The Fitness-Fatigue Model Revisited: Implications for Planning Short- and Long-Term Training
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
© National Strength & Conditioning Association
Volume 25, Number 6, page 42–51
The Fitness-Fatigue Model Revisited:
Implications for Planning Short- and
Long-Term Training
Loren Z.F. Chiu, MS, CSCS
Musculoskeletal Biomechanics Research Laboratory
University of Southern California
Jacque L. Barnes
Human Performance Laboratories
University of Memphis
Keywords: organization of training; periodization;
overreaching; athletic performance.
ELITE ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE stage, where positive adaptations sponses. The state of the organism
is dependent on a systemized occur, returning the organism to without training is the baseline
training program. The general homeostasis and possibly into a level, which represents the indi-
adaptation syndrome (GAS) was higher state, known as supercom- vidual’s general fitness. Training
the original model from which pe- pensation. The exhaustion stage results in 2 after-effects, which
riodization was designed (67). The occurs when the imposed stress is can positively or negatively influ-
GAS describes the physiological greater than the adaptive reserves ence performance: fitness and fa-
response of an organism to stress. of the organism. This can happen tigue (Figure 1). For strength and
A more comprehensive model of when the magnitude of stress is power athletes, factors that affect
the physiological responses to too large or additional stressors general fitness include muscle
training stimuli is the fitness-fa- occur. As the response is suppos- cross-sectional area, muscle con-
tigue theory (1). In light of recent edly similar for all stressors, the tractile protein composition, and
research examining resistance ex- magnitude and duration of train- muscle metabolic enzyme concen-
ercise overreaching and overtrain- ing determine the magnitude and trations (23, 24, 44, 62). For en-
ing, it is prudent to review the fit- duration of adaptation. durance athletes, both cardio-res-
ness-fatigue theory and determine In traditional periodization piratory factors and muscular
how it can be applied to strength models, there are multiple bouts factors affect general fitness (53).
and conditioning. of training, resulting in multiple Examples of these are maximal
flights of alarm and resistance oxygen consumption, mitochon-
■ General Adaptation stages (63, 67). Periodically reduc- drial density, and muscle capillar-
Syndrome ing volume load may prevent the ization. General fitness increases
Initially described by Selye in exhaustion stage (63, 67). If the with training age; thus elite ath-
1956 (60), the GAS proposes that individual reaches the exhaustion letes have higher general fitness
all stressors result in similar re- stage, overtraining occurs. than novices do.
sponses. The initial response, the The fitness after -effect is a
alarm stage, is negative, with the ■ Fitness-Fatigue Model positive physiological response,
physiological state of the organism Proposed in 1982 by Bannister (1), whereas the fatigue after-effect is
decreasing following the imposi- the fitness-fatigue model argues a negative physiological response.
tion of stress. Secondary to the that different training stresses re- The interaction between these 2
alarm stage is the resistance sult in different physiological re- after-effects results in the change
42 Strength and Conditioning Journal December 2003
in performance following the stim- Down-regulation of the alpha- and physiological literature. Similarly,
ulus (1, 67). It is important to note beta-receptors or decreasing the there is an absence of evidence
here that the fitness-fatigue model release of catecholamines can de- supporting the single unified re-
is not necessarily an alternative to crease nervous system function sponse proposed by Selye (60).
the GAS, but rather a better rep- (12, 25, 28, 35). Metabolic fatigue The initial bases for the GAS are
resentation of stimulus and re- is primarily due to decreased stor- the endocrine responses to stress
sponse. Indeed, the resultant age and availability of energy sub- (60, 67). These endocrine respons-
change in performance as de- strates (10, 25, 45, 64, 67). es, however, are not the same for
scribed in this model is identical The magnitude and duration all exercise regimes. Higher-vol-
to the GAS. The distinction of fit- of the after-effects is dependent on ume training results in an acute
ness and fatigue after -effects, the stimulus, where Bannister (1) decrease in circulating testos-
however, is important for the de- initially proposed that training im- terone, whereas higher-intensity
velopment of training paradigms. pulse, an indicator of physiologi- training results in an acute in-
Fitness after-effects, whether cal work, was the sole variable. In crease in circulating testosterone
acute or chronic, appear to be pri- general, the fatigue after-effect is (46, 47, 49). High-volume, moder-
marily neural in nature. Facilita- large in magnitude with a brief du- ate-intensity exercise increases
tion of the peripheral nervous sys- ration. This results in the initial growth hormone, but low-volume,
tem occurs via optimal magnitude decrease in performance (similar very high-intensity training has no
and rate of activation of the neuro- to Selye’s alarm stage). The fitness growth hormone response (47,
muscular complex, coactivation of after-effect has a dull magnitude, 49). Correspondingly, a brief de-
intrafusal fibers, and decreased but a long duration. This mani- crease in performance can occur
autogenic inhibition (20–22, fests as a long-term improvement regardless of the increase or de-
27–34, 38–41, 51, 52). Central in performance (similar to Selye’s crease in circulating hormones
nervous system activity increases resistance stage). (35–38, 40, 41). The original
through up-regulation of the propositions of the GAS are thus
alpha- and beta-receptors and ■ Evidence of After-Effects far too simplistic to accurately de-
greater catecholamine release (12). Evidence of the existence of 2 scribe the physiological response
Fatigue after-effects are both after-effects, as opposed to a sin- to stimuli.
