Risk Management and Challenges of Climate Change in Nigeria
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© Kamla-Raj 2013 J Hum Ecol, 41(3): 221-235 (2013)
Risk Management and Challenges of Climate Change in Nigeria
Ann Ogbo1, Ndubuisi Ebele Lauretta2 and Wilfred Ukpere3
Department of Management, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus, Nigeria
E-mail: 1 2
3
Department of Industrial Psychology & People Management, Faculty of Management,
University of Johannesburg, South Africa
E-mail: wiukpere@uj.ac.za
KEYWORDS Disaster. Global Environment. Greenhouse. Sustainable Development. Temperatures
ABSTRACT The world’s climate is changing and will continue to change in the coming century at rates projected
to be unprecedented in recent human history. The risks associated with these changes are real but highly uncertain.
Societal vulnerability to the risks associated with climate change may exacerbate ongoing social and economic
challenges, particularly for those parts of society dependent on resources that are sensitive to cha nges in climate.
The main thrust of this paper is on the risk management and challenges of climate change in Nigeria. It reviews the
incidence of climatic change in Nigeria, the vulnerability of Nigeria as a nation to climate change, and the
consequences of climate change in Nigeria. The research design approach adopted in this work is the survey
research technique. The findings provided the following insights: first, that industrial releases, deforestation,
improper sewage disposals are human activities responsible for climate change; secondly, that flooding, drought,
erosion, make up the challenges resulting from climate change, and lastly that government/agencies in charge do
not really help to reduce the risk associated with climate change in Nigeria. Based on findings obtained , it can be
concluded that bush burning, over grazing, gas flaring, CO 2 are responsible for Nigeria climate change while creation
of environmental/climate refugees, threats to the future of children, reduction in economic growth, increases in
diseases, immediate setback on agriculture, loss of biodiversity are some of the challenges as a result of change in
climate. Essentially, Nigerian Government should provide solutions to manage the associated risk with climate
change in Nigeria like, afforestation programme, good policies, development of biotechnology, integrated climate
risk management, and technology that can capture at least 80% of carbon emitted by industries.
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND and nitrous oxide (N2O) into the atmosphere.
These GHGs are the primary causes of global
Climate change refers to any change in cli- warming. The global increases in CO2 concen-
mate overtime, whether due to natural variabili- tration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and
ty or as a result of human activity (McCarthy land use change, while those of CH4 and N2O are
2001: 2). It can also be seen as: “a change of primarily due to agriculture. There is no doubt
climate which is attributed directly or indirectly therefore that the earth is getting warmer and
to human activity that alters the composition of human beings are mainly to be blamed (Spore
the global atmosphere and which is in addition 2008: 43). With reference to sub-Saharan Africa,
to natural climate variability observed over com- there is growing interest on the likely impacts of
parable time periods (Parry 2007: 9). climate change on agriculture, economic growth
Climate change has become a global issue in and sustainable development. Incidences of cli-
recent times manifesting in variations of differ- mate change include changes in soil moisture,
ent climate parameters including cloud cover, soil quality, crop resilience, timing/length of grow-
precipitation, temperature ranges, sea levels and ing seasons, yield of crops and animals, atmo-
vapour pressure (Ministry of Environment of spheric temperatures, weed insurgence, flood-
the Federal Republic of Nigeria (MoEFRN) 2003: ing, unprecedented droughts, sea level rises and
43). The variations in climate parameters affect many more. There are projections of increases
different sectors of the economy such as agri- in rainfall in the humid regions of southern Ni-
culture, health, water resources, energy etc. The geria, which are accompanied by increases in
main cause of climate change has been attribut- cloudiness and rainfall intensity particularly
ed to anthropogenic (human) activities. For ex- during severe storms. Similarly, the savannah
ample, the increased industrialization in the de- areas of northern Nigeria were projected to ex-
veloped nations has led to the introduction of perience less rainfall, which coupled with tem-
large quantities of greenhouse gases (GHGs), perature increases, reduces soil moisture avail-
including carbon (IV) oxide (CO2), methane (CH4) ability. Increased temperatures and accompany-222 ANN OGBO, NDUBUISI EBELE LAURETTA AND WILFRED UKPERE
ing decrease in water availability reduce the human agency. While the adverse impacts of
length of growing seasons and yield potential climate change on society may increase disaster
and hence the areas suitable for agriculture, fur- risk, disasters themselves erode environmental
ther adversely affecting food security over the and social resilience, and thus increase vulnera-
continent (Thornton et al. 2006: 23-27). It is now bility to climate change (O’Brien et al. 2008: 3).
clear that most adverse climatic and environ- Climate change – and the likely increase in di-
mental impacts that occur today are manifesta- sasters – threatens to block pathways out of
tions of man’s inadvertent modifications to cli- poverty in developing countries especially those
mate on local and to a limited extent, regional in Africa. Any increase in disasters, whether large
scale in some activities of the distant past. Nat- or small, will threaten development gains and
ural and human induced global environmental hinder the implementation of the Millennium
change belongs to the class of risk with high Development Goals (ISDR 2008: 55). In the com-
probability of occurrence and damage potential ing decades, climate change is expected to exac-
but in such a remote future that for the time be- erbate the risks of disasters, not only from more
ing no one is willing to perceive the threat. Al- frequent and intense hazard events but also
though the probability of occurrence and the through greater vulnerability to the existing haz-
damage potential are well known and clear, there ards (ISDR 2008: 59). Approaches toward the
is always a time lag between trigger and conse- management of climate change impacts have to
quence which create a fallacious impression of consider the reduction of human vulnerability
security. Most disasters (including flood, under changing levels of risk. A key challenge
droughts, desertification, land degradation, sub- and opportunity therefore lies in building a bridge
sidence, etc.) are not random events without between current disaster risk management ef-
underlying causes; they are sudden manifesta- forts aimed at reducing vulnerabilities to extreme
tions of slow but continuous degradation pro- events and efforts to promote climate change
cesses (UNEP-GRID-Arendal 2005: 3). adaptation (Olorunfemi 2008; Few et al. 2006).
