Sulfide-ore mining AND human health in Minnesota
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CLIMATE CHANGE AND HEALTH
Sulfide-ore mining AND human health
in Minnesota
WHERE ARE WE NOW?
BY JENNIFER PEARSON, MD; DEB ALLERT, MD; JOHN IPSEN, MD, PHD; MARGARET SARACINO, MD; STEVE SUTHERLAND, MD; KRIS
WEGERSON, MD; AND EMILY ONELLO, MD
F
or many years, Minnesotans have been
reading headlines regarding the pros-
pecting, permitting and potential for
sulfide-ore copper nickel (sulfide-ore)
hardrock mining in Minnesota. Although
the debate is not a new one, the landscape
surrounding decisions regarding this type
of mining within Minnesota’s borders
is dynamic and constantly changing. As
2021 was ushered in, so were new legisla-
tive and legal efforts affecting sulfide-ore
mining. Amid state and federal legislation
and lawsuits, healthcare providers in Min-
nesota have continued to stay abreast and
weigh in on the potential human health
effects of these decisions. Given the shift-
ing landscape, it is timely to understand
where we are right now and why concerns
for human health remain at the forefront
of this issue.
Background
The Duluth Complex, a geological forma-
tion in northeastern Minnesota, contains
metals that are sought for many modern-
day uses, including copper, nickel and
platinum group metals. These metals are
naturally bound to sulfides in the ore body
and millions of tons of rock are excavated
to obtain a fractional amount of the de-
sired product. At both the mine site and in
tailings and waste rock piles, exposure of
this excavated ore to air and water triggers
a chemical reaction that causes the sulfides
to oxidize; this reaction creating sulfuric
MARCH/APRIL 2022 | MINNESOTA MEDICINE | 33
CLIMATE CHANGE AND HEALTH acid, sulfate and toxic metals—acid mine children and so contribute to the rise of elevated blood lead levels, an alarming drainage—that then leaches into surface neurodevelopmental disabilities including statistic given that there are no safe levels and ground water. autism, attention-hyperactivity disorder of lead. Many Minnesota physicians have Proponents of sulfide-ore mining argue dyslexia and other cognitive impairments voiced concern about adding to this exist- that we need these metals in our lives and that affect millions of children worldwide. ing toxic metal burden. that they can be extracted safely within The medical literature has produced ex- Given the geology and chemistry in- the state regulatory guidelines. Opponents panding scientific evidence that connects volved with sulfide ore and the sulfide of sulfide-ore question whether industry environmental heavy-metal toxins with mineral oxidation that occurs as part of can extract these metals safely without harmful human health effects. the sulfide-ore mining process, leaching irreversible harm to the surrounding These concerns add to problems that of sulfate and toxic metals from mine ore ecosystem and beyond, particularly in already exist in Minnesota; a 2011 Minne- and waste rock will continue for centuries. water-rich environments. They argue that sota Department of Health study showed Sulfate and toxic metals will inevitably some places are too valuable to expose to that 10% of newborns in the Minnesota make their way into surrounding water, the risks of sulfide-ore mining within the portion of the Lake Superior basin had soil, fish, birds and mammals, increasing same watershed. Many advocate for recy- elevated blood-mercury levels, with some the already existing toxic burden. Threats cling metals that have already been mined, exceeding the EPA toxic level. The Journal to fresh water from sulfide-ore mining which would consume less fossil fuel en- of Pediatrics reported that 10.3% of Min- could have devastating effects on our ergy, have less climate impact and not put nesota children under 6 years of age had region. The example of Mount Polley’s water resources at risk. Given the inextricable connection be- tween ecosystem health, animal health and human health articulated by the One Health movement, and the toxic track record of sulfide-ore mining elsewhere, concern for human health must be part of the public dialogue. The World Health Organization has concluded that environ- mental risks account for a large fraction of the global disease burden. Across the total population, 23% of all deaths worldwide are attributable to the environment, with greatest adverse effects to those younger than 5 years or older than 50. The WHO also lists 10 environmental toxins with the greatest concern to human health, and sulfide-ore mining has the potential to re- lease six of these including mercury, lead, arsenic, cadmium, asbestos and particu- late air pollution. Sulfide-ore mining also releases sulfates that promote methylation of elemental mercury already present in wetlands and sediments. These sulfates interact with sulfate-reducing bacteria to produce the more bio-toxic form of mercury, methyl- mercury, a known neurodevelopmental toxin. Methylmercury and other released toxins (e.g., lead and arsenic) all have known harmful effects to human health, including neurodevelopmental disor- ders, cancers and heart and lung disease. Some of these toxins injure the develop- ing brains of fetuses, infants and young 34 | MINNESOTA MEDICINE | MARCH/APRIL 2022
CLIMATE CHANGE AND HEALTH
catastrophic tailings dam failure in British Physicians, Minnesota Nurses Association, Gulf of Mexico or the Atlantic Ocean. This
Columbia serves as a sobering example Minnesota Public Health Organization geographical feature divides the Rainy
of that reality. The U.S. Government Ac- along with dozens of individual providers, River watershed toward the north and the
countability Office produced a report in and non-profit groups with ties to human Lake Superior watershed toward the south,
March 2020 that found that the Forest health all submitted letters in response although groundwater does not always
Service, Bureau of Land Management, Na- to the Environmental Impact Statement reflect surface flow. There are substantial
tional Park Service, Environmental Protec- prepared for Minnesota’s first proposed risks and efforts to mitigate the potential
tion Agency and Interior’s office of Surface sulfide-ore mine. The consensus of these toxic effects of sulfide-ore mining in wa-
Mining Reclamation and Enforcement groups representing tens of thousands of tersheds on both sides of the Divide.