neural and metabolic in nature. gle unified response, exists in the Perhaps the best evidence of
fitness and fatigue after-effects is
the physiological phenomenon
posttetanic potentiation. Postte-
tanic potentiation is the increase
in muscle twitch force following
voluntary or involuntary maximal
contractions (9). Brown and von
Euler (3) reported that successive
contractions in isolated muscle
preparations resulted in greater
force production. Further re-
search in animals and humans
corroborated these findings, indi-
cating that maximal voluntary
contractions resulted in an in-
crease in performance (9, 11, 19,
42, 57). Interestingly, individuals
competing in sports respond fa-
vorably, whereas recreationally
trained individuals fatigued after
the maximal voluntary contrac-
tions (9). Chiu et al. (9) speculated
that the athletic individuals had a
Figure 1. Fitness-fatigue theory. greater potentiation response (fit-
December 2003 Strength and Conditioning Journal 43ness after-effect) and less fatigue priate measure for the training ry. The GAS theory states that
compared with the recreationally stimulus. Training impulse is a total work alone, regardless of the
trained individuals. measure of total work performed, magnitude of stress, is responsi-
Physiologically, maximal con- and a similar measure exists for ble for the responses. In the fit-
tractions cause a depletion of cre- resistance exercise, called volume ness-fatigue model, both the
atine phosphate, an accumulation load (64). Volume load refers to the amount and magnitude of the
of extracellular potassium, and an total kilograms of weight lifted. stimulus contributes to the post-
increase in intramuscular calcium Whether training impulse (for en- exercise response. Indeed, this
and hydrogen (53). These changes durance activities) or volume load distinction may demonstrate the
contribute to decreased muscle (for resistance exercise), this no- complexity of the fitness-fatigue
force production. Alternatively, tion that total work is the stimu- model. Absolute load, training in-
maximal contractions result in lus responsible for short- and tensity, and total work appear to
phosphorylation of the regulatory long-term adaptation is intellectu- have their own fitness and fatigue
myosin light chain and the H-re- ally appealing. However, the re- after-effects. Therefore, the origi-
flex (9, 19, 42, 57). The regulatory search by Fry et al. (12, 13, 15, 16) nal model—having 1 fitness after-
myosin light chain is a protein shows that exercise with high load effect and 1 fatigue after-effect—
that regulates the rate of muscle or high intensity in absence of may be misleading. There may
contraction. Phosphorylation of high volume loads results in both actually be multiple fitness after-
this protein increases the rate of positive and negative adaptations effects and multiple fatigue after-
binding of actin and myosin, re- (45, 58). Thus for a single bout of effects (Figure 2).
sulting in faster muscle contrac- exercise, absolute load, training Although each specific fitness
tion (57). The H-reflex is a reflex- intensity, and total work are re- and fatigue after-effect is indepen-
ive neural signal, which when sponsible for the magnitude and dent of each other, they have a cu-
superimposed on voluntary mus- duration of the fitness and fatigue mulative effect. Of primary con-
cle activation, increases the after-effects (4–7, 20–22, 29–32, cern is the summation of fatigue
strength of the electrical impulse, 34, 40, 51, 52, 56). after -effects. Individual fatigue
thus activating more motor units This important revelation il- after-effects are specific respons-
(19). lustrates the differing impacts of es to stimuli; however, these re-
In addition to these acute re- the GAS and fitness-fatigue theo- sponses can have a systemic ef-
sponses, short-term training
adaptations support the fitness-
fatigue model. Fry et al. (16) found
that following 3 weeks of high rel-
ative intensity resistance exercise,
strength did not change, whereas
speed decreased. Subjects per-
formed near maximal lifts 3 days
per week using the free-weight
barbell squat. Sprint performance
decreased following training, with
a 10% increase in 9.1-m run time.
This differential response between
strength and speed occurs repeat-
edly in resistance exercise over-
training studies and is supportive
of different responses to stress
(12, 13, 15, 16, 45, 58).
■ Stimulus and Response
Bannister (1) suggested that train-
ing impulse—the product of heart
rate (or exercise intensity) and ex-
ercise duration—was the appro- Figure 2. Revised fitness-fatigue theory
44 Strength and Conditioning Journal December 2003fect, in particular affecting the im- Regardless of the training pa- of specific fitness and fatigue after-
mune system. When fatigue after- rameters, adaptations in begin- effects is high. A period of training
effects are small and brief, the ners performing resistance exer- involving reduced total work and
systemic effect is small. However, cise include muscle hypertrophy relative intensity is required to re-
stressful periods of training with- and shift of myosin heavy chain move the fatigue after -effects
out sufficient recovery result in an IIb to IIa (8, 53, 55, 62). Maximal (1, 67). When applied before a
accumulation of fatigue and an in- oxygen consumption, increased major competition, this phase is a
crease in the systemic or main fa- mitochondrial density, and in- taper (14, 18, 27, 54, 61, 65). Al-
tigue after-effect. creased capillarization result from though widely applied in coaching
The existence of multiple fit- most types of endurance training circles, the acknowledgment of the
ness and fatigue after-effects may (53). An explanation for the diver- delayed training effect has been
explain why individual physical gence in performance adaptations missing in scientific research.