Broad scientific agreement now exists that The long term horizon of climate change and
continued accumulation of heat-trapping current scientific uncertainties pose special chal-
“greenhouse” gases in the atmosphere is con- lenges. Strategies that address challenges rec-
tributing to changes in the global climate, and in ognise that there is no best solution. In this
the climates of regions around the world (Cros- sense, climate change provides new incentives
son 1997: 1-3). An analysis of temperature for the need to plan ahead and to anticipate ex-
records shows that the earth has warmed an treme events and trends (Zevenbergen et al.
average of 0.60C over the past 100 years (Envi- 2008: 23). Within the context of extreme weather
ronment Canada 2008: 1). The warming is real events especially flooding, this means that man-
and significant though its intensity has varied agement strategies must meet the present needs
from decade to decade, from region to region while providing a path of adjustment for the fu-
and from season to season, and been mainly ture.
caused by greenhouse gases (Crosson 1997: 1- Nigeria, like many other countries, is exposed
3). There is a growing consensus in the scientif- to climate change-induced dangers of desertifi-
ic literature that over the coming decades, high- cation, erosion, flooding and other ecological
er temperatures and changing precipitation lev- problems. Considering the strong nexus between
els caused by climate change will be unfavour- climate change and development, Nigeria is high-
able for crop growth and yield in many regions ly at risk in the area of food and nutrition, pover-
and countries (Yesuf et al. 2008: 12). To what ty and hunger reduction, and most importantly,
extent this will be the case in Nigeria particularly economic development. Consequently, Nigeria’s
in the southeast rainforest zone where both tem- efforts and actions must be informed by these
perature and precipitation approach extremes has realities.
not received much research interest. Disaster
risk and climate change are two threats to hu- Research Problem
man well-being that reinforce each other. Hence,
they represent some of the greatest challenges The study, therefore, seeks to ascertain the
to humankind in this century. Disaster risk is an extent to which climate change has affected Ni-
intrinsic characteristic of human society, arising geria and the possible risk management strate-
from the combination of natural and human fac- gies adopted to manage the challenges associ-
tors and subject to exacerbation or reduction by ated with the changes in climate. Despite thatRISK MANAGEMENT AND CHALLENGES OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN NIGERIA 223
there is favourable climate, yet there are some Nigerian environment could be managed to an
challenges that Nigeria is facing as a result of acceptable level.
climate change. Among those problems are: In order to achieve this, the research attempts
Persistent droughts, flooding, and off-sea- to achieve the following key specific objectives:-
son rains have sent growing season out of To identify whether deforestation, indus-
orbit on a country dependent on rain-fed trial releases, improper sewage disposals
agriculture. are some of the major factors that are re-
Alarm bells are ringing with lakes drying up, sponsible for climate change in Nigeria.
increased risk of death, hunger, migration To identify the various challenges such as
and a reduction in river flow in the different flooding, drought, erosion, sea level rise
parts of the country resulting in low water and effects that climate change poses on
supplies for use in agriculture, hydro power the country.
generation and other users. To proffer solutions/ways to manage the
Increase in greenhouse gasses such as car-
bon dioxide and other gases which is prob- associated risks of climate change in Nige-
lem to human existence. ria.
More than 100,000 farming families move
southwards as a result of the desertification Theoretical Foundation
which is the resultant effect of climate
change in the country. Climate change is a global problem that re-
Increasing incidence of disease, declining quires global solutions and is also one of the
agricultural productivity, and rising number most important issues on the global political
of heat waves in Nigeria. agenda, with a series of efforts to find solutions
Climate change often appears very esoteric through international negotiations. Climate
but in Nigeria it is real and this call for scientific change has become a global issue in recent times
study of this kind. Therefore, this research work manifesting in variations of different climate pa-
will endeavour to examine those areas responsi- rameters including cloud cover, precipitation,
ble for climate change, the challenges and pos- temperature ranges, sea levels and vapour pres-
sible risk management strategies to finding so- sure (Ministry of Environment of the Federal
lutions to the changes. Republic of Nigeria (MoEFRN) 2003: 43). The
variations in climate parameters affect different
Research Questions sectors of the economy such as agriculture,
health, water resources, energy etc. The main
Given the statement of problem outlined cause of climate change has been attributed to
above, it becomes necessary to ask the follow- anthropogenic (human) activities. For example,
ing questions. the increased industrialization in the developed
To what extent has deforestation, industri- nations has led to the introduction of large quan-
al releases, improper sewage disposals as tities of greenhouse gases (GHGs), including
a result of human activities been responsi- carbon (IV) oxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and ni-
ble for climatic changes in Nigeria.
