The Effect of Video Game Competition and Violence on Aggressive Behavior: Which Characteristic Has the Greatest Influence?
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Psychology of Violence © 2011 American Psychological Association
2011, Vol. 1, No. 4, 259 –274 2152-0828/11/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0024908
The Effect of Video Game Competition and Violence on
Aggressive Behavior: Which Characteristic Has the
Greatest Influence?
Paul J. C. Adachi and Teena Willoughby
Brock University, Canada
Objective: This study is the first to our knowledge to isolate the effect of video game
violence and competitiveness on aggressive behavior. Method: In Pilot Study 1, a
violent and nonviolent video game were matched on competitiveness, difficulty, and
pace of action, and the effect of each game on aggressive behavior was then compared
using an unambiguous measure of aggressive behavior (i.e., the Hot Sauce Paradigm)
in Experiment 1. In Pilot Study 2, competitiveness was isolated by matching games on
difficulty and pace of action, and systematically controlling for violence. The effect of
video game competition on aggressive behavior was then examined in Experiment 2.
Results: We found that video game violence was not sufficient to elevate aggressive
behavior compared with a nonviolent video game, and that more competitive games
produced greater levels of aggressive behavior, irrespective of the amount of violence
in the games. Conclusion: It appears that competition, not violence, may be the video
game characteristic that has the greatest influence on aggressive behavior. Future
research is needed to explore the mechanisms through which video game competitive-
ness influences aggressive behavior, as well as whether this relation holds in the
long-term.
Keywords: violent video games, aggressive behavior, competitiveness, violence
The effect of violent video games on aggres- Skoric, 2005), other research has shown that
sion, which is defined as behavior that is in- playing violent video games produces higher
tended to harm another individual (Coie & levels of aggressive behavior, aggressive cogni-
Dodge, 1998), is a hot topic today as video tion, aggressive affect, and physiological
games continue to increase in popularity. For arousal in the short-term than nonviolent video
instance, a large scale study in the United States games (see Anderson, Gentile, & Buckley,
found that 88% of youth aged 8 to 18 years play 2007). However, there are three major limita-
video games (Gentile, 2009). In terms of fre- tions with the studies that have found an effect.
quency, youth played 3 or 4 times per week on First, to date, no study has matched a violent
average (median), and the average amount of and nonviolent video game on competitiveness,
time spent playing video games per week difficulty, and pace of action simultaneously,
was 13.2 hours. Although some research has and thus, the violent content has not been iso-
failed to find a relation between violent video lated. Consequently, it is unclear whether the
game play and aggression (e.g., Ferguson & violent content alone is responsible for elevated
Reuda, 2010; Ferguson et al., 2008; Williams &
levels of aggression. Second, previous experi-
mental studies have tended to use a measure of
aggression that may also measure competitive-
This article was published Online First August 15, 2011. ness, leading to questions about whether violent
Paul J. C. Adachi and Teena Willoughby, Department of video games are related to aggression or com-
Psychology, Brock University, Ontario, Canada.
Teena Willoughby received funding from the Social Sci- petitiveness. Third, the effect of video game
ences and Humanities Research Council of Canada and the competition on aggressive behavior has not
Owl Children’s Trust. been examined. Hence, the goal of the current
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
dressed to Paul J. C. Adachi, Department of Psychology,
study was to examine whether a violent video
Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada, L2S game produced greater levels of aggression than
3A1. E-mail: pa08fg@brocku.ca a nonviolent video game using an unambiguous
259260 ADACHI AND WILLOUGHBY
measure of aggressive behavior, when both concurrently addressed in a single study. Each
games were equated on competitiveness, diffi- limitation will be reviewed in turn.
culty, and pace of action. In addition, we tested
whether a competitive video game produced Differences Between Violent and Nonviolent
more aggressive behavior than a less competi- Video Games Other Than Violence
tive video game when matched on violence,
difficulty, and pace of action. In general, violent video games tend to be
more competitive than nonviolent video games
(Carnagey & Anderson, 2005). Consequently,
The General Aggression Model studies that have found that violent video games
produced more aggression than nonviolent
The most comprehensive theory of the asso-
video games, but failed to equate the games on
ciation between violent video games and ag-
competitiveness, cannot conclude that the vio-
gression is Anderson and Bushman’s (2002)
lent content alone was responsible for the ele-
General Aggression Model (GAM), which was
vated levels of aggression. We propose that
adapted from past theories of aggression (see
violence (e.g., fighting, shooting, killing), com-
also Anderson & Carnagey, 2004, for a detailed
petitiveness (e.g., competing with other players
description of the model). The model depicts a
or computer-controlled opponents), difficulty
cyclical relationship between an individual and
(e.g., how difficult the game is to successfully
the environment, in which person variables such
complete), and pace of action (e.g., rate of speed
as trait hostility, as well as situation variables
of action sequences) are four main video game
such as exposure to real-world or media vio-
characteristics that may influence aggressive
lence (e.g., violent video games), interact to
behavior through the mechanisms (i.e., physio-
influence an individual’s present internal state.
logical arousal, aggressive cognition, and ag-
Within an individual’s internal state are cog-
gressive affect) proposed by the GAM (see
nition (aggressive scripts or hostile thoughts),
Adachi & Willoughby, 2011, for a detailed ex-
affect (anger and frustration), and arousal (el-
planation). For example, Barlett, Branch, Rode-
evated heart rate or blood pressure). Cogni-
heffer, and Harris, (2009) found that a violent
tion, affect, and arousal are the hypothesized
video game produced greater elevations in heart
mechanisms that interact to then influence an
rate, hostility, aggressive thoughts, and aggres-
individual’s aggressive behavior. According
sive behavior compared with a nonviolent video
to Anderson and Bushman, violent video
game. Similarly, video game competition may
games function as a situation variable that can
influence heart rate, as well as aggressive
increase aggressive cognition, affect, and
thoughts and feelings (see Adachi & Wil-
arousal, in turn leading to increased aggres-
loughby, 2011, for a more detailed discussion
sive behavior.
regarding the relation between competition, dif-
ficulty, and pace of action, and the mechanisms
Empirical Background proposed by the GAM).
