Maputo the figure is 70%.
ample, has established a comprehensive Energy and Climate Change Ac- Key finding: Access to basic services
tion Plan to improve green performance in many of the eight Index is a widespread problem Waste production figures range from 160 kg per capita each year
categories. In land use particularly, it achieves the best result in the Index, in Addis Ababa to more than 1,000 kg in Pretoria.
especially due to its strong policies to contain urban sprawl and protect Connecting residents to basic infrastructure is a bigger challenge in Africa
green space. than anywhere else in the Green City Index series. A major reason for Residents’ access to sanitation also varies widely, from 49% in Maputo to 99% in Casablanca.
Durban and Johannesburg also generally perform well for environ- this is the prevalence of informal settlements, especially in the seven sub-
mental policies. Durban is addressing climate change through the Dur- Saharan cities – Addis Ababa, Accra, Nairobi, Lagos, Dar es Salaam, Durban has a target to become a zero-waste city within 20 years and carbon neutral by 2050.
30 31Luanda and Maputo. In these cities the average number of people living living in informal settlements and do better regarding access to services. Comparison of the African Index cities with other regions:
in informal settlements is 55%, and significant percentages of residents Tunis in particular has been proactive in recent years in connecting Overall Results
do not have access to water, waste management or sanitation services. households to the electricity grid. In Casablanca, the authorities handed well above average
In Dar es Salaam, for example, with nearly 70% of residents living in in- over management of key services such as electricity provision, water, Dar es Salaam is among the ten fastest growing cities in the world. –
above average
formal settlements, only 7% of the city's households are linked directly to waste management and sanitation services to private contractors in Its population of 3 million people is expected to double by 2020.
Accra
sewers. There is also no regular waste collection and many residents sim- 1997. The move has not been without its critics but the city can point to Cape Town
ply burn their rubbish. Only just over half of Luanda's population has ac- successes in access and service quality over that time. Casablanca
cess to drinking water, and in Maputo, half of the water supply is lost to All cities in the African Index have some form of slum redevelopment strategy. Durban
Johannesburg
leakages. Officials in these economically underdeveloped cities have dif- Spotlight on Accra In Asia, six out of 22 cities and in Latin America three out of 17 cities don’t have such a policy. Tunis
ficulty making the large investments needed to substantially improve average
Addis Ababa
these figures. Most often they rely on international aid agencies or for- Accra performs well in the African Index, despite its low income. The Alexandria
eign governments to fund upgrades. As an alternative, some proactive city’s standout category is environmental governance. Accra has strong In Africa, onlyAccra has maximum ability to implement environmental legislation at city level. Cairo
Lagos
politicians, such as Dar es Salaam's minister of lands, housing and human scores for environmental management, with structures in place for local In Latin America, 67% of the cities have this ability and in Asia the figure is 77%, leaving those cities
Pretoria
settlements, have called on private developers to invest in sanitation, assemblies to work with the national government in implementing poli- with more autonomy to make their own decisions. below average
waste management and traffic management as part of their cies. It also performs relatively well for environmental monitoring and Luanda
Nairobi
projects. policies on public participation. In addition, the city has attracted con- well below average
In North Africa, the story is different. The four North African cities in siderable outside investment in transport, water and sanitation infra- Whereas almost all Asian and Latin American cities offer a central contact point Dar es Salaam
the Index – Cairo, Alexandria, Tunis and Casablanca – have fewer people structure from international agencies. for environmental information, 10 out of 15 African cities are lacking such a source. Maputo
32 33EU 3,900 persons/km2
Worldwide comparisons
Where the data allows
= 100 people
UC 3,100 persons/km2 AS 8,200 persons/km2
255 m2
LA
US & Europe 2.5
Canada 1.4 Asia 9.4
(EU)
(UC) (AS) LA 4,500 persons/km2 AF 4,600 persons/km2
2
74 m
39 m2 AF
AS
Latin Africa
America 4.6 (AF) 3.9
(LA) Green spaces per person in m2 Population density in person /km2
Green Spaces Population Density
Latin American Index cities lead Asian and African cities for Asian Index cities are by far the most dense among
Average city
population the amount of parks, open spaces and other green areas. the regions; US & Canada cities trail the rest.