Does flooding, drought, erosion, tropical trous oxide (N2O) into the atmosphere. These
storm, sea level rises pose the challenges/ GHGs are the primary causes of global warming.
threatening results of climate change in The global increases in CO2 concentration are
Nigeria as a country. due primarily to fossil fuel use and land use
Do Government/Agencies efforts help to change, while those of CH4 and N2O are primari-
reduce the risks associated with climate ly due to agriculture. There is no doubt there-
change and are there solutions proffered fore that the earth is getting warmer and human
by them to manage the associated risks of beings are mainly to be blamed (Spore 2008: 4).
climate change in Nigeria. With reference to sub-Saharan Africa, there is
growing interest on the likely impacts of climate
Research Objectives change on agriculture, economic growth and
sustainable development. The world has risen
The broad objective of the research is to to the challenge and has started to put in place
identify ways and means by which climate legal and institutional mechanisms and measures
change in Nigeria and its risk/challenges in the to collectively tackle the issues of climate224 ANN OGBO, NDUBUISI EBELE LAURETTA AND WILFRED UKPERE
change. The most prominent of these are the quent and intense hazard events but also
United Nations Framework Convention on Cli- through greater vulnerability to the existing haz-
mate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Proto- ards (ISDR 2008: 59). Approaches toward the
col. But since it is also a local phenomenon, in- management of climate change impacts have to
terventions to cope with climate change impacts consider the reduction of human vulnerability
require the engagement of stakeholders at na- under changing levels of risk. A key challenge
tional and local levels. Adaptation requires the and opportunity therefore lies in building a bridge
active involvement of different actors and re- between current disaster risk management ef-
sponses at multiple levels. forts aimed at reducing vulnerabilities to extreme
Broad scientific agreement now exists that events and efforts to promote climate change
continued accumulation of heat-trapping adaptation (Olorunfemi 2008; Few et al. 2006).
“greenhouse” gases in the atmosphere is con- The long term horizon of climate change and
tributing to changes in the global climate, and in current scientific uncertainties pose special chal-
the climates of regions around the world (Cros- lenges. Strategies that address challenges rec-
son 1997: 1-3). An analysis of temperature ognise that there is no best solution. In this
records shows that the earth has warmed an sense, climate change provides new incentives
average of 0.60C over the past 100 years (Envi- for the need to plan ahead and to anticipate ex-
ronment Canada 2008: 1). The warming is real treme events and trends (Zevenbergen et al.
and significant though its intensity has varied 2008: 23). Within the context of extreme weather
from decade to decade, from region to region events especially flooding, this means that man-
and from season to season, and been mainly agement strategies must meet the present needs
caused by greenhouse gases (Crosson 1997: 1- while providing a path of adjustment for the fu-
3). There is a growing consensus in the scientif- ture. Climate change, which is attributable to the
ic literature that over the coming decades, high- natural climate cycle and human activities, has
er temperatures and changing precipitation lev- adversely affected productivity in Nigeria (Zi-
els caused by climate change will be unfavour- ervogel et al. 2006: 8). Available evidence shows
able for crop growth and yield in many regions that climate change is global, likewise its impacts;
and countries (Yesuf et al. 2008: 12). To what but the most adverse effects will be felt mainly
extent this will be the case in Nigeria particularly by developing countries, especially those in
in the southeast rainforest zone where both tem- Africa, due to their low level of coping capabili-
perature and precipitation approach extremes has ties (Nwafor 2007: 2; Jagtap 2007: 6). Nigeria is
not received much research interest. Disaster one of these developing countries (Odjugo 2010:
risk and climate change are two threats to hu- 47-55). As the planet warms, rainfall patterns shift,
man well-being that reinforce each other. Hence, and extreme events such as droughts, floods,
they represent some of the greatest challenges and forest fires become more frequent (Zoellick
to humankind in this century. Disaster risk is an 2009: 7), which results in poor and unpredict-
intrinsic characteristic of human society, arising able yields, thereby making farmers more vul-
from the combination of natural and human fac- nerable, particularly in Africa (UNFCCC 2007: 9).
tors and subject to exacerbation or reduction by Farmers (who constitute the bulk of the poor in
human agency. While the adverse impacts of Africa) face prospects of tragic crop failures,
climate change on society may increase disaster reduced agricultural productivity, increased hun-
risk, disasters themselves erode environmental ger, malnutrition and diseases (Zoellick 2009: 5).
and social resilience, and thus increase vulnera- It is projected that crop yield in Nigeria may fall
bility to climate change (O’Brien et al. 2008: 3). by 10-20% by 2050 or even up to 50% due to
Climate change and the likely increase in disas- climate change (Jones and Thornton 2003: 54),
ters threaten to block pathways out of poverty particularly because Nigerian agriculture is pre-
in developing countries especially those in Afri- dominantly rain-fed and hence fundamentally
ca. Any increase in disasters, whether large or dependent on the vagaries of weather. As the
small, will threaten development gains and hinder people of Nigeria strive to overcome poverty
the implementation of the Millennium Develop- and advance economic growth, this phenome-
ment Goals (ISDR 2008: 55). In the coming de- non threatens to deepen vulnerabilities, erode
cades, climate change is expected to exacerbate hard-won gains and seriously undermine pros-
the risks of disasters, not only from more fre- pects for development. Therefore, there is a needRISK MANAGEMENT AND CHALLENGES OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN NIGERIA 225
for concerted efforts toward tackling this men- ities. The location and size of, and the character-
ace. istic relief in Nigeria gave rise to a variety of
The constant reportage of disasters occur- climates ranging from tropical maritime climate
ring in Nigeria in the print and electronic media characterized by the rainforest along the coastal
signals the enormous vulnerability of Nigerians and southern section to the tropical hinterland
to day-to-day natural and human-induced haz- climate associated with the Sahel in the north
ards. Recent Nigerian history is replete with var- eastern section of the country. One irony in cli-
ious accidents and mishaps which reveal the mate change as a global problem is that devel-
lack of preparedness of this populous State to oping countries who contribute the least to
deal with emergencies. Nigeria’s inadequate di- cause the problems are the most vulnerable to
saster management systems were even more its impact. They are the most vulnerable because
they are least endowed with resources and tech-
harshly exposed when the nation endured a se- nology to combat the problem and their econo-
ries of air crashes from 2005 to 2006 and beyond. mies are based largely on natural resources –
All the violent conflicts and civil disturbances dependent sectors that are climate sensitive.