qualities respond differently to between different programs is the Without a taper period, it is diffi-
variations in training. For exam- rate and magnitude of adapta- cult to interpret the true impact of
ple, empirical evidence in tions, rather than the type of a training program. Preliminary
weightlifters finds that in periods adaptations (55). These adapta- evidence suggests 96 hours of rest
of maximal strength training, ex- tions are stable and do not tend to may be necessary in recreational-
plosive strength and muscular regress unless a prolonged period ly trained individuals for optimal
endurance suf fer. Similarly, of detraining occurs (43, 44, 48). strength performance (65).
strength is impaired when the Elite athletes have developed a The period of rest required for
emphasis is on explosive strength high general fitness level; thus the maximal strength and velocity
(2). If different fitness after -ef- training emphasis shifts to specif- adaptations to manifest may de-
fects exist for absolute strength, ic fitness adaptations. The highest pend on the nature of the training
explosive strength, and muscular level of performance occurs when (59). Training involving concen-
endurance, they should be spe- fatigue after-effects are minimal tric-only or eccentric-only move-
cific to the mode of training best and fitness after-effects are maxi- ments requires 10–14 days of rest
suited for that physical quality. mal. Mathematical functions can for optimal strength and velocity
Thus when the emphasis of train- represent the fitness and fatigue adaptations. For typical eccentric-
ing is on one and not the other after-effects (1, 4–7). As the after- concentric exercise, strength and
physical qualities, the other spe- effects decay, they follow an as- velocity were greatest 21 days fol-
cific fitness after-effects diminish ymptotic function where the after- lowing termination of training.
and that specific aspect of perfor- effect approaches but does not Whether the concentric-only, ec-
mance increases. reach zero. Thus it is impossible centric-only, or eccentric-concen-
for fitness or fatigue to exist inde- tric exercise modes were directly
■ Implications for Training pendently. Bannister (1) proposes responsible for the different taper
For novice athletes, the emphasis that it is better to have high fitness times is disputable, as eccentric-
of training is on improving the with moderate fatigue, rather than concentric training would involve
general fitness level. The general moderate fitness and low fatigue. roughly twice the volume load as
fitness aspect of the fitness-fa- Manipulating training parameters the other modalities. Regardless,
tigue theory explains why begin- can alter the magnitude and du- the major finding is in support of
ners tend to respond to any type rations of these after-effects, pro- a delayed training effect.
of training program. When begin- ducing the optimal level of perfor- It is rare, however, for elite
ners train, general fitness adapta- mance. From the temporal pattern athletes to completely abstain
tions occur without substantial of the fatigue after-effect, it is im- from training the last weeks before
fitness and fatigue after-effects. portant to note that maximal per- competition. Although a drastic
Novices cannot train with suffi- formance does not occur immedi- reduction in volume load occurs
cient absolute load, intensity, or ately after the training phase. during these few weeks, empiri-
volume to elicit large fitness and cally, intensity remains high. This
fatigue after-effects. Thus begin- ■ Delayed Training Effect is especially true in elite
ners adapt so that they can toler- The delayed training effect is a di- weightlifters. The brief, infrequent
ate greater absolute loads, exer- rect consequence of the fitness-fa- imposition of high-intensity train-
cise intensities, and training tigue model. Following a period of ing may maintain or increase the
volumes. stressful training, the magnitude specific fitness after-effects with-
December 2003 Strength and Conditioning Journal 45out substantially affecting fatigue ments may not occur due to the from excess training volume.
after-effects (16, 43, 64). There- positive effect of the fitness after- Lehmann et al. (50) found perfor-
fore, this period is more than sim- effects. Over time, the persistent mance impairments in overtrained
ply removing the fatigue after-ef- addition of fatigue after -effects endurance athletes as much as 1
fect; this period also maximizes results in a depletion in the ath- year following reduction in train-
the magnitude of the fitness after- lete’s adaptive abilities, resulting ing stress. Overtraining from in-
effect. Thus, rather than taper, a in overtraining. It is here that the creased loads or training intensity
more appropriate term for this GAS falls short in explaining why should resolve within a few weeks
phase of training may be ramping. performance drops sharply when of rest (16, 45, 64).
overtraining occurs. Following
■ Short-Term Overreaching the GAS model, per for mance ■ Long-Term Planning
The fitness-fatigue theory and de- should decrease progressively Although it has fallen out of favor
layed training effect are important with additional stressors, which among many strength and condi-
to consider in planning the train- empirically is not the case. With tioning professionals, the tradi-
ing of elite athletes. Elite athletes the fitness-fatigue model, fatigue tional periodization model holds
can tolerate greater volume load accumulates, and at the point concepts that are still important
and training intensity than when fatigue after-effects greatly for planning training programs.
novices and require more stress to exceed fitness after-effects, over- Perhaps the most important is the
stimulate adaptations. The fre- training occurs. inverse relationship between vol-
quent imposition of these stress- We must be careful in labeling ume and intensity (63). If we re-
es, however, makes the athlete overtraining, as it typically re- member that longer durations are
more susceptible to overtraining. quires a prolonged period of required to overtrain and recover
The need for variation in volume stressful training to reach (12, 64). from overtraining, with training
load and intensity are the ratio- Coaches and sport scientists volume it would be prudent to
nale behind short-term overreach- should not underestimate the only use higher training volumes
ing (12, 64, 67). adaptive abilities of the human early in the training plan.