(in million)
14.5 t
5.2 t 4.6 t
6MJ
UC
Introduction EU AS
In general, data used for each regional Green City $ 1.5 $1
EU AS
Index are difficult to compare to other regions due to
differences in the way statistics are collected. Further-
more, many specific indicators are different for each $ 38,500 $ 46,000 $ 11,100 $ 18,600
Index, reflecting data availability and the specific en- EU UC LA AS
vironmental challenges of each continent. Just two of
GDP per person in US $ CO2 emissions per person (in metric tons) Energy consumed per unit of GDP (in MJ per 1 US $)
the quantitative indicators – water consumption and
water leakages – are measured across all regional
Green City Indexes. However, a number of indicators Average GDP CO2 Emissions Energy Intensity
have been collected at least in two to three regions. A
summary of indicators that were comparable across at As expected, cities in the US & Canada and Europe The US & Canada Index cities have higher per capita Europe compares favourably with Asia for energy
least two regions is presented on the following pages. are the wealthiest among the regions. CO2 emissions than Europe and Asia combined. consumption per unit of GDP.
34 35Worldwide comparisons
Where the data allows
23% 13% 35% 22% 30% 288 l 587 l 264 l 278 l 187 l 511 kg 465 kg 375 kg 408 kg 18% 26%
EU UC LA AS AF EU UC LA AS AF EU LA AS AF EU UC
Leakage rate in % Total water consumption in litres per person per day Annual waste generated per capita in kg Share of waste recycled in %
Water System Leakage Water Consumption Waste Production Recycling Rates
Latin American Index cities lose the most water The US & Canada Index cities consume by far the European Index cities produce the most waste On average, US & Canada Index Index cities
across the five regions. US & Canada cities lead most water among the five regions. per capita, followed closely by Latin American and outperform European Index cities when it comes
the rest on this metric. African cities. to recycling.
37% EU 63%
108 µg/m3
48 µg/m3 AS 35 µg/m3 47 µg/m3
35 µg/m3 38 µg/m3
15 µg/m 3 23 µg/m3 LA EU AS
7 µg/m3 EU LA
LA AS
87% UC 13% EU
0
Share of workers traveling by car vs by public transport/bicycle/foot in % Annual daily mean of SO2 concentrations in µg/m3 Annual daily mean of PM10 concentrations in µg/m3 Annual daily mean of NO2 concentrations in µg/m3
Modal Split Sulphur Dioxide Particulate Matter Nitrogen Dioxide
Far more US & Canada Index city residents travel to Asian Index cities have higher sulphur dioxide Particulate matter pollution in Asian Index cities Asian Index cities have high levels of nitrogen
work by car than in European Index cities. concentration levels than European and Latin far outstrips levels in Latin American and dioxide, but there is a smaller gap between Europe
American Index cities combined. European Index cities. and Latin American Index cities.
36 37Seven steps to a greener city
Action points
“Urban government is the crucial level “The city is a living organism that needs to be
in addressing the urban environment.” managed as a single entity, and just like any
Xuemi Bai, senior science leader for sustainable ecosystems, CSIRO living organism, it needs to develop holistically.”