Although researchers have attempted to
Experimental studies examining the short-term equate games on competitiveness, difficulty,
effect of violent video games on aggression have and pace of action, no one to date has equated a
typically involved randomly assigning partici- violent and nonviolent game on these charac-
pants to play either a violent or nonviolent video teristics simultaneously. For example, Carnagey
game, followed by a measure of aggression (e.g., and Anderson (2005) attempted to control for
Bushman & Anderson, 2002). Some of the re- competition while examining the effect of video
searchers have found that participants in the game violence on aggressive behavior by ma-
violent video game condition have shown more nipulating the game-play settings of the car-
aggression than participants in the nonviolent racing video game Carmageddon 2. Participants
condition for both men and women (see Ander- were randomly assigned to one of three condi-
son et al., 2007, 2010, for a detailed review, as tions: (a) awarded points for destroying other
well as Ferguson & Kilburn, 2010, for a critique vehicles during the race (violence rewarded),
of this research). However, there are three lim- (b) deducted points for destroying other vehi-
itations with this research that have yet to be cles during the race (violence punished), or (c)VIDEO GAME COMPETITION AND VIOLENCE 261
could not come into contact with other vehicles salient. The second problem with the modified
during the race (nonviolent). Because the same TCRTT is that it has been shown to lack validity
game was used in all three conditions, Carnagey as a measure of aggressive behavior. Ferguson
and Anderson assumed that the level of com- and Rueda (2009) found that both intensity and
petitiveness across the conditions was equal; duration scores for the modified TCRTT were
however, without having participants rate each not related to paper-and-pencil measures of trait
condition in terms of competitiveness, it is un- aggression, domestic violence, or violent crim-
clear whether they were actually equal. For in- inal.
stance, in the violence-punished and nonviolent To assess direct and unambiguous aggressive
conditions, there is only one competitive goal: behavior, Lieberman et al. (1999) created the
defeat the other opponents in the race. However, Hot Sauce Paradigm. In the Hot Sauce Para-
in the violence-rewarded condition there are digm, the participant is given an already com-
two competitive goals: defeat the other oppo- pleted food preference questionnaire and told
nents in the race and defeat the other opponents that another participant down the hall has com-
in a battle for survival. Thus, the violence- pleted this questionnaire and, as indicated by
rewarded condition contained more competition the questionnaire, does not like hot or spicy
which may have caused participants to feel food. The participant is then given four bottles
more competitive, and in turn, behave more of hot sauce ranked in terms of hotness and is
aggressively than the participants in the vio- informed that his or her job is to choose one of
lence-punished and nonviolent conditions. the four bottles and mix up some hot sauce for
the other participant to drink. The amount of
Problems With Measures of Aggression hot sauce given and the degree of hotness is
indicative of overt aggressive behavior (Bar-
The most commonly used measure of aggres- lett et al., 2009), and there are no competitive
sive behavior in the violent video game litera- benefits gained from administering a hotter
ture is the modified Taylor competitive reaction sauce to the confederate. Furthermore,
time test (TCRTT), in which the participant is Lieberman et al. found that scores on this
told that he or she is competing with another paradigm were positively related to both trait
participant (confederate) to see who can push a and physical aggression scores on the Buss
button faster upon the appearance of a cue. and Perry (1992) Aggression Questionnaire,
After each trial, the winner chooses the intensity supporting the convergent validity of the Hot
and duration of a punishment for the loser (such Sauce Paradigm, although to date no study
as a loud noise blast). The level of punishment has measured its association with aggressive
intensity and duration that the participant sets behavior outside the lab.
for his or her opponent are indicative of aggres-
sive behavior. Aggression-Related Video Game
The first problem with the modified TCRTT Characteristics
is that the participant’s motivation to behave
aggressively is ambiguous (see Adachi & Wil- Research regarding the effects of video game
loughby, 2011). Because aggression refers to difficulty and pace of action on aggressive be-
behavior that is intended to harm another indi- havior is scarce. In contrast, competition has
vidual, it is unclear whether participants view been shown to be related to aggression. For
their behavior as competitive instead of aggres- example, Anderson and Morrow (1995) exam-
sive, in that participants’ motivation to give ined whether giving participants competitive
intense punishments may be to slow their op- versus cooperative instructions led to differ-
ponents’ response time on subsequent trials, ences in how aggressively they played the video
thus allowing participants to win the competi- game Super Mario Brothers. In this game, var-
tion (Lieberman et al., 1999). Furthermore, be- ious creatures try to attack the main character
cause violent games generally involve more (Mario or Luigi), and the main character in turn
competition than nonviolent games, violent has the option to either attack the creatures or
video games may prime competitive schemas try to avoid them. Participants played the game
more than nonviolent video games, making the in pairs, and each participant took turns playing
competitive element of the TCRTT especially the game. In the competitive condition, partici-262 ADACHI AND WILLOUGHBY
pants were told that their goal was to get further game violence on aggressive behavior (the Hot
in the game than the other participant, and the Sauce Paradigm). Pilot Study 2 was conducted
participants each used a different character (Ma- to test whether four video games chosen
rio or Luigi). In the cooperative condition, par- through pilot testing were matched on difficulty
ticipants were told that their goal was to get as and pace of action, but differed on violence and
far in the game as possible together, and they competitiveness, such that two of the games
took turns using the same character (Mario). were equally violent but one was more compet-
Anderson and Morrow (1995) found that par- itive than the other, while the other two games
ticipants in the competitive condition killed sig- were equally nonviolent but one was more com-
nificantly more enemy creatures than partici- petitive than the other. These four games were
pants in the cooperative condition. Thus, they then used in Experiment 2 to test the effect of
concluded that competition elevated aggressive video game competition on aggressive behav-
behavior compared with cooperation (see also ior, and whether there was an interaction be-
Williams & Clippinger, 2002). tween competition and violence.
Although Anderson and Morrow (1995) used
a video game that is competitive in nature, the Pilot Study 1
game is not very violent (also true for Williams
& Clippinger, 2002). Specifically, the violence The goal of Pilot Study 1 was to test whether
is cartoonish and unrealistic. Schmierbach a violent action video game called Conan
(2010) addressed this gap in the literature by (THQ, 2007) and a nonviolent racing video
examining the effect of competitive video game game called Fuel (Codemasters, 2009) were
play on aggressive cognition using the violent matched on game characteristics, but differed in
first-person shooter video game Halo. In Halo, violence. The goal was then to use these games
the main character must compete in a battle for in Experiment 1. Conan is a violent game in
survival with the other opponent characters us- which the main character must compete in a
ing a variety of different guns. Schmierbach battle for survival using swords and axes against
randomly assigned pairs of participants to one the opponent characters in order to progress
of three conditions: (a) participants played the through the levels. Fuel is a nonviolent racing
game on their own against computer opponents game in which the main character must compete
(solo mode), (b) participants played against in several different races using vehicles such as
each other in a one-on-one battle (competitive motorcycles and ATVs.
mode), and (c) participants played on the same Fourteen introductory psychology students
team against computer opponents (cooperative from a midsized university in Ontario, Canada
mode). Immediately after video game play, par- (6 men, 8 women; M age ⫽ 20 years, 1 month)
ticipants completed a word completion task to played the violent video game Conan and the
assess aggressive cognition. The results showed nonviolent video game Fuel for 12 min each in
that participants in the competitive condition a counterbalanced order. This study was ap-
had the highest aggressive cognition scores, fol- proved by the University Ethics board, and all
lowed by participants in the solo condition, participants provided active consent before par-
while participants in the cooperative condition ticipation. The games were played on an XBOX
had the lowest aggressive cognition scores. 360 gaming system and 42-inch TV screen. In
Thus, consistent with past research, it appears order to accurately compare participants’ rat-
that competition in a video game elevates ag- ings of game characteristics, we controlled for
gression compared with cooperation. their previous experience with the relevant
video game genres of action (Conan) and racing
The Current Studies (Fuel). Participants also completed a demo-
graphic questionnaire that assessed age and gen-
The purpose of Pilot Study 1 was to test der.