Short-term overreaching is the body (14). Most individuals will Higher frequency of training,
deliberate imposition of stressful never reach a true overtraining and therefore higher training vol-
training for brief periods inter- state. Prior research in elite ath- ume, increases the duration of the
spersed with periods of recovery letes has found an ability to toler- fatigue effect associated with a
(12, 64). These stressful periods ate twofold or threefold increases single training session (4). This
result in large fitness and fatigue in training volume for periods of may be tolerable early in the train-
after-effects. As the duration of 1–3 weeks (14, 64). ing year when fatigue has not ac-
the fitness after -effect is longer With resistance exercise, cumulated; however, if training
than the fatigue after-effect, a pe- recreationally trained individuals frequency remains high through-
riod of rest allows fatigue to di- are able to maintain or increase out the training year, the ability to
minish while fitness remains high. strength with 3–5 d/wk of training recover is impaired (4). Reducing
Stone and Fry (64) and Fry (12) with near maximal loads (>90% 1 training volume toward the mid-
have proposed that this frequent repetition maximum [1RM]; 13, point of the training year will allow
cycling of training and recovery 16). Velocity-related perfor- sufficient time for fatigue to di-
phases is necessary to improve mances, such as sprinting, de- minish. The use of higher training
performance in elite athletes. crease at this frequency and in- volume early in the training plan
tensity of training. A training also results in increased adaptive
■ Overtraining frequency of 7 d/wk for 2 consec- abilities, which would be useful
It is important to consider that utive weeks results in large later in the training year (14).
the fitness and fatigue after -ef- strength decrements (15, 58). Intensity manipulations result
fects are dynamic and not static Thus training with excessive loads in more predictable responses
entities. If training occurs while results in overtraining faster than than volume manipulation,
fatigue after-effects persist, addi- training with excessive volume. whether positive or negative (9,
tional after-effects will superim- Similarly, overtraining result- 20, 21, 25, 29, 32, 35–38, 40, 51,
pose on existing ones, exacerbat- ing from load and intensity ma- 52, 56). Thus as the competition
ing the maladaptations (1). nipulations appears to resolve period nears, it is wise to reduce
However, per for mance decre- faster than overtraining resulting training volume to avoid pro-
46 Strength and Conditioning Journal December 2003longed fatigue after-effects while near-maximal loads lifted for mul- letes who trained twice per day
addressing training intensity to tiple sets of few repetitions. Maxi- improved strength more than in-
maximize the fitness after-effects. mal intensity training uses sub- dividuals who trained only once
Typically, sequencing of long- maximal loads lifted with maximal per day (26). Only athletes who
term training is in a multidirec- acceleration for multiple sets of low have a high level of general fitness
tional fashion. With multidirec- to moderate repetitions. Maximal should perform multiple daily
tional training, athletes train work training involves a high vol- training sessions. From prelimi-
multiple physical qualities in the ume of lifts with submaximal loads. nary research, maximal strength
same period. For elite athletes, it Maximal intensity training has training sessions precede maximal
may be necessary to train in a uni- the largest fitness after -effect, intensity sessions. The large fa-
directional fashion, where empha- which is of short duration (9, 19, tigue after-effect from maximal in-
sis is on only 1 physical quality 34, 51, 52). Maximal work training tensity training appears to mani-
during a given training period. For has the smallest fitness after-ef- fest during the session or in the
example, an athlete may perform fect, yet the duration is longest intersession interval (2, 66). This
a 4-week block of training focus- (25). Maximal strength training fatigue after-effect negatively af-
ing on strength only (67). The uni- has a smaller fitness after-effect fects maximal strength, but not
directional method usually results than maximal intensity training (9, explosive strength (2). A single
in short-term overreaching of the 19, 34, 51, 52). The fatigue after- maximal intensity training session
trained quality. effects are similar, with maximal results in decreased force produc-
Some coaches and scientists intensity resulting in large fatigue tion during a second training ses-
suggest that consecutive over- for a brief period and maximal sion 4–6 hours later. The earlier
reaching phases are possible, so work resulting in low-levels of fa- training session does not affect ex-
long as each phase is unidirec- tigue for a prolonged period (5–7, plosive strength or training veloc-
tional and emphasizes a different 9, 17, 19, 25, 34, 51, 52, 56, 66). ity. Again, when training multiple
physical quality (67). This concurs In planning a single training times per day, maximal work
with the proposed revised fitness- session, maximal intensity and training occurs last.