(Australia’s national science agency)
Nicholas You, Chairman, World Urban Campaign, UN-Habitat
1. Good governance and leadership risdictions follow common goals and set mutually re-enforcing standards. 2. A holistic approach single integrated urban plan addressed issues such as the creation of
at the metropolitan level However, the Green City Index series also demonstrates that the national green areas, waste recycling and management, and sanitation.
legislation needs to leave enough autonomy to cities to address their Top-performing cities take a holistic approach to environmental prob- Singapore and Copenhagen, both leaders in their regions, also plan
National environmental regulations can have far-reaching impacts, and most pressing issues and make their own investment decisions. Experts lems, recognising that performance in one category, such as transport, holistically. Singapore has the Inter-Ministerial Committee on Sustain-
are able to provide overall strategic direction. Yet city-level leadership is across Asia, Latin America and Africa call for better leadership and gov- is linked to success in others such as air quality. These cities often have able Development, which brings together many different departments to
just as crucial. Indeed, at their best, national directives incentivise local ernance at the urban level. Although national governments are impor- strong mayors who set an overall strategy. They also have dedicated en- set an integrated strategy on sustainable development. Copenhagen has
governments to establish their own initiatives. For example, the Mexi- tant for setting direction, they can also have competing priorities or do vironmental departments, structured communication and joint target co-ordinators in each environmental department who meet regularly to
can government has a plan to replace more than 45 million incandes- not always understand the nuances of local needs. There is a correlation setting between departments with different responsibilities (for example, exchange information. In the US and Canada Index, cities like San Fran-
cent light bulbs with energy-saving bulbs by the end of 2012. In the US between good governance and top performance in the Indexes. The water, waste management and transport). One of the best examples cisco, New York, Seattle and Boston integrate their environmental pro-
state of Colorado, legislation requires that 30% of all electricity produced leaders in the regions, such as Copenhagen, San Francisco or Curitiba all from the series is Curitiba. As early as the 1960s, city officials imple- grammes into wider development strategies that simultaneously
should come from renewable sources by 2020. Germany has strong set policies that meet or exceed national or state standards. Crucially mented several integrated initiatives with the single goal of tackling the revitalise their economies and make urban areas more liveable. These
national legislation too, covering many environmental issues including though, when cities receive more autonomy to set policies they also need effects of rapid population growth. These included policies across a num- cities stand out as examples pointing the way forward for urban gov-
building codes and water management. In addition, there are numerous the funding to implement them. More must be done to address this prob- ber of departments, including strategies to limit urban sprawl, create ernments where different departments manage different aspects of sus-
examples in all parts of the world where national, regional and local ju- lem, especially in the developing world. pedestrian areas and provide low-cost rapid transit. By the 1980s, one tainable urban development, without following a consistent strategy.
38 393. Wealth is important, but at the early stages of major environmental impact but also provides economic and social ben- Tipping point in the Asian Green City Index
development the right policies matter more efits for waste pickers. Low-income cities can also look to international
agencies to finance environmental goals. One example is Vilnius, in Water consumption in litres per person per day
In most regions the Green City Index series shows a clear link between Lithuania. The city took advantage of funding from the World Health Or-
600
greater wealth and better environmental performance. The reason is ob- ganisation’s Healthy Cities Project to promote the use of cycling and pub-
vious: More affluent cities can invest more money in infrastructure and lic transport. It also drew on European Union funds to improve its water Guangzhou
500 Kuala Lumpur
set aside more generous budgets for environmental oversight. supply and treatment network. “It’s about policies and
However, money is not everything. In each Index some cities with a Wealth can even be counter-productive in the early stages of eco- programmes. Power consumption
400 Shanghai
below-average income clearly outperform their peer cities with higher nomic development, when more affluence often correlates with more can be limited by having good Osaka
Nanjing Hong Kong
incomes. This was the case, for example, with Berlin and Vilnius in Eu- emissions, more urban sprawl, lower density and more cars. The Asian Bangkok
rope, Bogotá in Latin America, Delhi in Asia, Vancouver in the US and Index shows that only when GDP per capita rises above approximately
controls on development. Currently 300 Seoul Singapore Taipei
Tokyo
planning seems to overtly support Wuhan Yokohama
Canada, and Accra in Africa. Delhi in particular, with the third lowest av- US$20,000 per person, a “tipping point” occurs and the trend reverses. Mumbai
erage income in Asia (US$2,000 per capita versus the average of Cities with a higher income start to consume relatively less water, and unsustainable consumption.” 200 Delhi Beijing
US$18,600), achieves a relatively good placing. This shows that less-well- generate less waste and carbon emissions. A central issue for cities in Karachi
Alfred Omenya, professor of architecture, University of Nairobi Manila
off cities can adopt policies or low-cost projects to improve environ- the developing world is to work towards limiting the environmental im- 100
Kolkata
mental sustainability. For example, tree planting is becoming a common pact of rising consumption today, rather than waiting for attitudes to Jakarta
Bengaluru
environmental activity in Asia, especially for cities with lower incomes. change as incomes grow. This can be done by investing in efficient in- Hanoi
0
Beijing holds an annual “Voluntary Tree Planting Day” where some two frastructure, initiating public education campaigns and setting targets – 0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000
million residents participate, including the president and most senior of- for example, for more renewable energy, green spaces and air quality as Annual GDP per person in US$
ficials. Belo Horizonte in Brazil has legalised waste picking, which has a well as addressing the growth of informal settlements.