whether two games chosen through pilot testing Participants rated each game in terms of the
differed in terms of violence, but were matched four video game characteristics. Violence was
in terms of competitiveness, difficulty, and pace measured on a scale from 1 (very low) to 7 (very
of action. The two matched games were then high) by asking “how violent was the game.”
used in Experiment 1 to test the effect of video Difficulty was measured by asking “how diffi-VIDEO GAME COMPETITION AND VIOLENCE 263
cult was the game” on a scale of 1 (very low) Conan and Fuel were used in Experiment 1 to
to 7 (very high). Pace of action was assessed on test whether video game violence alone could
a scale from 1 (very slow) to 7 (very fast) by produce elevations in aggressive behavior.
asking “how was the pace of the game.” Com-
petitiveness was assessed on a scale from 1 Experiment 1
(very low) to 7 (very high) using Anderson and
Carnagey’s (2009) four questionnaire items: “to The purpose of Experiment 1 was to test
what extent did this video game involve com- whether Conan and Fuel produced differences
petition,” “to what extent did you feel like you in aggressive behavior when using an unambig-
were competing with your opponents (i.e., in a uous measure of aggressive behavior, the Hot
battle or in a race),” “how competitive was this Sauce Paradigm. Similar to Barlett et al. (2009),
video game,” and “how hard were you trying to deception was used to disguise the purpose of
win the game/match/contest.” Alphas for the the Hot Sauce Paradigm so that participants
competitiveness scale were acceptable for both would not be aware that we were assessing the
Conan (␣ ⫽ .86) and Fuel (␣ ⫽ .78). effect of violent video games on aggressive
Participants’ experience with the two genres behavior. Specifically, participants were told
of games (action and racing) did not signifi- that they were participating in two unrelated
cantly differ, F(1, 12) ⫽ 3.41, p ⬎ .05, partial studies looking at (a) video game play and eye-
2 ⫽ .22. A repeated measures analysis of vari- gaze and (b) food preference and personality
ance (ANOVA) was then conducted to compare (the Hot Sauce Paradigm). In terms of expecta-
the two video games on the four video game tions: (a) No specific hypothesis was made as to
characteristics of violence, competitiveness, whether there would be a main effect of game.
difficulty, and pace of action. Gender was in- That is, it was not clear whether differences in
cluded as a between-subjects variable, and ex- hot sauce scores (i.e., standardized summation
perience with racing and action games were of the amount of sauce and the degree of hot-
entered as covariates. Only the Type of game ness) would be found between the two video
(i.e., Conan and Fuel) ⫻ Game characteristics games, as this was the first study to match a
(i.e., violence, competitiveness, difficulty, and violent and nonviolent game on competitive-
pace of action) interaction was significant, F(3, ness, difficulty, and pace of action; (b) We
30) ⫽ 7.59, p ⬍ .01, partial 2 ⫽ .43. To assess predicted a main effect for gender, with men
this interaction, follow-up analyses were con- expected to have higher hot sauce scores than
ducted to compare each of the four video game women, consistent with past literature showing
characteristics between the two games (see Ta- that men are more aggressive than women (e.g.,
ble 1 for mean ratings). Conan was rated as Coie & Dodge, 1998); (c) We did not expect to
significantly more violent than Fuel. However, find an interaction between game and gender as
the two games did not differ on competitive- past research has shown that the relation be-
ness, difficulty, or pace of action. Consequently, tween video game play and aggression does not
Table 1
Pilot Study 1 and Experiment 1 Mean Ratings of Video Game Characteristics for Conan and Fuel
Pilot Study 1 Experiment 1
Video game Video game
Game rating Violent Nonviolent Fa Partial 2 Violent Nonviolent Fb Partial 2
Violence 5.36 (1.28) 1.50 (0.52) 19.31ⴱⴱ 0.66 5.14 (1.35) 2.05 (1.20) 61.75ⴱⴱⴱ 0.63
Competition 5.07 (1.23) 5.54 (1.30) 0.21 0.02 5.00 (0.99) 5.19 (1.19) 0.15 0.00
Difficulty 3.93 (1.07) 3.71 (1.44) 0.35 0.03 3.00 (1.14) 3.48 (1.17) 2.54 0.07
Pace of action 5.07 (0.83) 4.93 (1.21) 0.64 0.06 4.74 (1.08) 5.00 (0.89) 2.56 0.07
Note. N ⫽ 14 for Pilot study, and N ⫽ 42 for Experiment 1. Means are unadjusted; SDs are in parentheses. Violent ⫽
Conan, Nonviolent ⫽ Fuel.
a
df ⫽ 1, 10. b df ⫽ 1, 34.
ⴱⴱ
p ⬍ .01. ⴱⴱⴱ p ⬍ .001.264 ADACHI AND WILLOUGHBY
differ for men and women (e.g., Anderson et al., sauces and four sauces were selected that
2010); and (d) We also included a measure of ranked in order from least to most hot. Each
trait aggression at the end of the study to test the sauce was transferred into a plastic squeeze
convergent validity of the Hot Sauce Paradigm. bottle and was given a number from one to four
It was hypothesized that hot sauce scores would (with one being the least hot and four being the
be moderately related to scores on a trait ag- hottest). In addition, a styrofoam cup to place
gression questionnaire, consistent with past re- the hot sauce into, a cup of water, popsicle
search (e.g., Lieberman et al., 1999, r ⫽ .30; sticks, and white bread (to help ease the hot
Ferguson & Rueda, 2009, r ⫽ .25). sensation after tasting the sauce) were used.
Ratings of the video game characteristics.