spent, on average, about $287 million an- healthcare professionals was that a com- Northern Minnesota encompasses the
nually to address physical safety and envi- prehensive Health Risk Assessment and federally designated Boundary Waters
ronmental hazards at abandoned hardrock Health Impact Assessment should be man- Canoe Area Wilderness (BWCAW), Voya-
mines from fiscal years 2008 through dated as part of an Environmental Impact geurs National Park, the Superior National
2017, for a total of about $2.9 billion. Bil- Statement necessary for decisions regard- Forest and shared border-waters with
lions more are estimated for future costs of ing sulfide-ore mining. The Minnesota Canada. Because of this, there are several
ongoing cleanup. Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP), federal laws that pertain to the protection
The environmental review process the largest medical specialty organization of this region. Current mining propos-
for sulfide-ore mining projects has been in Minnesota, passed a resolution that was als for north of the Laurentian Divide are
shown to fail repeatedly. The definitive brought to the Minnesota Environmental primarily to mine federal minerals that are
study, “Comparisons of Predicted and Ac- Quality Board as a petition for rulemaking governed by the Federal Land Policy and
tual Water Quality at Hardrock Mines: The to require that a Health Impact Assess- Management Act. In watersheds south of
Reliability of Predictions in Environmental ment be completed for all future sulfide- the Laurentian Divide, mining proposals
Impact Statements,” looked at Environ- ore mining projects in Minnesota. This primarily involve Minnesota state-owned
mental Impact Statements conducted on petition has not yet been voted on by the minerals and surface lands that may be
proposed mining projects and found they Minnesota Environmental Quality Board. owned by the federal or state govern-
consistently failed to predict the ground- In 2019, the American Academy of ment or by private parties. Mining of
water and surface-water contamination Family Physicians adopted “Health in state-owned minerals is governed by state
created by the mines. The factor most All Policies.” This collaborative approach regulatory provisions, and the primary
closely associated with mine pollution aimed to improve the health of all people constraint is the degree to which these
failures is proximity to groundwater and by incorporating health considerations state regulations are or are not protective
to surface water. Earthworks studied 14 into decision-making across all sectors and or enforced.
copper mines that had been in operation policy areas. The AAFP supported the rec- Sulfide-ore mines proposed in either
for more than five years, representing 89% ommendation that Health in All Policies the Rainy River Basin and/or the Lake
of the United States copper production in can be best accomplished by using Health Superior Basin would be located in Tribal
2010. Pipeline spills or other accidental Impact Assessments in the federal review Ceded Territories. Under the Treaty of
releases were seen in 100% of these mines, of environmental impact statements and 1854, when the Lake Superior bands of
with water collection and treatment sys- environmental assessments. For years now, Chippewa ceded lands to the United States
tem failures resulting in water impairment Minnesota’s collective medical voice, along government, they retained usufructu-
and acid mine drainage (AMD) occurring with those of physicians from across the ary rights to hunt, fish and gather plants
in 92%. The author concluded that these country, have been asking for a regulatory throughout this land. Sulfide-ore min-
findings occurred within mines in the arid process that engages sound and indepen- ing likely would contaminate tribal food
Southwest; significantly worse impacts can dent scientific evaluation of a toxic indus- sources and so create potential abrogation
be expected at mines in wetter climates. try such as sulfide-ore mining. of treaty rights.