40 414. Civic engagement Alegre’s “participatory budgeting” programme, in which city residents omist Intelligence Unit, found that technological levers alone could cut Other examples of cutting-edge technologies in the Index series in-
and delegates meet annually to vote on a wide range of municipal spend- almost 44% of London’s total CO2 emissions. This would go a long way clude a state of the art waste-to-energy plant in Amsterdam that pro-
Environmental performance is also a matter of civic engagement. This is ing priorities, including for environmental areas such as transport and in meeting its overall reduction target of 60% by 2025, without requiring vides power to more than three-quarters of the city’s households, while
seen in the European Green City Index, when comparing the results with sanitation. Yet out of more than 120 cities evaluated, just over half re- a change in lifestyle or consumption. sending just 1% of the original waste to landfill. A new landfill in Rio de
an independent report from the European Foundation for the Improve- ceive full marks for involving their citizens in important environmental At the same time technologies can reduce costs for energy, water or Janeiro will cut CO2 emissions by 1.4 million tonnes by capturing methane
ment of Living and Working Conditions (EFILWC)1. The study measured decisions. It is clear that more needs to be done across the world to en- waste disposal. The London study referenced above found that about gas. In Tokyo, technology has allowed the city to use gravity more effec-
the level of voluntary participation in organisations. The comparison found gage the public in sustainability issues. two thirds of the technological solutions it assessed would pay for them- tively to deliver water, thereby reduce the need for pumps. It also em-
that the more volunteerism in the city, the better the score in the Index. selves through energy savings. Collaboration between the private and ploys advanced methods to enhance water quality, including ozone and
In general, involving citizens in environmental decisions is an impor- 5. The right technology public sector is also a useful way to pay for the up-front costs. In Berlin, membrane filtration systems. In addition, technology can help cities in
tant element, and there are several good examples throughout the for example, the “Energy Saving Partnership” involves private companies the developing world “leap-frog” less sustainable infrastructure in the de-
world. One of these is the Seoul city government’s “Green Seoul Citizen Technology plays an important role in reducing environmental impacts. retrofitting public buildings and then benefitting from the cost savings. veloped world. One example is Guangzhou’s 71-storey Pearl River Tower,
Committee” which is chaired by the mayor and has 100 members from For example, the “Sustainable Urban Infrastructure: London Edition”2, a The scheme has received more than €60 million in private investment called the “world's greenest skyscraper”, which includes state-of-the-art
non-governmental organisations and businesses. Another one is Porto separate study by Siemens in conjunction with McKinsey and the Econ- and has brought carbon emissions down by more than 600,000 tonnes. technology to utilise solar power and energy-efficient cooling systems.
42 1
First European Quality of Life Survey: Participation in civil society, European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, Dublin, 2006. 2
Sustainable Urban Infrastructure: London Edition – a view to 2025. Siemens AG, 2008. 43You can also read