fatigue model involving multiple maximal strength training always
fitness and fatigue after-effects. precede maximal work. The onset ■ Short-Term Training
The fatigue after-effect specific to of fatigue with maximal work When concurrently training
1 physical quality should not training is nearly immediate, as multiple strength qualities, early
hamper the performance of an- opposed to maximal intensity and in the week the emphasis should
other physical quality. This ap- strength, where the fitness after- be on maximal intensity. As the
plies so long as systemic mal- effect offsets fatigue (17, 25). Elite fatigue after-effect is shortest for
adaptations, such as impaired athletes can perform maximal maximal intensity training, this
immune system function, do not strength training before maximal arrangement has the smallest
occur. Thus even with unidirec- intensity. This sequencing takes negative effect on subsequent
tional sequencing, the training advantage of the posttetanic po- days of training. Additionally,
plan should include brief periods tentiation phenomenon (9). Less- the large fitness after-effect may
for recovery. er -trained athletes, however, positively influence subsequent
should always perform maximal training days. A day emphasiz-
■ Dynamics of the Training Day intensity training before maximal ing maximal strength occurs
A single training session can influ- strength training. Elite athletes after days of maximal intensity
ence subsequent training sessions, may also use this sequencing. In training, so it does not negative-
both positively and negatively (2, lesser-trained individuals, fatigue ly affect the maximal intensity
26, 40, 66). The effect depends on follows maximal strength training, training sessions. Similarly,
the type of training performed. impairing maximal intensity per- maximal work occurs toward the
From the research literature, there formance (9, 11). end of the week, closer to days of
are 3 distinctive types of strength Rather than training multiple rest, which will allow fatigue to
training, which have differing phys- strength qualities in a single train- recover.
iological effects on the organism: ing session, dividing training into In general, training sessions
maximal strength, maximal inten- multiple sessions per day may be resulting in a large fitness after-ef-
sity, and maximal work (67). Maxi- appropriate. Even when total fect and a brief fatigue after-effect
mal strength training involves training volume was equal, ath- should occur early in the training
December 2003 Strength and Conditioning Journal 47week. The positive change in per- 4. Busso, T., H. Benoit, R. Bon- of intensified training on mus-
formance from the fitness after-ef- nefoy, L. Feasson, and J.R. La- cle glycogen and swimming
fect allows the athlete to train cour. Effects of training fre- performance. Med. Sci. Sports
harder in subsequent days. Train- quency on the dynamics of Exerc. 20:249–254. 1988.
ing sessions resulting in a longer performance response to a 11. Duthie, G.M., W.B. Young, and
fatigue after-effect occur later in single training bout. J. Appl. D.A. Aitken. The acute effects
the training week, immediately be- Physiol. 92:572–580. 2002. of heavy loads on jump squat
fore rest days. The rest days allow 5. Busso, T., R. Candau, and performance: An evaluation of
fatigue to subside. Even 1 day per J.R. Lacour. Fatigue and fit- the complex and contrast
week of rest can be sufficient for ness modeled from the effects methods of power develop-
recovery (12, 13). of training on performance. ment. J. Strength Cond. Res.
Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 69:50–54. 16(4):530–538. 2002.
■ Summary 1994. 12. Fry, A.C. The role of training
High-level human performance re- 6. Busso, T., K. Häkkinen, A. intensity in resistance exercise
quires years of diligent training. Pakarinen, C. Carasso, J.R. overtraining and overreaching.
Coaches and athletes should not Lacour, P.V. Komi, and H. In: Overtraining in Sport. R.B.
leave performance adaptations to Kauhanen. A systems model of Kreider, A.C. Fry, and M.L.
chance. Proper planning and orga- training responses and its O’Toole, eds. Champaign, IL:
nization of training results in the relationship to hormonal Human Kinetics, 1998. pp.
desired performance outcomes, responses in elite weight- 107–127.
and empirical and scientific evi- lifters. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 13. Fry, A.C., W.J. Kraemer, J.M.
dence is in support of modeling 61(1–2):48–54. 1990. Lynch, N.T. Triplett, and L.P.
training after the fitness-fatigue 7. Busso, T., K. Häkkinen, A. Koziris. Does short-term near-
theory. From the design of the Pakarinen, H. Kauhanen, P.V. maximal intensity machine re-
yearly training structure to each Komi, and J.R. Lacour. Hor- sistance exercise induce over-
individual training session, an ath- monal adaptations and mod- training? J. Strength Cond.
lete’s training plan should account eled responses in elite Res. 8:188–191. 1994.
for fitness and fatigue after-effects weightlifters during 6 weeks of 14. Fry, A.C., W.J. Kraemer, M.H.
in an effort to maximize the effects training. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Stone, B.J. Warren, S.J. Fleck,
of training. ▲ 64(4):381–386. 1992. J.T. Kearney, and S.E. Gor-
8. Campos, G.E., T.J. Luecke, don. Endocrine responses to
■ References H.K. Wendeln, K. Toma, F.C. overreaching before and after
1. Bannister, E.W. Modeling elite Hagerman, T.F. Murray, K.E. 1 year of weightlifting. Can. J.
athletic performance. In: Phys- Ragg, N.A. Ratamess, W.J. Appl. Physiol. 19(4):400–410.
iological Testing of the High- Kraemer, and R.S. Staron. 1994.