which ubiquitously flared up in many parts of Nigeria happens to be one of those countries.
the country over the past decade were charac- Mendelsohn et al. (2000: 17-20) and Mendelsohn
terised by the slow response of the security, et al. (2006: 35-40) argue that the primary reason
emergency and relief agencies to crisis spots, that poor countries are so vulnerable is their
and the consequent needless prolongation of location. Countries with low latitudes start with
the suffering of those who had been affected by very high temperatures. There are various rea-
them. As Nigeria marked the tenth anniversary sons why Nigeria is vulnerable to climate change
of the 2002 Ikeja ammunition depot explosion apart from being a developing country. For in-
disaster, and as the world continues the mop up stance; it is established that every country is
activities following the recent massive earth- affected by climate change, but the degree with
quake devastation of Haiti, it has become imper- which it is impacted to produce damage differs,
ative for Africa’s most populous State to radi- depending on geographical circumstances, the
cally reorganise its disaster response capability, capacity with which to withstand the impact and
and to prepare a specific plan to improve the the nature of the economy. Nigeria’s vulnerabil-
response capacities of the local people, improve ity to climate change comes both from being
their livelihood in everyday life, for example, by located in the tropics, and from various socio-
strengthening and improving housing quality, economic, demographic, and policy trends limit-
gainful employment and access to income. The ing its capacity to adapt to change. NEST (2003:
urgency of these tasks has been made even more 5-16), and Ayuba et al. (2007: 19) indicate that
compelling by the fact that the country is re- constant loss of forest cover and biodiversity in
portedly within an earthquake-prone zone Nigeria is linked to global warming and climate
(Muanya 2010: 24-34). That Nigeria lacks the change. Nigeria is a country already being
most basic standards of disaster risk preven- plagued by diverse ecological problems which
tion, management and reduction is a subject that have been directly linked to changing climate.
has received considerable attention. By inter- They are of the opinion that the effects will be
more pronounced due to existing low level of
national standards, oil pipes ought to be re- coping capabilities in Nigeria and other parts of
placed after 15 to 20 years, but most pipelines in Africa (Ibid).
use in Nigeria are about 20 to 25 years old, mak- Integrated climate risk management, as a con-
ing them vulnerable to corrosion and leakage. In cept, would address both the hazards and vul-
some cases, the pipes are laid above ground nerabilities which configure particular risk sce-
level without adequate surveillance, exposing narios and would range in scale from actions to
them to wear and tear and other dangers. It is manage the local manifestations of global cli-
also noted that most of the facilities were con- mate risk, through to global measures to reduce
structed between the 1960s and early 1980s to hazard (for example, by reducing greenhouse gas
the then prevailing standards. emissions) and to reduce vulnerability (by in-
Nigeria is vulnerable to climate change im- creasing the social and economic resilience of
pacts due to its geography, climate, vegetation, vulnerable countries such as SIDS, for exam-
soils, economic structure, population and set- ple). Integrated climate risk management would
tlement, energy demands and agricultural activ- need to include elements of anticipatory risk226 ANN OGBO, NDUBUISI EBELE LAURETTA AND WILFRED UKPERE
management (ensuring that future development DATA ANALYSIS
reduces rather than increases risk), compensa-
tory risk management (actions to mitigate the This section concentrates on the analysis of
losses associated with existing risk) and reac- the data collected for this research work in tabu-
tive risk management (ensuring that risk is not lar form, in order to aid in the proper understand-
reconstructed after disaster events). Moreover, ing of the respondents views pertaining to typ-
it will have to take into account both potential ical issues raises in the questionnaires. A total
impacts on socio-economic and environmental of 136 questionnaires were distributed to the
systems. Integrated climate risk management respondents out of which 130 were validly re-
could provide a framework to allow the disaster turned.
community to move beyond the still dominant
focus on preparedness and response and for Demographic Information of Respondents
the adaptation to climate change community to
move beyond the design of hypothetical future Demographic information was collected to
adaptation strategies. In some regions, such as establish the number, gender and age distribu-
the Caribbean and the South Pacific, synergy
tion of respondents as explained in Table 1.
such as this is already being achieved. Howev-
er, urgent actions must be taken at the interna- Table 1: Respondents’ response rate
tional, national and local levels if integrated cli-
mate risk management is to move from a concept Total ques- % Retur- % Differ- %
to practice and serve to reduce risks and protect tionnaires ned ence
development. questio-
nnaires
RESEARCH METHODS 10 0 13 0 95.59 6 4.41
Source: Field Survey 2011
After considering the problem and purpose
of this study, the survey research technique
design was chosen, because it will provide an- Table 1 shows that 6 questionnaires were
swers to questions relating to climate change. not valid representing 4.41%. The remaining 130
The survey approach appeared best suited for questionnaires were valid and represent 95.59%
this work since it is not feasible to interview the of the total questionnaires distributed.
entire population. Furthermore, in surveys, there
are fixed sets of questions, and responses are Table 2: Gender distribution of the respondents
systematically classified, so that quantitative Options No. of respondents Percentage
comparisons can be made. Answers to these (No.) (%)
questions are found in the secondary data or by
conducting surveys. Therefore two major sourc- Male 44 33.85
es were employed in the quest to gather infor- Female 86 66.15
mation for the study. They were both secondary Tota l 13 0 1 00 .0 0
and primary sources. Source: Field Survey 2011
Structured questionnaire was used to source
the primary data. The researcher followed a se- Table 2 shows that the numbers of female
quence of logical steps to develop a good ques- respondents are more than that of male respon-
tionnaire that would accomplish the research dents.