Method See Pilot Study 1 for a description. Alphas for
the competitiveness scale were acceptable for
Participants. Participants consisted of 42 both Conan (␣ ⫽ .74) and Fuel (␣ ⫽ .89).
introductory psychology students from the Food preference. Food preference was as-
same university as in Experiment 1 (25 sessed by asking “how much do you LIKE the
men, 17 women; M age ⫽ 18 years 6 months). following kinds of foods” for six items (i.e.,
There were 21 participants that played Conan sweet, savory, spicy, hot, bland, and salty
(13 men and 8 women), and 21 that played foods) on a 1 (not at all) to 5 (extremely) scale
Fuel (12 men, 9 women). This study was ap- (Barlett et al., 2009). Consistent with Barlett et
proved by the University Ethics board, and all al., we confirmed that both the degree of hotness
participants provided active consent before par- and the amount the hot sauce selected by par-
ticipation. Students were recruited using the ticipants was not a function of their liking hot
psychology participant pool and earned course food. Liking hot food did not account for a
credit in exchange for their participation. significant portion of the variability in the de-
Materials. gree of hotness, R2 ⫽ .07, F(1, 40) ⫽ 2.78, p ⬎
Demographics. As in Pilot Study 1, a de- .05, or the amount of sauce R2 ⫽ .04, F(1,
mographic questionnaire was used to assess 40) ⫽ 1.44, p ⬎ .05.
age, gender, and experience with action and Suspiciousness. Because the growing pop-
racing games. Participants indicated how many ularity of research proposing a relation between
hours per weekday and weekend (1 ⫽ not at all violent video games and aggression and the fact
to 5 ⫽5 or more hours per day) that they played that deception was used, a suspiciousness ques-
action and racing games. tionnaire was given that asked participants
Video games and equipment. Conan and whether they knew the true purpose of the
Fuel were played using an XBOX 360 console study, whether anyone had told them about the
on a 42-inch TV screen. study before completing it, and whether they
Aggressive behavior. The Hot Sauce Par- were aware of any deception (Barlett et al.,
adigm (Lieberman et al., 1999) was used to 2009).
measure overt aggressive behavior. Participants Trait aggression. The Buss-Perry Aggres-
were asked to prepare some hot sauce for an- sion Questionnaire (Buss & Perry, 1992) was
other participant to drink who does not like hot used to measure trait aggression and to examine
sauce (note that there actually was no other the convergent validity of the Hot Sauce Para-
participant). Participants were asked to choose digm. The scale consists of 29 items (e.g., “once
the intensity of hot sauce (ranging from 1 ⫽ in a while, I can’t control the urge to strike
least hot to 4⫽ most hot) and the amount, another person”) and responses range from 1
knowing that the other participant had to drink (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree), with
whatever amount was in the cup. Participants higher scores indicating higher trait aggression.
could also taste the sauce in order to see how The internal consistency for this scale was good
hot it was. Aggressive behavior was operation- (␣ ⫽ .89).
alized as the sum of the standardized number Procedure. Participants were tested one at
(i.e., hotness rating) of sauce selected and the a time by the first author. First, they were told
weight in grams (Barlett et al., 2009). Hot sauce that they were participating in two unrelated
was purchased from a local food establishment studies: a video game study examining video
that has a ranked system of hotness for the games and eye gaze and a study looking atVIDEO GAME COMPETITION AND VIOLENCE 265 personality and food preference. For the food the true purpose of the study before being de- study, participants were told that they were ran- briefed or whether they were aware of any de- domly assigned to the role of “food administra- ception. Furthermore, 26 participants (13 who tor” and that when the time came their job played Conan and 13 who played Fuel) com- would be to prepare a certain type of food for pleted the Buss and Perry (1992) Trait Aggres- another participant who had been assigned to sion Questionnaire to examine the convergent the role of “food taster.” Participants were then validity of the Hot Sauce Paradigm. The time given the demographic questionnaire followed lapse between the video game play and the by the food preference questionnaire. completion of the trait aggression questionnaire Next, participants were told that they were was over 10 min (M ⫽ 11 min). going to begin the video game and eye-gaze study. Participants were randomly assigned to Results and Discussion play either the violent or nonviolent video game for 12 min while wearing a piece of Suspiciousness. We originally had 48 par- eye-tracker headgear which they believed was ticipants, but six participants indicated that they measuring their eye-gaze, although we did not knew the true purpose of the study or were actually record their eye-gaze. Upon comple- aware of the deception and thus, their data were tion, participants were then given the question- not included in the analysis (final N ⫽ 42). naire assessing the video game characteristics Experience. In order to include past video and were then told it was time to complete the game experience for both genres of games as food preference study. Specifically, the experi- covariates in the main analyses, we first deter- menter explained that it was time for the par- mined that participants’ experience with action ticipant to prepare some food for the food taster. and racing games did not differ between the two Participants were given an already completed game conditions, F(1, 38) ⫽ .93, p ⬎ .05, food preference questionnaire and were told that partial 2 ⫽ .02. the food taster completed this questionnaire. Video game ratings. A multivariate anal- The food preference questionnaire clearly indi- ysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to cated that the food taster did not like hot or confirm that Conan and Fuel were equated on spicy food. the three video game characteristics of compet- The experimenter then provided the partici- itiveness, difficulty, and pace of action, but dif- pant with the materials for the food preference fered on violence, and experience with racing study (i.e., the hot sauce, a cup, a cup of water, and action games were included as covariates. bread, and popsicle sticks) and explained that There was a main effect for game, F(4, the participant could choose the intensity of hot 33) ⫽ 28.98, p ⬍ .01, partial 2 ⫽ .78. The sauce (ranging from 1 ⫽ least hot to 4 ⫽ most video games differed only in ratings of vio- hot) and the amount, and that the food taster lence, as Conan was rated as more violent than would have to drink whatever amount was in Fuel (see Table 1 for mean ratings). Thus, con- the cup. As in Barlett et al. (2009), participants sistent with Pilot Study 1, participants rated were told that they could not mix sauces. Also, Conan as more violent than Fuel, but not sig- if they wished to know how hot the sauces were nificantly different in terms of competitiveness, before choosing one, they could sample the difficulty, and pace of action. sauces using the popsicle stick. The experi- Aggressive behavior. A univariate menter left the room and watched from behind ANOVA was conducted with the summation of a two-way mirror as the task was performed, the standardized amount of hot sauce given and and then returned to retrieve the cup of hot the standardized degree of hotness as the depen- sauce to allegedly bring to the food taster. The dent variable, video game condition (i.e., vio- time lapse between the video game play and hot lent vs. nonviolent) and gender as the indepen- sauce preparation was 2 to 3 min, well within dent variables, and game experience for both the 5- to 10-min time frame in which the effect genres of games as the covariates. Participants of violent video games on aggression has been who played Conan did not differ in hot sauce shown to last (Barlett et al., 2009). Finally, scores (M ⫽ .09) compared with participants participants completed the suspiciousness ques- who played Fuel (M ⫽ ⫺.09), F(1, 36) ⫽ .00, tionnaire to assess whether participants knew p ⬎ .05, partial 2 ⫽ .00. As predicted, men