Performance Athlete. J.D. Mac- Muscular adaptations in re- 15. Fry, A.C., W.J. Kraemer, F.
Dougall, H.A. Wenger, and sponse to three different resis- Van Borselen, J.M. Lynch, J.L.
H.J. Green, eds. Champaign, tance-training regimens: Speci- Marsit, E.P. Roy, N.T. Triplett,
IL: Human Kinetics, 1991. pp. ficity of repetition maximum and H.G. Knuttgen. Perfor-
403–424. training zones. Eur. J. Appl. mance decrements with high-
2. Belzer, S.T., L.Z.F. Chiu, E.J. Physiol. 88(1–2):50–60. 2002. intensity resistance exercise
Johnson, M.P. Wendell, A.C. 9. Chiu, L.Z.F., A.C. Fry, L.W. overtraining. Med. Sci. Sports
Fry, B.K. Schilling, C.B. Weiss, B.K. Schilling, L.E. Exerc. 26:1165–1173. 1994.
Richey, C.A. Moore, and L.W. Brown, and S.L. Smith. Post- 16. Fry, A.C., J.M. Webber, L.W.
Weiss. High power training re- activation potentiation re- Weiss, M.D. Fry, and Y. Li. Im-
sults in acute neuromuscular sponse in athletic and recre- paired performances with ex-
deficit [abstract]. J. Strength ationally trained individuals. cessive high-intensity free-
Cond. Res. In press. J. Strength Cond. Res. weight training. J. Strength
3. Brown, G.L., and U.S. von 17(4):671–677. 2003. Cond. Res. 14:54–61. 2000.
Euler. The after effects of a 10. Costill, D.L., M.G. Flynn, J.P. 17. Goméz, A.L., R.J. Radzwich,
tetanus on mammalian mus- Kirwan, J.A. Houmanrd, J.B. C.R. Denegar, J.S. Volek, M.R.
cle. J. Physiol. (London). Mitchell, R. Thomas, and S.H. Rubin, J.A. Bush, B.K. Doan,
93:39–60. 1938. Park. Effects of repeated days R.B. Wickham, S.A. Mazzetti,
48 Strength and Conditioning Journal December 2003R.U. Newton, D.N. French, K. Physiol. Scand. 125:587–600. 31. Häkkinen, K., and P.V. Komi.
Häkkinen, N.A. Ratamess, and 1985. Fatiguability in voluntary and
W.J. Kraemer. The effects of a 25. Häkkinen, K., M. Alén, W.J. reflex contraction after condi-
10-kilometer run on muscle Kraemer, E. Gorostiaga, M. tioning of human skeletal mus-
strength and power. J. Strength Izguierdo, H. Rusko, J. Mikko- cle. Electromyogr. Clin. Neuro-
Cond. Res. 16(2):184–191. la, A. Häkkinen, H. Valkeinen, physiol. 25(5):319-330. 1985.
2002. E. Kaarakainen, S. Romu, V. 32. Häkkinen, K., and P.V. Komi.
18. Graves, J.E., M.L. Pollock, Erola, J. Ahtiainen, and L. Effects of fatigue and recovery
S.H. Leggett, R.W. Braith, Paavolainen. Neuromuscular on electromyographic and iso-
D.M. Carpenter, and L.E. adaptations during concur- metric force- and relaxation-
Bishop. Effect of reduced rent strength and endurance time characteristics of human
training frequency on muscu- training versus strength train- skeletal muscle. Eur. J. Appl.
lar strength. Int. J. Sports Med. ing. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Physiol. 55:588–596. 1986.
9:316–319. 1998. 89:42–52. 2003. 33. Häkkinen, K., P.V. Komi, M.
19. Gullich, A., and D. Schmidt- 26. Häkkinen, K., and M. Kallinen. Alén, and H. Kauhanen. EMG,
bleicher. MVC-induced short- Distribution of strength train- muscle fibre and force produc-
term potentiation of explosive ing volume into one or two daily tion characteristics during a 1
force. New Stud. Athletics. sessions and neuromuscular year training period in elite
11(4):67–81. 1996. adaptations in female athletes. weight-lifters. Eur. J. Appl.