objectives. One hundred and thirty people drawn
from Enugu State in Nigeria were given the ques- Table 3: The age distribution of the respondents
tionnaire to complete. The respondents were Options No. of respondents Percentage
promised a copy of the summary results of the (No.) (%)
findings to entice them to participate. This ap-
proach appears to have created much interest, 20 -2 5yrs 25 19.23
and the willingness to participate might have 26 – 35yrs 35 36.92
36yrs – above 70 53.85
been lower otherwise. Frequency table and per-
centages were used to analyze the data collect- Tota l 13 0 1 00 .0 0
ed from the survey. Source: Field Survey 2011RISK MANAGEMENT AND CHALLENGES OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN NIGERIA 227
Table 3 shows that the age bracket that re- Table 6: Solution to the problem of climate change
sponded to the questionnaire is between 36 years Options No. of respondents Percen-
- above with 53.85% followed by ages 26-35 Male Fe ma le Total tage
years with 26.92% and the least age is 20-25 years (% )
with 19.23%. Yes 16 39 55 42.31
No 24 36 60 46.15
No response 4 11 15 11.54
Awareness Level of Climate Change
Tota l 44 86 13 0 1 00 .0 0
This section was undertaken to probe the Source: Field Survey 2011
awareness level of respondents, in order to as-
certain their perception about climate change. Table 6 shows that to many of the business
The analysis and interpretation is as under: people, farmers and few students, anything cli-
mate is a natural phenomenon beyond human
Table 4: Awareness of respondents about climate control and as such cannot be solved by man
change but by God. Hence, when asked whether they
Options No. of respondents Percen- think the problem of climate change can be
Male Fe ma le Total
tage solved at all, 42.31% responded in affirmative
(% ) and most of them are educated and know much
Yes 39 61 10 0 76.92 about climate change and think it can be solved,
No 5 25 30 23.08 46.15% responded negative, while 11.54% did
Tota l 44 86 13 0 1 00 .0 0 not respond to this question.
Source: Field Survey 2011
Table 7: Problems of climate change affects you
as an indiv idual
Table 4, shows that when the respondents
were asked whether they know what climate Options No. of respondents Percen-
change is all about, 76.92% of the people inter- Male Female Total
tage
viewed responded in affirmative, while 23.08% (% )
responded to the contrary. Yes 29 67 96 73.85
No 15 19 34 26.15
Table 5: K nowledge about climate change Tota l 44 86 13 0 1 00 .0 0
Source: Field Survey 2011
Options No. of respondents Percen-
tage
Male Fe ma le Total (% ) Table 7 shows that when asked whether they
It is the 17 28 45 34.62 think the problem of climate change affects them,
weather 73.85% responded positively, while 26.15% be-
condition lieved that the problem of climate change does
It is the not affect them in any way.
change
of weather
at a parti- The Impact of Human Activities on
cular time 8 17 25 19.23 Climate Change
No response 19 41 60 46.15
Tota l 44 86 13 0 1 00 .0 0 This section takes into consideration the
Source: Field Survey 2011 impact of human activities such as overgrazing,
bush burning, extraction of fuel wood, pesticide
Table 5, also shows that when respondents use, gas flaring on climate change, as analyzed
were asked what they know about climate in Table 8.
change, 34.62% of the people responded that it Table 8 shows 114 respondents represent-
has to do with the weather condition, 19.23% ing 87.69% of the valid returned questionnaires
say it is the change in weather condition at a believed that excess grazing of animals like cat-
particular time, while 46.15% did not respond to tle, burning of bush, removal of fuel wood, con-
this question. tinuous use of pesticide, gas flaring leads to228 ANN OGBO, NDUBUISI EBELE LAURETTA AND WILFRED UKPERE
changes in climate in our country, while 16 re- Ta ble 10 reveals that 107 respondents repre-
spondents representing 12.31% of the returned senting 90% agreed that removal or cutting down
questionnaire said no to that postulation. of trees or forest from a place, releases of waste
products from industries, improper getting rid
Table 8: Improper land use causes change in cli- of waste products can lead to change in climate,
mate while 23 respondents representing 10% dis-
Percen-
agreed.
Options No. of respondents
tage
Male Female Total (%) Challenges from Climate Change
Yes 39 75 11 4 87.69 This section considers the various challeng-
No 5 11 16 12.31 es emanating from climate change. It also looks
Tota l 44 86 13 0 1 00 .0 0
at the risks associated with the phenomenon as
explicated in the following tables:
Source: Field Survey 2011
Table 11: Creation of environmental/climate ref-
Table 8 shows 114 respondents represent- ugees, threats to the future of children, increase
ing 87.69% of the valid returned questionnaires in diseases co uld be some of the c hallenges/r isk
re sulting from climate c hange
believed that excess grazing of animals like cat-
tle, burning of bush, removal of fuel wood, con- Options No. of respondents Percen-
tinuous use of pesticide, gas flaring leads to Male Female Total tage
changes in climate in our country, while 16 re- (%)
spondents representing 12.31% of the returned Yes 34 72 10 6 81.54
questionnaire said no to that postulation. No 10 14 24 18.46
Tota l 44 86 13 0 1 00 .0 0
Table 9: Abse nce of gree nho use gases may re-
duce climate c hange Source: Field Survey 2011
Options No. of respondents Percen- Table 11 shows that 106 respondents repre-
tage senting 81.54% of the respondent agreed that
Male Female Total
(%) climate change results in creation of environ-
Yes 30 70 10 0 76.92 mental/climate refugees by displacing people
No 14 16 30 23.08 from their settlements, children and youths who
Tota l 44 86 13 0 1 00 .0 0 are the future hope of any nation are the most
vulnerable group of this threats, and health and
Sources: Field Survey 2011
life styles of people are also affected by climate
Table 9 reveals that 100 respondents repre- change, while 24 respondents representing
senting 76.92% of the respondents were in sup- 18.46% thought otherwise.