266 ADACHI AND WILLOUGHBY (M ⫽ .40) had higher hot sauce scores than with the scores for Barlett et al.’s nonviolent women (M ⫽ ⫺.59), F(1, 36) ⫽ 6.34, p ⬍ .05, video game (.60) and slightly smaller than the partial 2 ⫽ .15, and the interaction between scores for the violent video game (1.27). Thus, game and gender is not significant, F(1, 36) ⫽ hot sauce scores for Conan and Fuel were very .23, p ⬎ .05, partial 2 ⫽ .01. The results similar to Barlett et al.’s violent video game, suggest that the violent content alone was not and larger than their nonviolent video game. sufficient to produce elevations in aggressive The fact that Barlett et al.’s violent video game behavior compared with a nonviolent video produced more aggressive behavior than their game. nonviolent video game suggests that in our Convergent validity of the Hot Sauce Par- study, Conan and Fuel likely elevated aggres- adigm. We decided to test the convergent sive behavior from baseline. validity of the hot sauce paradigm after the Another possible criticism of the current study had begun, so only the final 26 partici- study is that the sample size may have been too pants completed the trait aggression question- small to find a significant effect for video game naire. As predicted, hot sauce scores were pos- condition on aggressive behavior. However, a itively correlated with trait aggression (r ⫽ .32), power analysis using G*Power 3.1.2 revealed although this correlation was not statistically that with the current sample size of N ⫽ 42, we significant because of the small sample size. had power of .755 to detect the significance of However, the size of the moderate correlation is an effect size equivalent to Barlett et al. (2009; consistent with previous results (e.g., Ferguson partial 2 ⫽ .15). In addition, the effect size for & Rueda, 2009; Lieberman et al., 1999). game in the current study was zero (partial 2 ⫽ Experiment 1, therefore, demonstrated that .000), and thus increasing the sample size would video game violence alone is not sufficient to not have made the effect statistically significant. produce elevations in aggressive behavior in a Given our finding that video game violence lab setting. Using an unambiguous measure of alone is not sufficient to produce elevations in aggressive behavior, participants did not have aggressive behavior in a lab setting, the next higher hot sauce scores after playing a violent step is to examine which video game character- game compared with a nonviolent game that istics have the largest impact on aggressive be- was equated on competitiveness, difficulty and havior and how these characteristics interact. pace of action. This finding suggests that the Although a few researchers have attempted to level of violence in video games may be less control for the level of competitiveness when influential in elevating aggression than previ- testing the effect of video game violence on ously believed. In addition, the present study aggressive behavior, no one has examined the provided support for the validity of the Hot effect of video game competition on aggressive Sauce Paradigm as a measure of aggressive behavior. Thus, Pilot Study 2 and Experiment 2 behavior, because of its positive relation with a were conducted to test the effect of the level of measure of trait aggression. competitiveness in video games on aggressive An alternative explanation for this finding behavior. may be that neither video game elevated aggres- sive behavior from baseline because the games Pilot Study 2 may not have been sufficiently violent, compet- itive, difficult, or contained fast enough action The purpose of Pilot Study 2 was to isolate to influence aggression. To assess this hypoth- competitiveness by matching four games on esis, we compared hot sauce scores for partici- difficulty and pace of action, and to systemati- pants who played Conan and Fuel with hot cally control for violence, so that we could use sauce scores from participants in Barlett et al.’s these games in Experiment 2 to examine the (2009) violent and nonviolent video game con- effect of competitiveness on aggressive behav- ditions. In terms of intensity, scores for both ior. After extensive testing by the first author, Conan (2.52) and Fuel (2.33) were larger com- four games were selected that appeared to be pared with scores found in both violent (2.12) matched on difficulty and pace of action. Two and nonviolent (1.76) games reported by Barlett of the games appeared to be equally violent, and et al. In terms of weight, scores for Conan the other two games appeared to be equally (1.01) and Fuel (1.01) were larger compared nonviolent. Of the two violent games, one was
VIDEO GAME COMPETITION AND VIOLENCE 267 more competitive than the other, and of the two sus DC Universe and Left 4 Dead 2 (because nonviolent games, one was more competitive Left 4 Dead 2 does contain some competition than the other. The two violent games that were against opponent characters). The games were chosen were Mortal Kombat versus DC Uni- played on an XBOX 360 gaming system and verse (Midway Games, 2008) and Left 4 Dead 2 42-inch TV screen. (Valve, 2009). Mortal Kombat versus DC Uni- Nineteen undergraduate students from the verse is a fighting game in which the main same university as in Experiment 1 (12 men, 7 character must battle another opponent charac- women; M age ⫽ 22 years 2 months) played the ter in hand-to-hand combat. The goal of the four games for 10 min each in a counterbal- game is to defeat the opponent character in a anced order and rated each game in terms of the 3-round fight so a new opponent can be faced. four characteristics after playing it. This study Because of the competitive nature of the game was approved by the University Ethics board, (i.e., three rounds of one-on-one combat), the and all participants provided active consent be- competitive element of this game is quite sa- fore participation. Instead of using a 4-item lient. Thus, Mortal Kombat versus DC Universe composite to assess competitiveness, only two was hypothesized to be the more competitive items were used, “to what extent did this video violent game. Left 4 Dead 2 is a first-person game involve competition” and “to what extent shooter in which the main character must battle did you feel like you were competing with your zombies using guns and other weapons. Al- opponents (i.e., in a battle or in a race).” The though the main character must compete in a remaining two items, “how competitive was this battle for survival with every other character in video game” and “how hard were you trying to the game, Left 4 Dead 2 was hypothesized to be win the game/match/contest,” were not used less competitive than Mortal Kombat versus DC because they did not discriminate between com- Universe. Unlike most other first-person shoot- petitive and noncompetitive games. For exam- ers, the opponent characters in Left 4 Dead 2 are ple, after playing a noncompetitive game, a zombies, and hence they do not possess weap- participant might report that he or she tried very ons. Consequently, instead of engaging in a hard to win the game, even though there was no competitive shoot-out against other armed char- competition. Correlations for the two competi- acters as in most first-person shooters, many tiveness items were acceptable for Mortal Kom- scenarios in Left 4 Dead 2 involve standing at a bat versus DC Universe (r ⫽ .73), Left 4 Dead distance and shooting a barrage of charging 2 (r ⫽ .77), Marble Blast Ultra (r ⫽ .57), and zombies. Fuel (r ⫽ .64). As in Experiment 1, a demo- The two nonviolent games were Fuel (Code- graphic questionnaire was used to assess age, masters, 2009) and Marble Blast Ultra (Ga- gender, and past video game experience. rageGames, 2006). As previously described, A repeated measures ANOVA revealed that Fuel is a racing game in which the main char- participants’ experience across the different acter must compete against other characters genres did not significantly differ, F(3, while in a series of races while driving a variety 51) ⫽ 1.32, p ⬎ .05 partial 2 ⫽ .07. A repeated of vehicles such as motorcycles and ATVs. Be- measures ANOVA was conducted to compare cause of the competitive nature of the game, the four video games on the four video game Fuel was hypothesized to be the competitive characteristics of violence, competitiveness, nonviolent game. In contrast, Marble Blast Ul- difficulty, and pace of action. Gender was in- tra involves controlling a marble through a se- cluded as a between-subjects variable, and ex- ries of labyrinth-like mazes as quickly as pos- perience with all game genres were entered as sible. As there are no other characters in the covariates. Only the Type of game (i.e., Fuel, game with which to compete with, Marble Blast Left 4 Dead, Marble Blast Ultra, Mortal Kom- Ultra was hypothesized to be less competitive bat versus DC Universe) ⫻ Game characteris- than Fuel. In terms of comparing the violent and tics (i.e., violence, competitiveness, difficulty, nonviolent games, Fuel was hypothesized to be and pace of action) interaction was significant, equally competitive to Mortal Kombat versus F(9, 117) ⫽ 5.01, p ⬍ .01, partial 2 ⫽ .28 (see DC Universe, and more competitive than Left 4 Table 2 for mean ratings of the video game Dead 2. Marble Blast Ultra was hypothesized characteristics for the four video games). Thus, to be less competitive than Mortal Kombat ver- participants’ ratings of video game characteris-
268 ADACHI AND WILLOUGHBY
significantly different at the .05 level. SDs are in parentheses. C ⫽ competitive, NC ⫽ noncompetitive, LC ⫽ less competitive, V ⫽ violent, NV ⫽ nonviolent, C, NV ⫽ Fuel, C,
Note. N ⫽ 19 for Pilot Study 2 and N ⫽ 60 for Experiment 1. Means are unadjusted; cells within a row with common subscripts for the pilot study and experiment are not
tics differed between the four video games. Fol-
1.07 (0.26)b
1.40 (0.69)c
3.60 (1.18)a
4.47 (0.99)a
NC, NV
low-up comparisons indicated that the four
games did not significantly differ in their ratings
of difficulty, F(3, 42) ⫽ .17, p ⬎ .05, partial
2 ⫽ .01, or in pace of action, F(3, 42) ⫽
.48, p ⬎ .05, partial 2 ⫽ .03. Thus, all four
3.10 (1.67)b
5.87 (1.13)a
3.53 (0.92)a
4.87 (0.92)a
games were matched on difficulty and pace of
LC, NV
Experiment 2 video game
action.