The voices of healthcare The Laurentian Divide: Recognizing North of the Laurentian Divide
professionals risks on both sides Twin Metals Mining Company, a wholly
Because of the likelihood of harmful ef- The Laurentian divide runs through owned subsidiary of the large Chilean-
fects to human health, many healthcare northern Minnesota and serves as a based conglomerate Antofagasta, has
professionals have individually and collec- geographic boundary between surface prospected and developed a plan of opera-
tively voiced concern in relation to sulfide- watersheds. Simplistically, surface water tions for mining public lands and miner-
ore mining within Minnesota’s water-rich north of the Laurentian eventually makes als in a portion of the Superior National
borders. The Minnesota Medical Asso- its way to Hudson Bay and water south of Forest within the Rainy River Watershed
ciation, Minnesota Academy of Family the Laurentian eventually flows into the and in the headwaters of the BWCAW.
MARCH/APRIL 2022 | MINNESOTA MEDICINE | 35CLIMATE CHANGE AND HEALTH
Mining operations would cause acid mine • Revise Minnesota’s nonferrous mining on the adequacy of the state mining rules
drainage, toxic metal-rich runoff that rules to ban sulfide-ore mining in the will be delivered to the state district court
would flow directly into the heart of the watershed of the BWCAW. In addition, overseeing the challenge by September
BWCAW and into the border waters be- efforts are being made to utilize sound 2022. If the rules are deemed inadequate,
tween the United States and Canada. Tom science for scrutiny of a proposed mine state rulemaking to amend the nonferrous
Myers, PhD, an environmental hydrologist plan. mining rules will begin.
studying the surface and groundwater flow In October 2021, the Biden Administra-
through the Rainy River watershed near tion announced that it was re-starting a South of the Laurentian Divide
the current proposed mining site stated: process that could lead to a 20-year ban In February 2005, the PolyMet company,
“If mineral deposits in the Rainy Headwa- on new mining activity. The United States now majority controlled by the Swiss min-
ters are developed, it is not a question of Forest Service filed an application for ing giant Glencore, submitted a proposal
whether, but when a leak will occur that mineral withdrawal of 225,378 acres of Su- to the DNR for Minnesota’s first proposed
will have major impacts on the water qual- perior National Forest lands and minerals copper-nickel sulfide-ore mine; the North-
ity of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area with the Bureau of Land Management. A Met Project. The proposed mining opera-
Wilderness.” This impact would also then 90-day public comment period followed, tion would create an open pit sulfide-ore
flow north into Canadian waters. with comments being considered in addi- mine located between Babbitt and Hoyt
The BWCAW is a national treasure. It tion to further study by the Forest Service Lakes in northeastern Minnesota, posi-
is the most frequently visited wilderness of the potential environmental and socio- tioned at the headwaters of the St. Louis
in the United States and is a unique fresh- economic impacts of sulfide-ore mining River, the largest United States tributary
water ecosystem. Along with the Superior in the area. Once complete, Interior Secre- to Lake Superior. Acid mine drainage and
National Forest, this region contains 20% tary Deb Haaland could direct an admin- pollution from mine pits and waste storage
of all the freshwater in the entire National istrative ban on sulfide-ore mining for up would eventually flow into Lake Superior,
Forest System. Wilderness experiences for to 20 years. northern Minnesota’s Great Lake, hold-
users from all backgrounds provide an im- In January 2020, Minnesota U.S. Con- ing 10% of the world’s surface fresh water.
measurable source of physical, emotional gresswoman Betty McCollum introduced There is also potential for some flow north
and spiritual well-being. This region also The Boundary Waters Wilderness Protec- to the Rainy River watershed.