port that absence of greenhouse gases such as Table 12: Reduction in economic growth, immediate
CO2 and methane, tilling of the soil, volcanic setback on agriculture, loss of biodiversity are few
eruptions, burning of fossil fuels may reduce of the c hallenges face as a re sult o f c hange in
c l im a t e
climate change while 30 respondents represent-
ing 23.08% of the respondents disagreed with
Options No. of respondents Percen-
this view. tage
Male Female Total
(%)
Table 10: Poor human activities lead to climate
change Yes 37 83 12 0 92.31
Options No. of respondents Percen- No 7 3 10 7.69
tage Tota l 44 86 13 0 1 00 .0 0
Male Female Total (%)
Source: Field Survey 2011
Yes 30 77 10 7 90
No 14 9 23 10 From the responses as shown in Table 12,
Tota l 44 86 13 0 10 0 the 120 respondents representing 92.31% agreed
Source: Field Survey 2011 that climate change could cut economic growth,RISK MANAGEMENT AND CHALLENGES OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN NIGERIA 229
poor yield of agricultural products, changes in Table 15: Agencies in charge of climate change
ecosystems (crops/animals) are forced to adapt and g ove rnment at all leve ls (lo cal, state and
fe der al) have enlightene d Nige rians/put much
and those that cannot adapt are dying out, while efforts on the so lutions to climate change
10 other respondents representing 7.69% dis-
agreed. Options No. of respondents Percen-
Male Female Total tage
Table 13: Flooding, erosion, drought, windstorm (%)
ar e not most (some) of the gr eatest risk/chal-
lenges faced by Nigerians due to climate change Yes 9 2 11 8.46
No 35 84 11 9 91.54
Options No. of respondents Percen- Tota l 44 86 13 0 1 00 .0 0
Male Female Total tage Source: Field Survey 2011
(%)
Yes 9 6 15 11.54 From Table 15, only 11 respondents repre-
No 35 80 11 5 88.46 senting 8.46% believe that agencies in charge of
Tota l 44 86 13 0 1 00 .0 0 climate change and Government at all levels
Source: Field Survey 2011 have enlightened Nigerians more on the solu-
tions of climate change such as promoting re-
The Table 13 reveals that 15 respondents search work, establishing functioning commis-
representing 11.54% were in agreement that sion/agencies, creation of public awareness,
flooding, erosion, drought, windstorm are not while 119 respondents representing 91.54%
most (some) of the greatest risk/challenges faced thought otherwise.
by Nigerians due to climate change, While the Table 16 : Good po lic ies have bee n utilize d/
other 115 respondents representing 88.46% dis- implemented to bring solutions to the menace of
agreed. climate change in Niger ia
Options No. of respondents Percen-
Government Policies and Efforts to Combat tage
Climate Change in Nigeria Male Female Total (%)
Yes 20 26 46 35.38
This section takes into consideration the No 24 60 84 64.62
policies and efforts made by the government to Tota l 44 86 13 0 1 00 .0 0
tackle climate change in Nigeria, as analyzed in Source: Field Survey 2011
Table 14.
Table 16 shows that 46 respondents repre-
Table 14: Government provided facilities to alle- senting 35.38% agreed that these programmes
viate climate c hange
like reforestation, afforestation, continuous main-
Options No. of respondents Percen- tenance of infrastructures, biotechnology de-
Male Female Total tage velopment, good policies have been implement-
(%) ed to bring solutions to the menace of climate
change in Nigeria, while 84 respondents repre-
Yes 10 10 20 15.38
No 34 76 11 0 84.62
senting 64.62% answered that question in the
Tota l 44 86 13 0 1 00 .0 0
negative directions.
Source: Field Survey 2011
DISCUSSION
Table 14 shows that 20 respondents repre- Climate change or global warming has be-
senting 15.38% would say yes to that, while 110 come a new reality, with deleterious effects: sea-
respondents representing 84.62% would say no sonal cycles are disrupted, as are ecosystems;
that government/agencies have not provided and agriculture, water needs and supply, and
good roads, power lines, dykes, bridges, regular food production are all adversely affected. Glo-
pest and disease control, better management of bal warming (climate change) also leads to sea-
forest resources as part of the solutions to man- level rise with its attendant consequences, and
age climate change in Nigeria. includes fiercer weather, increased frequency230 ANN OGBO, NDUBUISI EBELE LAURETTA AND WILFRED UKPERE
and intensity of storms, floods, hurricanes, is no formal institutional structure at state and
droughts, increased frequency of fires, poverty, local government levels to address climate
malnutrition and series of health and socio-eco- change. Even then, the capacity of SCCU to drive
nomic consequences. It has a cumulative effect and coordinate national climate change re-
on natural resources and the balance of nature. sponse is weak. There are very few people with
The impact of climate change can be vast. In proven competencies in the Unit and facilities
Nigeria, this means that some stable ecosystems remain inadequate. Furthermore, the national
such as the Sahel Savanna may become vulner- institutions, including the SCCU, are not prop-
able because warming will reinforce existing pat- erly funded.