Follow-up comparisons were then conducted to
examine differences in violence ratings between
the four games. The two nonviolent games, Mar-
ble Blast Ultra and Fuel, were not rated differ-
5.20 (0.86)a
6.13 (0.93)a
3.67 (0.82)a
5.20 (0.77)a
ently in terms of violence, F(1, 16) ⫽ 2.24, p ⬎
C, V
.05, partial 2 ⫽ .12. Similarly, the two violent
games, Mortal Kombat versus DC Universe and
Left 4 Dead 2, did not differ in terms of violence
ratings F(1, 16) ⫽ 2.00, p ⬎ .05, partial 2 ⫽ .11.
Pilot Study 2 and Experiment 2 Mean Ratings of Video Game Characteristics for the Four Video Games
It is important to note, however, Mortal Kombat
1.33 (0.82)b
5.40 (1.02)a
3.27 (1.10)a
4.73 (1.33)a
C, NV
versus DC Universe was significantly more vio-
lent than both Fuel, F(1, 16) ⫽ 50.96, p ⬍ .01,
partial 2 ⫽ .76, and Marble Blast Ultra, F(1,
16) ⫽ 52.19, p ⬍ .01, partial 2 ⫽ .77. Similarly,
V ⫽ Mortal Kombat versus DC Universe, LC, V ⫽ Left 4 Dead 2, NC, NV ⫽ Marble Blast Ultra.
Left 4 Dead 2 was significantly more violent than
both Fuel, F(1, 16) ⫽ 71.73, p ⬍ .01, partial 2 ⫽
1.00 (0.00)b
1.36 (0.44)c
4.68 (1.16)a
4.57 (1.26)a
NC, NV
.82, and Marble Blast Ultra, F(1, 16) ⫽ 84.32,
p ⬍ .01, partial 2 ⫽ .84. Therefore, as predicted,
the two violent games (Mortal Kombat versus DC
Universe and Left 4 Dead 2) were equally violent,
and both were more violent than the two nonvio-
3.18 (1.67)b
6.42 (0.84)a
4.42 (1.74)a
5.11 (1.29)a
lent games (Fuel and Marble Blast Ultra). In
LC, V
Pilot Study 2 video game
addition, the two nonviolent games were both
equally nonviolent.
Follow-up analyses were then conducted to ex-
amine differences in competitiveness ratings be-
tween the four games. Fuel and Mortal Kombat
5.37 (0.90)a
6.32 (0.58)a
4.47 (1.58)a
5.42 (0.90)a
versus DC Universe were the two most competi-
C, V
tive games, and they did not differ in competitive-
ness ratings F(1, 16) ⫽ 1.45, p ⬎ .05, partial 2 ⫽
.08. Fuel was more competitive than Marble Blast
Ultra, F(1, 16) ⫽ 80.01, p ⬍ .01, partial 2 ⫽ .83,
and Left 4 Dead 2, F(1, 16) ⫽ 5.39, p ⬍ .05,
1.52 (0.70)b
5.86 (0.76)a
3.63 (1.38)a
4.74 (1.05)a
partial 2 ⫽ .25. Similarly, Mortal Kombat versus
C, NV
DC Universe was more competitive than Left 4
Dead 2, F(1, 16) ⫽ 7.12, p ⬍ .05, partial 2 ⫽
.31, and Marble Blast Ultra, F(1, 16) ⫽ 94.85,
p ⬍ .01, partial 2 ⫽ .86. Finally, Left 4 Dead 2
Competitiveness
was more competitive than Marble Blast Ultra
Game rating
Pace of action
F(1, 16) ⫽ 6.06, p ⬍ .05, partial 2 ⫽ .28.
Difficulty
Thus, we confirmed that of the four games, two
Violence
Table 2
were significantly more competitive than the other
two.VIDEO GAME COMPETITION AND VIOLENCE 269
Experiment 2 Fuel and Mortal Kombat versus DC Universe
would produce the greatest elevations in heart
The purpose of Experiment 2 was to examine rate from baseline. This finding would be con-
the effect of video game competitiveness on sistent with the suggestion that elevations in
aggressive behavior (using the Hot Sauce Par- physiological arousal may be one mechanism
adigm), as well as test whether competitiveness through which video game competitiveness
interacts with violence to influence aggression, may influence aggressive behavior. Also con-
using the four video games from Pilot Study 2. sistent with predictions regarding aggressive
Although previous research has attempted to behavior, it was unclear whether the moderately
equate video games on competitiveness (e.g., competitive, violent game Left 4 Dead 2 would
Anderson & Carnagey, 2009; Carnagey & An- produce greater increases in heart rate from
derson, 2005), this was the first experiment to baseline compared with the less competitive,
directly test the effect of video game competi- nonviolent game Marble Blast Ultra.
tion on aggressive behavior. Moreover, as pre-
viously described, video game competitiveness Method
may influence aggressive behavior through the
mechanism of physiological arousal. In order to Participants. Participants consisted of 60
further examine the relation between competi- introductory psychology students from the same
tiveness and aggressive behavior, we recorded university as in Pilot Study 2 (32 men, 28 wom-
participants’ heart rate at baseline and during en; M age ⫽ 18 years 4 months). Participants
video game play to test whether video game were randomly assigned to play one of the four
competitiveness would produce elevations in video games, and thus, each video game was
heart rate from baseline. played by 15 participants (8 men and 7 women).