20. Häkkinen, K. Neuromuscular Electromyogr. Clin. Neurophysi- Physiol. 56:419–427. 1987.
fatigue and recovery in male ol. 34:117–124. 1994. 34. Häkkinen, K., and E. Myllyla.
and female athletes during 27. Häkkinen, K., M. Kallinen, Acute effects of muscle fatigue
heavy resistance training. Int. P.V. Komi, and H. Kauhanen. and recovery on force produc-
J. Sports Med. 14(2):53–59. Neuromuscular adaptations tion and relaxation in en-
1993. during short-term “normal” durance, power and strength
21. Häkkinen, K. Neuromuscular and reduced training periods athletes. J. Sports Med. Phys.
fatigue in males and females in strength athletes. Elec- Fitness. 30:5–12. 1990.
during strenuous heavy resis- tromyogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 35. Häkkinen, K., and A. Pakari-
tance loading. Electromyogr. 31:35–42. 1991. nen. Serum hormones in male
Clin. Neurophysiol. 34:205–214. 28. Häkkinen, K., and H. Kauha- strength athletes during inten-
1994. nen. Daily changes in neural sive short term strength train-
22. Häkkinen, K. Neuromuscular activation, force-time and re- ing. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol.
fatigue and recovery in women laxation-time characteristics 63(3–4):194–199. 1991.
at different ages during heavy in athletes during very intense 36. Häkkinen, K., and A. Pakari-
resistance loading. Elec- training for one week. Elec- nen. Acute hormonal respons-
tromyogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. tromyogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. es to two different fatiguing
35(7):403–413. 1995. 29:243–249. 1989. heavy-resistance protocols in
23. Häkkinen, K., M. Alén, and 29. Häkkinen, K., H. Kauhanen, male athletes. J. Appl. Physiol.
P.V. Komi. Changes in isomet- and P.V. Komi. Effects of fatigu- 74:882–887. 1993.
ric force- and relaxation-time, ing loading with a variable re- 37. Häkkinen, K., and A. Pakari-
electromyographic and muscle sistance equipment on neural nen. Acute hormonal respons-
fibre characteristics of human activation and force production es to heavy resistance exercise
skeletal muscle during of the knee extensor muscles. in men and women at different
strength training and detrain- Electromyogr. Clin. Neurophysi- ages. Int. J. Sports Med.
ing. Acta Physiol. Scand. ol. 28(2–3):79–87. 1988. 16:507–513. 1995.
125(4):573–585. 1985. 30. Häkkinen, K., and P.V. Komi. 38. Häkkinen, K., A. Pakarinen,
24. Häkkinen, K., M. Alén, and Electromyographic and me- M. Alén, H. Kauhanen, and
P.V. Komi. Effect of explosive chanical characteristics of P.V. Komi. Daily hormonal and
type strength training in iso- human skeletal muscle during neuromuscular responses to
metric force- and relaxation- fatigue under voluntary and intensive strength training in
time, electromyographic and reflex conditions. Electroen- 1 week. Int. J. Sports Med.
muscle fibre characteristics of cephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 9:422–428. 1988.
leg extensor muscles. Acta 55:436–444. 1983. 39. Häkkinen, K., A. Pakarinen,
December 2003 Strength and Conditioning Journal 49M. Alén, H. Kauhanen, and trations after different heavy- 52. Linnamo, V., R.U. Newton, K.
P.V. Komi. Neuromuscular resistance exercise protocols Häkkinen, P.V. Komi, A.
and hormonal adaptations in in women. J. Appl. Physiol. Davie, M. McGuigan, and T.
athletes to strength training in 75:594–604. 1993. Triplett-McBride. Neuromus-
two years. J. Appl. Physiol. 47. Kraemer, W.J., S.E. Gordon, cular responses to explosive
65:2406–2412. 1988. S.J. Fleck, L.J. Marchitelli, R.P. and heavy resistance loading.
40. Häkkinen, K., A. Pakarinen, Mello, J.E. Dziados, K.E. J. Electromyogr. Kinesiol.
M. Alén, H. Kauhanen, and Friedl, E.A. Harman, C. 10:417–424. 2000.
P.V. Komi. Neuromuscular Maresh, and A.C. Fry. Endoge- 53. McArdle, W.D., F.I. Katch, and
and hormonal responses in nous anabolic hormonal and V.L. Katch. Exercise Physiolo-
elite athletes to two succes- growth factor responses to gy: Energy, Nutrition, and
sive strength training ses- heavy resistance exercise in Human Performance. Balti-
sions in one day. Eur. J. Appl. males and females. Int. J. more: Williams & Wilkins,
Physiol. 57(2):133–139. 1988. Sports Med. 12:228–235. 1991. 1996.
41. Häkkinen, K., A. Pakarinen, 48. Kraemer, W.J., L.P. Koziris, 54. Neufer P.D., D.L. Costill, R.A.
and M. Kallinen. Neuromuscu- N.A. Ratamess, K. Häkkinen, Fielding, M.G. Glynn, and J.P.
lar adaptations and serum hor- N.T. Triplett-McBride, A.C. Fry, Kirwan. Effect of reduced
mones in women during short- S.E. Gordon, J.S. Volek, D.N. training on muscular strength
term intensive training. Eur. J. French, M.R. Rubin, A.L. and endurance in competitive
Appl. Physiol. 64(2):106–111. Goméz, M.J. Sharman, J. swimmers. Med. Sci. Sports
1992. L ynch, M. Izquierdo, R.U. Exerc. 19:486–490. 1987.
42. Hamada, T., D.G. Sale, and Newton, and S.J. Fleck. 55. Paulsen, G., D. Myklestad,
J.D. MacDougall. Postactiva- Detraining produces minimal and T. Raastad. The influence
tion potentiation in endurance- changes in physical perfor- of volume of exercise on early
trained male athletes. Med. Sci. mance and hormonal variables adaptations to strength train-
Sports Exerc. 32:403–411. in recreationally strength- ing. J. Strength Cond. Res.