provides critical habitat to wildlife as well tion and Pollution Prevention Act, which Proposed mining operations would
as a local and regional economy that relies permanently bans sulfide-ore mining on blast and excavate more than 500 million
on the preservation of a pristine wilder- Superior National Forest lands located tons of waste rock and ore from the earth
ness. Proponents of this mine argue that in the watershed of the Boundary Waters over 20 years, the proposed mine opera-
it will provide economic stimulus to the Canoe Area Wilderness. This bill was tion duration. The waste tailings would be
region. A 2020 analysis by Harvard Uni- reintroduced in April 2021. If recently stored on top of an existing and unlined
versity economists, however, concluded canceled federal mineral leases hold up pile of old tailings from a shuttered iron
that “introducing mining in the Superior against any litigative appeals by Twin Met- mine. Tailings exposed to rain, snow and
National Forest is very likely to have a als, an administrative mineral withdrawal oxygen would trigger the geochemical
negative effect on the regional economy.” under the Federal Land Policy and Man- process for acid mine drainage contain-
In response to the threat that opponents agement Act and passage of McCollum’s ing sulfuric acid along with heavy metal
perceive sulfide-ore mining poses to this bill by Congress would protect all federal toxins. Drainage seeping into surface and
irreplaceable wilderness, several lawsuits lands and minerals in the Boundary Wa- ground water could flow through natural
and legislative efforts are underway. If ters watershed. habitats and vital communities including
successful, these efforts would ultimately In 2021, the companion Boundary the reservation lands of the Fond du Lac
aim to: Waters Permanent Protection bills were Band of Lake Superior Chippewa as well
• Terminate two current federal mineral introduced in the Minnesota Legislature; the City of Duluth and multiple adjacent
leases that were reinstated in 2018 and they would ban sulfide-ore on state-owned communities.
cover nearly 5,000 acres; the Biden ad- land in the watershed of the BWCAW and The NorthMet Project environmental
ministration announced cancellation of prohibit the issuance of mining permits review process that began in 2005 was
these leases in January 2022. throughout the watershed. As a result of lengthy and controversial. Despite mul-
• Impose an administrative federal min- a state lawsuit challenging the adequacy tiple comments from healthcare organi-
eral withdrawal under the Federal Land of Minnesota’s nonferrous mining rules zations and individuals requesting that
Policy and Management Act. to protect the BWCAW from sulfide-ore a Health Risk Assessment and a Health
• Pass permanent protection bills in Con- mining, the Minnesota Department of Impact Assessment be mandated as part of
gress and in the Minnesota Legislature. Natural Resources recently provided a 30- this process, neither was included. Since
day comment period. The DNR’s decision November 2018, when the first Minnesota
36 | MINNESOTA MEDICINE | MARCH/APRIL 2022CLIMATE CHANGE AND HEALTH
Department of Natural Resources permit In response to the mounting concerns providers have expressed the need for in-
was granted, PolyMet has procured ad- about the risks of sulfide-ore mining in dependent scientific scrutiny regarding:
ditional permits from the Minnesota Pol- Minnesota, members of both the Minne- • Direct toxic effects resulting from acid
lution Control Agency, and the U.S. Army sota House and Senate introduced “Prove mine drainage to:
Corps of Engineers. Many concerns for It First” legislation in January 2021. If – Those living in downstream commu-
safety, process, compliance and validity passed into law, it would require that the nities.
of the permits have persisted, resulting in Minnesota Pollution Control Agency and – Fetuses, infants and children most
legal challenges that have embroiled the the Minnesota Department of Natural Re- vulnerable to toxic methylmercury,
courts. Legal decisions to date have not sources to affirm that a similar mine had lead and arsenic effects.
upheld the NorthMet permits. The Envi- successfully operated and closed without – Low-income and tribal communities
ronmental Protection Agency Office of environmental contamination for 10 years that rely on hunting, fishing and wild
Inspector General has found that the EPA rice gathering for subsistence.
failed to follow its standard procedures in – People experiencing the BWCAW and
oversight of the NorthMet water pollution surrounding wilderness who drink un-
permit. A district court also found that Given THE geology and chemistry filtered water straight out of the lakes.
the MPCA’s grant of the NorthMet water • Additional health risks, including air-
pollution permit was subject to “irregu-
involved with sulfide-ore AND THE borne and noise pollution resulting
larities of procedure,” including destruc- sulfide mineral oxidation that occurs from mining activities that would affect
tion of communications with the EPA. In the surrounding regions.
April 2021, Minnesota’s Supreme Court
as part OF THE sulfide-ore mining • Broader long-term impacts to the social
upheld the Court of Appeals’ decision and process, leaching of sulfate AND toxic determinants of health of the region,
reversed the critical permit to mine due to including:
its indefinite term and the lack of substan- metals from mine ore AND waste rock – Interference with the exercise of usu-
tial evidence supporting its plan to control will continue FOR centuries. Sulfate fructuary rights for the Lake Superior
acid mine drainage during closure. At the Bands of Chippewa, guaranteed by the
time of this writing, the NorthMet Project AND toxic metals will inevitably make Treaty of 1854, with resulting adverse
remains highly controversial and is still on
hold as litigation continues.
their way INTO surrounding water, soil, impacts of economic, social, cultural
and spiritual well-being.
The Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior fish, birds AND mammals, increasing – The overall climate impacts of these
Chippewa (tribal lands shown on page
THE already existing toxic burden. heavily fossil fuel-dependent min-
34) proceeded with its own Health Impact ing operations and the destruction of
Assessment for the NorthMet Project in Threats TO fresh water FROM sulfide- thousands of acres of wetlands that
an effort to determine how the loss of lake-
harvested wild rice (manoomin) would
ore mining could have devastating sequester carbon.
– The cost of potential loss of the pristine
impact the mental, physical, spiritual and effects ON OUR region. wilderness that serves as a source of
economic health of tribal members. Natu- mental and spiritual health for individ-
rally occurring stands of manoomin are uals from across our state and nation.
threatened by a host of environmental per- before any sulfide-ore mining permit on – The cost of potential erosion of the
turbations, including the sulfate-contain- Minnesota soil was granted. At the time pristine wilderness that has sustained
ing discharges from current and proposed of this writing, the legislation does not an outdoor recreation industry in
mining operations. Such sulfate discharges have bipartisan support. It does, however, Minnesota that contributes to a stable
are detrimental to the growth and vitality reflect an expanding skepticism given the tax base, jobs in a range of sectors and
of wild rice. This first-of-its-kind Health track record of environmental impact of the retention of talent and wealth in
Impact Assessment concluded that the sulfide-ore mines elsewhere and the seri- Minnesota.
persistent health disparities for tribal com- ous concerns regarding human and eco- – The cost of healthcare, special educa-
munities in Minnesota are directly related logical health. tion and loss of productivity resulting
to the involuntary loss of traditional lands, from potential human health impair-
subsequent disruption of traditional life- Overall health concerns ments from toxic acid mine drainage.
ways and the loss of traditional, health- Given the toxic nature of sulfide-ore min- – The cost of ecosystem damage to the
sustaining foods such as manoomin. ing, and in an effort to include human St. Louis River headwaters, the St.
Access to sustainable stands of wild rice is health concerns within the broader regu- Louis River and its estuary and the
critical for tribal health. latory and litigative debates, healthcare freshwater of Lake Superior.
MARCH/APRIL 2022 | MINNESOTA MEDICINE | 37CLIMATE CHANGE AND HEALTH
–T he cost and capability of increas- that allow state pollution regulators to human health in all policies and to fulfill
ing mental health providers to meet help protect drinking water, people, riv- our oath to “first, do no harm.” The health
increasing needs in a region that cur- ers, streams and wildlife. of future generations is at stake. MM
rently has an inadequate number of • Substantial financial support for pro-
Jennifer Pearson, MD, and Emily Onello, MD, are
mental health professionals and facili- grams that promote metal recycling and faculty, University of Minnesota Medical School
ties to meet even the current needs. reuse rather than furthering the toxic Duluth campus. Deb Allert, MD, is a retired family
medicine physician who practiced in Two Harbors
Healthcare professionals concerned sulfide-ore extractive industry in water- for many years. Margaret Saracino, MD, and
about potential harmful effects to human rich regions such as Minnesota. Steve Sutherland, MD, are child and adolescent
health from sulfide-ore mining on both • Needed economic stimulus to northern
psychiatrists in Duluth. Kris Wegerson, MD, and
John Ipsen, MD, PhD, practiced family medicine
sides of the Laurentian Divide have voiced Minnesota in ways that are not primar- for over 20 years in Duluth. Wegerson now
practices in Hayward, Wisconsin; Ipsen is retired.
ongoing need for: ily dependent on mining.
• Upholding the mandate of the National The views in this article are the opinions of the
Environmental Policy Act by ensur- What is needed now? authors; they are not intended to represent the
view of their employers.
ing that human health effects are ad- We recognize that the siloed thinking
dressed. This would be accomplished by of past decades reveals an inexplicable ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
completing broadly scoped and scien- connectedness between industry and The authors would like to thank Patrick Bright for
his cartography assistance and expertise.