terns of water scarcity and increasing the risk of Unlike Ghana, Nigeria has not been able to
drought in Nigeria. As well, the country’s aquat- develop a structured approach to climate change
ic ecosystems, wetlands and other habitats will adaptation. Ghana was able to do this through
create overwhelming problems for an already the implementation of Netherlands assisted Cli-
impoverished populace. Preliminary studies on mate Adaptation Programme (NCAP) that en-
the vulnerability of various sectors of the Nige- abled the country to undertake detailed vulner-
rian economy to Climate Change were conduct- ability assessment of various sectors. The im-
ed by NEST. The sectors evaluated were based plementation of NCAP has also enabled Ghana
on seven natural and human systems identified to develop a National Climate Change Adapta-
by the IPCC, and condensed into five. They are: tion Strategy. Nigeria has no National Climate
Human settlements and health; Change Policy and Strategy that should have
Water resources, wetlands, and freshwater presented Nigeria’s current and future efforts to
ecosystems; address climate change vulnerability and adap-
Energy, industry, commerce, and financial tation and therefore made risk management dif-
services ficult. The First National Communication was
Agriculture, food security, land degradation, produced November, 2003. The closest Nigeria
forestry, and biodiversity; and is to having an acceptable adaptation response
Coastal zone and marine ecosystems. framework is a working document on Adapta-
The study determined that virtually all of the tion Strategies of Action prepared by HBS for
sectors analyzed manifested some evidence of the Special Climate Change Unit (SCCU) of the
vulnerability to climate change. None were un- Federal Ministry of Environment, the Nationally
affected, nor will remain unaffected in future by Designated Authority for climate change in Ni-
changes to climatic conditions. In fact more re- geria. But there is no clear indication that the
cent assessment, although in regional and glo- document has been adapted as a national plan
bal scale, not only corroborate the patterns es- of action.
tablished by CN-CCCDP reports but captured There are many ways that climate change
more disturbing scenarios using more embrac- could affect Nigerians especially citizens of Enu-
ing and sophisticated approaches (Parry et al. gu State. Some of the impacts will be direct, oth-
2007: 3). Indications are that the climate system ers will be indirect. Urban populations are grow-
is more sensitive than originally thought. ing and contributing to environmental degrada-
In general, Nigeria has many policies, strate- tion, loss of biodiversity, environmental decay,
gies and plans that can address general adapta- and water/air/environmental pollution. Nigeria
tion measures in some climate change vulnera- will be affected by climate change in a variety of
ble sectors such as agriculture, water resources, ways. Urban and rural population concentrations
forests and ecosystems, and coastal marine en- will be disrupted, particularly along the coast-
vironment. However, the policy framework to line due to sea-level rise and related phenome-
align human development and climate change na. Also deforestation, industrial releases, im-
response efforts through adaptation is largely proper sewage disposals are some of the major
undeveloped in the country. The country’s in- factors that are responsible for climate change
stitutional capacity to respond effectively to cli- in Nigeria. It was also observed that flooding,
mate change is weak. Apart from the SCCU in drought, erosion, sea level rise are the various
the Federal Ministry of Environment and a few challenges and effects that climate change pos-
institutions at the national level (for example, es on the country. Government / agencies in
NIMET and the Climate Centre in Minna), there charge have not proffered solutions/ways toRISK MANAGEMENT AND CHALLENGES OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN NIGERIA 231
manage the associated risks of climate change that would enable Nigeria mitigate and adapt to
in Nigeria. climate change difficulties but little has been
Some settlements are known to have already done in that regard.
relocated farther inland from their original sites For example, the Climate Change Commission
in response to sea incursion over some decades. bill that seeks the establishment of a climate
Population displacement and migration from, and change commission that would coordinate cli-
to, various human settlements will arise from ei- mate change responses and action for the coun-
ther or both of drought incidence in the North- try is one issue that has lingered for so long in
ern states of the country and accelerated sea the legislative process and is still suffering de-
level rise in the coastal regions. Rises in sea- lay. Many environmental stakeholders are be-
level will also threaten urban and rural infrastruc- ginning to describe the delay as a show of lack
ture facilities in low lying coastal regions of concern of the danger posed by climate
Extreme climate conditions such as high change.
wind, heavy rainfall, heat and cold can result in
wide-ranging scenarios such as tropical storms, CONCLUSION
floods, landslides, droughts and sea-level rise.
Climatic catastrophes induce populations to be With an estimated population of about 140
displaced (or decimated by death), which in turn million people spread over a total area of 923,800
can lead to conflict and civil unrest. As well, the square kilometres, Nigeria is one of the most
public health infrastructure would be eroded if populous nations and one of the largest coun-
resources are diverted from its maintenance to tries in Africa. This high population makes Ni-
disaster recovery. Communities and government geria a high potential contributor to global warm-
would be burdened with having to make repara- ing and consequently, climate change. Her pro-
tions to individuals for property damage and ductive activities are mainly agricultural and to
loss, unemployment, clean-up, and reduced so- an extent industrial which contribute substan-
tial amount of greenhouse gases into the atmo-
cioeconomic viability of the communities affect-
sphere thereby accelerating climate change.
ed.
Even current estimates indicate that emissions
Changes in weather and climate have been from combined livestock population of over 44
known to profoundly influence water resourc- million led to the emissions of over 1115g of
es, a factor that increases the vulnerability of methane (CH4). Also, rice production led to the
humans to infection. Generally, water resources emissions of 1090g CH4, while savannah burn-
involve all forms of fresh water needed for life’s ing generated 109g CH4, 3.4g N20, and 2890g CO
necessities, ranging from domestic needs to (Federal Ministry of Environment 2010: 45).
drinking, washing and cleaning, to agricultural These GHGs generated from several industrial
needs involving food processing and irrigation, processes in one way or the other finds its way
to other general needs. into the atmosphere thereby increasing the threat
Climate change is surely one phenomenon of climate change in Nigeria. As long as these
that has tested the Nigerian government and so situations abound, so many activities in space
far, the government has failed the test looking at are at one risk or the other. Present and future
the low level preparedness of the country in tack- activities need to be planned and executed in
ling the imminent dangers of climate change. space such that the future is not jeopardized.