2000. trained men. J. Strength Cond. 17:115–120.
43. Hoffman, J.R., and J. Kang. Res. 16:373–382. 2002. 56. Raastad, T., and J. Hallén. Re-
Strength changes during an in- 49. Kraemer, W.J., L.J. Marchitel- covery of skeletal muscle
season resistance-training pro- li, S.E. Gordon, E. Harman, contractility after high- and
gram for football. J. Strength J.E. Dziados, R. Mello, P. Fryk- moderate-intensity strength
Cond. Res. 17:109–114. 2003. man, D. McCurry, and S.J. exercise. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol.
44. Izquierdo, M., K. Häkkinen, Fleck. Hormonal and growth 82:206–214. 2000.
J.J. Gonzalez-Badillo, J. factor responses to heavy re- 57. Rassier, D.E., and B.R. MacIn-
Ibanez, and E.M. Gorostiaga. sistance exercise protocols. J. tosh. Coexistence of potentia-
Effects of long-term training Appl. Physiol. 69:1442–1450. tion and fatigue in skeletal
specificity on maximal strength 1990. muscle. Braz. J. Med. Biol.
and power of the upper and 50. Lehmann, M., H.H. Dickhuth, Res. 33:499–508. 2000.
lower extremities in athletes G. Gendrisch, W. Lazar, M. 58. Schilling, B.K., A.C. Fry, L.Z.F.
from different sports. Eur. J. Thum, R. Kaminski, J.F. Ara- Chiu, E. Bernard, S.T. Belzer,
Appl. Physiol. 87:264–271. mendi, E. Peterke, W. Wieland, and L.W. Weiss. Muscle and
2002. and J. Keul. Training-over- performance adaptations to
45. Johnson, E.J. High power training. A prospective, experi- high-load resistance exercise
overreaching and dietary in- mental study with experienced overtraining [abstract]. J.
take. Unpublished Master’s middle- and long-distance run- Strength Cond. Res. 16:484.
thesis, University of Memphis, ners. Int. J. Sports Med. 2002.
Memphis, Tennessee, 2003. 12(5):444–452. 1991. 59. Schlumberger, A., and D.
46. Kraemer, W.J., S.J. Fleck, J.E. 51. Linnamo, V., K. Häkkinen, and Schmidtbleicher. Develop-
Dziados, E.A. Harman, L.J. P.V. Komi. Neuromuscular fa- ment of dynamic strength
Marchitelli, S.E. Gordon, R.P. tigue and recovery in maximal and movement speed after
Mello, P.N Frykman, L.P. compared to explosive strength high-intensity resistance
Koziris, and N.T. Triplett. loading. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. training. In: Proceedings of
Changes in hormonal concen- 77(1–2):176–181. 1998. the International Conference
50 Strength and Conditioning Journal December 2003on Weightlifting and Strength Overtraining in Sport. R.B. 67. Zatsiorsky, V.M. Science and
Training. K. Häkkinen, ed. Kreider, A.C. Fry, and M.L. O’- Practice of Strength Training.
Finland: Gummerus, 1998. Toole, eds. Champaign, IL: Champaign, IL: Human Kinet-
pp. 163–164. Human Kinetics, 1998. pp. ics, 1995.
60. Selye, H. The Stress of Life. 87–105.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956. 64. Stone, M.H., H. O’Bryant, and
61. Shepley, B., J.D. MacDougall, J. Garhammer. A hypothetical
N. Cipriano, J.R. Sutton, M.A. model of strength training. J.
Tarnopolsky, and G. Coates. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness.
Physiological effects of taper- 21:342–351. 1981.
ing in highly trained athletes. 65. Weiss, L.W. The obtuse nature of
J. Appl. Physiol. 72:706–711. muscular strength: The contri-
1992. bution of rest to its development
62. Staron, R.S., D.L. Karapondo, and expression. J. Strength Cond.
W.J. Kraemer, A.C. Fry, S.E. Res. 5:219–227. 1991.
Gordon, J.E. Falkel, F.C. Hager- 66. Wendell, M.P., L.Z.F. Chiu,
Chiu
man, and R.S. Hikida. Skeletal E.J. Johnson, A.C. Fry, B.K.
muscle adaptations during Schilling, L.W. Weiss, C.A. Loren Z.F. Chiu is a doctoral stu-
early phase of heavy-resistance Moore, C.B. Richey, J.L. dent at the University of Southern
training in men and women. J. Barnes, B.J. Miles, and M.W. California.
Appl. Physiol. 76:1247–1255. Malone. Changes in exercise
1994. intensity during high power Jacque L. Barnes is with the
63. Stone, M.H., and A.C. Fry. In- resistance exercise performed Human Performance Laboratories
creased training volume in not-to-failure [abstract]. J. at the University of Memphis in
strength/power athletes. In: Strength Cond. Res. In press. Memphis, Tennessee.
December 2003 Strength and Conditioning Journal 51You can also read