Four hypotheses were tested: (1) Consistent This study was approved by the University Eth-
with research showing a relation between video ics board and all participants provided active
game competition and aggression (e.g., Ander- consent before participation. Students were re-
son & Morrow, 1995; Williams & Clippinger, cruited using the psychology participant pool
2002; Schmierbach, 2010), we expected that and earned course credit in exchange for their
there would be a significant main effect for type participation.
of game. Specifically, we hypothesized that the Materials.
highly competitive, violent video game, Mortal Demographics. See Experiment 1 for a
Kombat versus DC Universe, and the highly Description.
competitive nonviolent video game Fuel would Video games and equipment. Fuel, Left 4
produce more aggressive behavior than the less Dead 2, Marble Blast Ultra, and Mortal Kom-
competitive, violent video game Left 4 Dead 2, bat versus DC Universe were played using an
and the less competitive, nonviolent game, XBOX 360 console on a 42-inch TV screen.
Marble Blast Ultra. As the less competitive, Aggressive behavior. See Experiment 1 for
violent video game Left 4 Dead 2 was rated as a description of the paradigm.
moderately competitive in Pilot Study 2 (i.e., Ratings of the video game characteristics.
mean score ⫽ 3.18/7), it was unclear whether it See Pilot Study 2 for a description. Correlations
would produce greater levels of aggressive be- for the two competitiveness items were accept-
havior than the less competitive, nonviolent able for Fuel (r ⫽ .72), Left 4 Dead 2 (r ⫽ .59),
game Marble Blast Ultra. (2) It was predicted Marble Blast Ultra (r ⫽ .54), and Mortal Kom-
that there would be a significant main effect for bat versus DC Universe (r ⫽ .67).
gender, such that men would give more of a Food preference. See Experiment 1 for a
hotter sauce than women, consistent with the description. Consistent with Experiment 1, lik-
results of Experiment 1. However, we did not ing hot food did not account for a significant
expect to find an interaction between game and portion of the variability in the degree of hot-
gender, again consistent with the results of Ex- ness R2 ⫽ .00, F(1, 58) ⫽ 0.01, p ⬎ .05, or the
periment 1.(3) Consistent with our predictions amount of sauce R2 ⫽ .00, F(1, 58) ⫽ 0.01, p ⬎
regarding aggressive behavior, we expected a .05.
significant main effect for type of game on heart Suspiciousness. See Experiment 1 for a
rate scores. Specifically, we hypothesized that description.270 ADACHI AND WILLOUGHBY
Trait aggression. See Experiment 1 for a as more competitive than Marble Blast Ultra
description (in the current sample, ␣ ⫽ .84). and Left 4 Dead 2. Finally, Left 4 Dead 2 was
Heart rate. Electrocardiogram (ECG) re- rated as more competitive than Marble Blast
cordings were collected during a 5-min rest Ultra. Thus, ratings of the video game charac-
period at the beginning of the session (baseline), teristics in this experiment were consistent with
and throughout the video game session. ECG Pilot Study 2. Consequently, we were able to
signals were recorded from two electrodes isolate the effect of video game competitiveness
placed on the participants’ collarbone with a on aggressive behavior. In addition, we were
hardware gain of 1000. R-R (interbeat) intervals able to examine whether competitiveness and
were visually checked in the MindWare pro- violence interact to influence aggression.
gram and edited where necessary according to Aggressive behavior. A univariate
principles advocated by Berntson and Stowell ANOVA was conducted with the summation of
(1998). the standardized amount of hot sauce given and
Procedure. The procedure was identical to the standardized degree of hotness as the depen-
Experiment 1, other than participants were told dent variable, video game condition (four
that in addition to assessing their eye-gaze, their games) and gender as the independent variables,
heart rate would be monitored for 5 min at and experience with the four genres of games as
baseline as well as continuously during video the covariates. There was a main effect for
game play. game F(3, 48) ⫽ 7.04, p ⬍ .01, partial 2 ⫽ .31.
Follow-up analyses revealed that participants
Results and Discussion who played Fuel (M ⫽ .79) and Mortal Kombat
versus DC Universe (M ⫽ .90) had significantly
Suspiciousness. We originally had 65 par- higher hot sauce scores (Figure 1) than partici-
ticipants, but 5 participants indicated that they pants who played Marble Blast Ultra (M ⫽
knew the true purpose of the study or were
⫺.91) and Left 4 Dead 2 (M ⫽ ⫺.78). Hot sauce
aware of the deception and thus, their data were
scores did not differ between Fuel and Mortal
not included in the analysis (final N ⫽ 60).
Kombat versus DC Universe, or between Mar-
Experience. A repeated measures
ble Blast Ultra and Left 4 Dead 2. Although
MANOVA was conducted to examine whether
participants in the four video game conditions men (M ⫽ .31) had higher hot sauce scores than
differed in their experience with the four genres women (M ⫽ ⫺.35), this difference did not
of games. Experience with the four genres did reach significance F(3, 48) ⫽ 1.49, p ⬎ .05,
not differ between video game conditions, F(9, partial 2 ⫽ .03, and the interaction between
156) ⫽ .46, p ⬎ .05, partial 2 ⫽ .03. game and gender also was not significant, F(3,
Video game ratings. A MANOVA was 48) ⫽ .41, p ⬎ .05, partial 2 ⫽ .03.
conducted to confirm that Fuel, Left 4 Dead 2, Trait aggression. To confirm that random
Marble Blast Ultra, and Mortal Kombat versus assignment was successful in placing equally
DC Universe were equated on difficulty and aggressive participants in the four video game
pace of action, but differed on competitiveness conditions, an ANOVA was conducted with
and violence, and experience with the four trait aggression as the dependent variable, and
video game genres were included as covariates. game and gender as the independent variables.
There was a main effect for game, F(12, There were no differences in trait aggression
141) ⫽ 39.10, p ⬍ .01, partial 2 ⫽ .76. The scores among the four conditions, F(3, 52) ⫽
video games differed only on ratings of com- .06, p ⬎ .05, partial 2 ⫽ .00. Thus, the four
petitiveness, F(3, 48) ⫽ 54.02, p ⬍ .01, partial video game conditions contained equally ag-
2 ⫽ .77, and violence, F(3, 48) ⫽ 216.78, p ⬍ gressive participants.