Apart from various workshops and seminars to The issue of adapting the ways we live to cli-
pay lip services to the many problems climate mate change which includes planning for our
change poses to the nation, some experts have urban and rural environment is being placed cen-
said Nigeria still has no structure or any coordi- tre stage by recent flood events around the
nated mechanism in place to tackle the challenge world and particularly in Nigeria. Hence, profes-
of climate change in the country. sionals in the building domain need to consider
The International Centre for Energy, Envi- very carefully what they build and where they
ronment and Development (ICEED) and Nigeri- build it. Though the issue of climate change is
an, environmental group Non Governmental Or- becoming recognized by spatial planners with
ganization (NGO), have continued to call on the respect to flood risk, but its wider implications
Federal Government to put in place mechanisms for biodiversity and water resources are neces-232 ANN OGBO, NDUBUISI EBELE LAURETTA AND WILFRED UKPERE
sary for integration into plans. However, there and practices together. The second focuses on
seems to be a lack of engagement of the plan- the impact of future climate change on risk but
ning profession with climate change networks. fails to make the connection with currently ex-
The growing trend of disasters in Nigeria has isting climate related risk events and patterns.
implications for national sustainability. This is At the same time, both approaches are divorced
because disasters, irrespective of the causal fac- both in concept and in terms of the institutional
tors are associated with diverse externalities such arrangements and programming mechanisms at
as mortalities, loss of income, home, farmlands, the national and international levels. If develop-
social networks, livelihoods and infrastructure. ment is to be protected and advanced in coun-
The climate change and variability are likely tries affected by climate risks, an integrated ap-
to worsen the prospects for poverty eradication proach to climate risk management needs to be
unless action is taken to become response-ca- promoted, building on successful approaches
pable. This requires a focus on reducing vulner- piloted by the disaster risk management com-
ability, achieving equitable growth and improv- munity but mainstreamed into national strate-
ing the governance and institutional context in gies and programmes. Addressing and manag-
which poor people live. ing climate risk as it is manifested in extreme
In effect, the existing poverty reduction strat- events and impacts in the here and now is the
egies are continuously challenged by climate most appropriate way of strengthening capaci-
change which often time deepens poverty. The ties to deal with changing climate in the future.
country lacks capacity to anticipate and respond
to climate change and variability related risk. RECOMMENDATIONS
There is no adequate information on seasonal
forecast of climate variability to enable prepared- Nigeria should focus more on economic ac-
ness to climate related disaster and thus early tivities that are tertiary in nature which generate
warning facilities are grossly underutilized. little greenhouse gases; development should be
Strategies to reduce vulnerability should be limited in areas likely to be flooded; the citing of
rooted in vulnerability analysis and greater un- new facilities and the location of infrastructure
derstanding of both household-level and macro should not be very close to the sea in order for
response options that are available to decrease them to be free from sea level rise; already threat-
the exposure to climate risk. Increasing the re- ened infrastructure /facilities should be relocat-
sponse-capability of Nigeria will require infor- ed soonest; Nigeria should develop a technolo-
mation on seasonal forecast to enable the pre- gy that can capture at least 80% of carbon emit-
paredness to climate variability as well as longer ted by industries which are discharged into the
term climate prediction data to ensure that strat- atmosphere; the spaces in rural areas and urban
egies to reduce vulnerability also reflect the un- centres should be earmarked or apportioned for
derlying longer-term climate trends. rigorous and extensive tree planting; there
Climate related risk, aggravated by process- should be a heightened public awareness on
es of global economic and climatic change pos- the danger associated with climate change; re-
es a central unresolved development issues for settlements should be encouraged in certain ar-
many countries, particularly but not exclusively eas of the country;
for SIDS. Unless such risks can be managed and Nigeria should develop a cleaner source of
reduced, the achievement of the UN Millennium energy instead of it’s over dependence on fossil
Goals will be a mirage. Current approaches to- fuel energy that generate greenhouse gases.
wards managing disaster risk and adaptation to While already existing energy production facili-
climate change fail for different reasons to ad- ties should be physically protected with barri-
dress the issue. The first is still predominantly ers; agencies responsible for the environment
focused on response to disaster events and fails should enforce laws and regulations, particular-
to address the configuration of hazards, vulner- ly with respect to urban planning and develop-
abilities and risks. Moreover, mono hazard ap- ment and adherence to industrial standards as
proaches still prevail in contexts more and more well as erection of structures or utilities in eco-
typified by synergy and complexity and there is logically sensitive areas; town and cities should
still a great deal to do in order to bring risk man- be well planned and free of industrial and mu-
agement and sustainable development concerns nicipal wastes; there should be a decentraliza-RISK MANAGEMENT AND CHALLENGES OF CLIMATE CHANGE IN NIGERIA 233
tion of commercial activities in the Central Busi- chase Act) in December 2004. This PPS replaced
ness District (CBD) as this causes heavy traffic Planning Policy Guidance Note 1, General Poli-
congestion and high level of gas emissions/ex- cies and Principles, published in February 1997.
haust emissions; industries should be relocated It is pertinent to note that very salient and ro-
to more favourable sites. While appropriate lo- bust issues were discussed which were of Na-
cation for new industries be mapped out; drains tional attention.
should be constructed in and around coastal
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