tifically robust Health Risk Assessments ecological and human health, which must
and Health Impact Assessments for be addressed and reoriented. Minnesota FOR MORE INFORMATION
toxic industries such as sulfide-ore min- contains and borders on a substantial Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Health
Impact Assessment. Expanding the Narrative of Tribal
ing anywhere within our U.S. borders, portion of the world’s fresh water. This Health: The Effects of Wild Rice Water Quality Rule
so that science is used to scrutinize po- geographic reality, amid an expanding Changes on Tribal Health. Published online October
2018. Accessed July 12, 2021. http://www.fdlrez.com/RM/
tential harmful effects to human health crisis for adequate fresh water in multiple downloads/WQSHIA.pdf
and the environment before irreversible places around the planet, requires that we Gestring B. U.S. Copper Porphyry Mines: The Track Record
damage is incurred. scrutinize the long-term risks and costs of of Water Quality Impacts Resulting from Pipeline Spills,
Tailings Failures and Water Collection and Treatment
• A Federal Land Policy and Management damaging this life-sustaining resource in Failures. EARTHWORKS; 2012. https://earthworks.org/
cms/assets/uploads/archive/files/publications/Porphyry_
Act administrative mineral withdrawal an effort to extract sulfide-ore, especially Copper_Mines_Track_Record_-_8-2012.pdf
of 225,378 acres of Superior National given the potential to adversely affect Grandjean P, Landrigan PJ. Neurobehavioural effects of
Forest lands from the federal mining human health. As healthcare professionals, developmental toxicity. Lancet Neurol. 2014;13(3):330-
338. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(13)70278-3
program in the BWCAW watershed. we operate daily with a risk and benefit
Kuipers JR, Maest AS, MacHardy KA, Lawson G.
• Legislation pending in Congress that lens through which we care for patients. Comparison of Predicted and Actual Water Quality
at Hardrock Mines: The Reliability of Predictions in
would permanently ban sulfide-ore For many of us, weighing in on industry Environmental Impact Statements. EARTHWORKS; 2006.
mining on federal public lands in the has not historically been part of our daily https://earthworks.org/cms/assets/uploads/archive/files/
publications/ComparisonsReportFinal.pdf
watershed of the BWCAW. work. Yet, within our interconnected
• Legislation pending in the Minnesota world, the broader public health impacts
Myers T. Twin Metals Mining and the Boundary Waters
Canoe Area Wilderness, Risk Assessment for Underground
Legislature that would permanently ban of certain types of toxic industry on our Metals Mining.; 2014. https://www.savetheboundarywa-
ters.org/sites/default/files/attachments/myers_2014_-_
sulfide-ore mining on state public lands patients and broader communities, includ- final_flow_transport_analysis_tm080914_-_risks_to_
in the watershed of the BWCAW and ing our Indigenous communities, have bwcaw.pdf
Onello E, Allert D, Bauer S, et al. Sulfide mining and
would prohibit the issuance of mining become more and more apparent. human health in Minnesota. Minn Med. 2016;(November/
permits in the BWCAW watershed. The challenge for healthcare profes- December):51-55.
• Revisions of Minnesota’s nonferrous sionals thus becomes: How do we effec- Pearson J, Ipsen J, Sutherland S, Wegerson K, Onello E.
Risks and costs to human health of sulfide-ore mining
mining rules to prohibit the siting of tively advocate for policies and a regula- near the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness. Hum
Ecol Risk Assess Int J. 2020;26(5):1329-1340. doi:10.1080/1
sulfide-ore mining in the watershed of tory process that prioritize human health,
0807039.2019.1576026
the Boundary Waters. and how do we support new alternatives Stock JH, Bradt JT. Analysis of proposed 20-year mineral
• “Prove It First” legislation in the Minne- to risky toxic industries, thereby strength- leasing withdrawal in Superior National Forest. Ecol Econ.
2020;174:106663. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2020.106663
sota House and Senate that would pre- ening economic security without trad-
United States Government Accountability Office.
vent sulfide-ore mining unless it can be ing this security for long term risks and Abandoned Hardrock Mines: Information on Number
of Mines, Expenditures, and Factors That Limit Efforts
proved that a similar mine operated and costs to future generations? As healthcare to Address Hazards- Report to the Ranking Member,
closed for 10 years without pollution. professionals, we are drawn to serve our Subcommittee on Interior, Environment, and Related
• Opposition to mining that adversely patients and communities by promoting Agencies, Committee on Appropriations, U.S. Senate.;
2020. https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-20-238
impacts treaty rights and downstream their health and well-being. The ultimate World Health Organization. Ten chemicals of major public
communities, including reservations. challenge is to raise our collective voices health concern. Published 2020. Accessed January 22,
• Reverse of recent rollbacks to the Clean
2022. https://www.who.int/news-room/photo-story/pho-
beyond the various clinic and hospital to-story-detail/10-chemicals-of-public-health-concern
Water Act by reinstating protections walls within which we work to promote
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