.01, partial 2 ⫽ .93. Follow-up analyses re- Heart rate. A repeated measures
vealed that consistent with Pilot Study 2, Mortal MANOVA was conducted to examine differ-
Kombat versus DC Universe was rated as more ences in heart rate between baseline and video
competitive than Left 4 Dead 2 and Marble game play among the four video game condi-
Blast Ultra, but not significantly different than tions. Game and gender were entered as the
Fuel (see Table 2 for mean ratings of video between-subjects variables, while heart rate
game characteristics). Similarly, Fuel was rated (baseline and during video game) was enteredVIDEO GAME COMPETITION AND VIOLENCE 271
Video game
1
of the amount of hot sauce
Standardized summation
0.8
and degree of hotness
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
C, V C, NV LC, V NC, NV
Figure 1. The effect of video game condition on aggressive behavior in Experiment 4. C ⫽
competitive, NC ⫽ noncompetitive, LC ⫽ Less competitive, V ⫽ violent, NV ⫽ nonviolent,
C, V ⫽ Mortal Kombat versus DC Universe, C, NV ⫽ Fuel, LC, V ⫽ Left 4 Dead 2, NC,
NV ⫽ Marble Blast Ultra.
as the within-subjects variable. A significant competitive, highly violent game (Left 4 Dead
heart rate x video game interaction was found, 2) was not sufficient to elevate aggressive be-
F(3, 48) ⫽ 12.76, p ⬍ .01, partial 2 ⫽ .44. havior compared with a less competitive, non-
Follow-up analyses were then conducted for violent game (Marble Blast Ultra). These find-
each video game condition to see which video ings suggest that the level of competitiveness
games produced elevations in heart rate from in video games is an important factor in the
baseline (Table 3). Fuel and Mortal Kombat relation between video games and aggressive
versus DC Universe both led to significant behavior, with highly competitive games
elevations in heart rate from baseline, while leading to greater elevations in aggression
Marble Blast Ultra and Left 4 Dead 2 did than less competitive games. As expected,
not. men gave more of a hotter sauce than women,
In summary, Experiment 2 confirmed the hy- although this difference did not reach signif-
pothesis that the two most competitive games, icance. Also as expected, there was no inter-
Fuel and Mortal Kombat versus DC Universe, action between game and gender when pre-
would produce greater aggressive behavior dicting aggressive behavior. Finally, we
scores than the less competitive games, Marble found that only the two highly competitive
Blast Ultra and Left 4 Dead 2. Also as expected, games, Fuel and Mortal Kombat versus DC
Fuel and Mortal Kombat versus DC Universe Universe, elevated heart rate from baseline.
did not produce differences in aggressive be- This is consistent with the theory that physi-
havior. In addition, we found that a moderately ological arousal may be one mechanism
Table 3
Experiment 2 Baseline and Heart Rate Scores for the Four Video Games
Heart rate
Video game Baseline Game Fa Partial 2
Competitive, nonviolent 76.92 (10.18) 78.95 (11.25) 6.07ⴱ 0.32
Competitive, violent 74.89 (16.15) 86.36 (17.52) 31.00ⴱⴱ 0.71
Less competitive, violent 78.85 (11.88) 77.32 ( 8.53) 0.78 0.06
Non-competitive, nonviolent 75.81 (11.88) 76.62 (12.25) 0.72 0.05
Note. SDs are in parentheses. N ⫽ 60; Means are unadjusted. Competitive, nonviolent ⫽ Fuel; competitive, violent ⫽
Mortal Kombat versus DC Universe; less competitive, violent ⫽ Left 4 Dead 2; noncompetitive, nonviolent ⫽ Marble Blast
Ultra.
a
df ⫽ 1, 13.
ⴱ
p ⬍ .05. ⴱⴱ p ⬍ .01.272 ADACHI AND WILLOUGHBY
through which video game competitiveness lescents (e.g., 12 to 19 years) versus adults
may influence aggressive behavior. (e.g., 25 years and older), because of the hy-
pothesis that some adolescents may experience
General Discussion a temporal gap between an early maturing so-
cioemotional system (hypothesized to be a re-
The present study was the first to isolate the sult of increases in dopaminergic activity, per-
violent content in a video game by matching a haps linked to puberty, leading to increases in
violent and nonviolent game on competitive- reward seeking, need for novelty and stimula-
ness, difficulty, and pace of action (Pilot Study tion), and a slower maturing self-regulatory sys-
1). We then demonstrated that the violent con- tem (hypothesized to be led by the prefrontal
tent alone was not sufficient to elevate aggres- cortex, responsible for planning, judgment, and
sive behavior in the short-term (Experiment 1). inhibition, which may not be fully mature until
This finding suggests that the level of violence the mid 20s; Steinberg, 2010). Thus, adoles-
in video games may be less influential in ele- cents on average may be more likely to behave
vating aggression than previously believed. aggressively than adults after playing a compet-
After demonstrating that video game vio- itive video game because of their potentially
lence alone was not sufficient to elevate aggres- greater difficulty (on average) in regulating their
sive behavior, we examined the effect of video arousal than adults. Future research should
game competitiveness. The present study was compare the effect of video game competitive-
the first to isolate video game competitiveness ness on aggression between these different age
by matching two violent games, and two non- groups. Second, although this study addressed
violent games on violence, difficulty, and pace the short-term effect of video game competition
of action (Pilot Study 2). We found that video on aggressive behavior, we did not examine
game competitiveness elevated aggressive be- long-term effects. Thus, longitudinal research
havior in the short-term, regardless of the level examining the relation between video game
of violent content, as the two most competitive competition and aggression is needed. Finally,
video games, Mortal Kombat versus DC Uni- findings may not generalize to other geographic
verse (violent) and Fuel (nonviolent), produced regions, including those with differing ethnic
the greatest levels of aggressive behavior. We and/or demographic mixes.
also found that a moderately competitive game
(Left 4 Dead 2), even when paired with a high Research Implications
level of violence, was not sufficient to elevate
aggressive behavior compared with a less com- We have expanded on previous research
petitive, nonviolent game (Marble Blast Ultra). that has found a relation between violent
In terms of mechanisms, according to the GAM, video games and aggression (see Anderson et
violent video games may influence aggressive al., 2010) by demonstrating that when isolat-
behavior through aggressive thoughts, feelings, ing specific video game characteristics, com-
and physiological arousal. Consistent with the petitiveness had a much larger impact on ag-
GAM, we demonstrated that physiological gressive behavior than the violent content. At
arousal may be a mechanism through which first glance, this finding may seem to contra-
video game competitiveness influences aggres- dict past research which has found that vio-
sive behavior, as only Mortal Kombat versus lent video games produced more aggression
DC Universe and Fuel produced elevations in than nonviolent video games. However, be-
heart rate from baseline. cause past studies have failed to equate the
violent and nonviolent video games on com-
Limitations petitiveness, difficulty, and pace of action si-
multaneously, researchers may have attrib-
There were several limitations with this uted too much of the variability in aggression
study. First, the present study only used samples to the violent content. For example, since vi-
of university students. Findings, however, may olent video games are more competitive in gen-
be different for other age groups. For example, eral than nonviolent games, it was likely the
the relation between video game competitive- competition, rather than the violence, that was
ness and aggression may be different for ado- responsible for the elevations in aggression inYou can also read
