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FAO’S WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE United Nations Climate Change Conference 2019
FAO’S WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
CONTENTS
PAGES 4–5
INTRODUCTION
PAGES 6–7
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE
IN THE CLIMATE CHANGE AGENDA
PAGES 8–9
KEY MESSAGES
PAGES 10–11
FACTS AND FIGURES
PAGES 12–17
TECHNOLOGY AND TOOLS
PAGES 18–33
FAO IN ACTION
PAGES 34–35
FINANCING
AGRICULTURE’S POTENTIAL
PAGES 36–37
RAISING AMBITIONS THROUGH
CLIMATE ACTION IN AGRICULTURE
PAGES 38–39
LATEST PUBLICATIONS
Cover photo: Shimbwe Juu Kihamba Agroforestry Heritage Site, Moshi Rural District,
Northern Tanzania. © FAO/Felipe Rodriguez
2
TANZANIA
The Northern Upland
Agroforestry System
exemplifies synergy between
humans, plants and animals but
this balance is under threat.
© FAO/Felipe Rodriguez
ZERO HUNGER
IS NOT POSSIBLE
WITHOUT
TACKLING
CLIMATE CHANGE
3
FAO’S WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
INTRODUCTION
Delivering on country
commitments to
transform food
systems and
promote sustainable
agriculture can
create a world
without hunger and
malnutrition by 2030.
Climate change dominated foundations for human existence,
the global agenda in 2019. including food production.
Greenhouse gas emissions are The Intergovernmental Panel
“WE NEED TO showing no signs of falling, as
they must to meet the goals of
on Climate Change (IPCC)
found that land and oceans
WORK TOGETHER the Paris Agreement and the
2030 Agenda for Sustainable
are under growing threat, but
could contribute to lowering
TO MITIGATE Development. The world is in
danger of missing the target
emissions and helping vulnerable
communities adapt to a
AND ADAPT TO of limiting global warming to changing climate.
THE EFFECTS OF 1.5 °C this century, set out in the
Paris Agreement. The response to climate change
CLIMATE CHANGE Several major reports in 2019
is growing. The Climate Action
Summit in September 2019 saw
ON AGRICULTURE showed why this would be a
disaster. FAO’s State of the World’s
new commitments from the public
and private sector. The issue is
AND NATURAL Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture
and a report from the world’s top
firmly in the public consciousness,
with protest movements swelling
RESOURCES.” biodiversity body, IPBES, laid out
how climate change will accelerate
across the globe. With the Paris
Agreement commitments due to
QU Dongyu the loss of the ecosystems and be updated in 2020, now is the
FAO Director-General biodiversity that provide the time for real, concerted action.
4
TIMOR-LESTE
A fisher casts his net in the
water to catch small fish,
Wataboo beach.
©UN Photo/Martine Perret
AGRICULTURE, FOOD SECURITY latest reports show, climate change the livelihoods of millions of rural
AND CLIMATE CHANGE is already having profound people. It will expose urban and rural
Agricultural and food system consequences. Oceans are warming poor to higher and more volatile food
transformation is a crucial part of and acidifying, threatening fish prices. It will cause forced migration
this action. Agriculture emits around stocks. Longer, more intense and jeopardize the Sustainable
one quarter of greenhouse gases, but droughts are imperilling freshwater Development Goals (SDGs).
it holds almost half of the solutions supplies and crops. Extreme weather
to global climate goals. As this events that damage infrastructure, Delivering on country commitments
booklet shows, action on forests wipe out harvests and erode natural to transform food systems and
and other ecosystems, soils, water, resources are hitting the livelihoods promote sustainable agriculture
livestock, oceans and food systems of smallholder farmers, fishers and can still create a world without
can reduce emissions and remove foresters, who have contributed least hunger and malnutrition by 2030.
carbon from the atmosphere while to climate change. The State of Food But we must work urgently to
feeding a growing population. Security and Nutrition in the World transform agriculture through
2019 cited the changing climate inclusive, multisectoral approaches
Such action, designed also to help as a key driver behind a rise in the that reduce greenhouse gas
communities, particularly the rural number of hungry people – which emissions and build resilience and
poor in developing countries, adapt rose to over 820 million in 2018. adaptive capability. This booklet
and build resilience to climate illustrates FAO’s commitment
change, is critical if agriculture Without action, the changing climate to innovating in agriculture and
is to provide the extra 49 percent will affect food availability and transforming its practices to meet the
of food required by 2050. As the hinder access to food by disrupting climate challenge.
5
FAO’S WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
FOOD AND
AGRICULTURE
IN THE CLIMATE
CHANGE AGENDA
The Koronivia Joint
Work on Agriculture
re-emphasized
the importance of
agriculture and food
security in the climate
change agenda.
“PROFOUND,
SYSTEMIC
CHANGES The adoption of the The Koronivia
MEXICO
Farmers reactivate
IN CLIMATE
Joint Work on Agriculture at agricultural
COP 23 in 2017 was an important production on
PATTERNS CALL turning point for agriculture 40 hectares of
abandoned land,
in the international climate Mexico City.
FOR PROFOUND, discourse. Following the decision
by 90 percent of countries to
©FAO/Fernando
Reyes Pantoja
SYSTEMIC include the agricultural sectors
(crops, livestock, fisheries,
CHANGES IN OUR aquaculture and forestry) in
their Nationally Determined
SOCIETIES AND Contributions (NDCs) under
FOOD SYSTEMS.”
the Paris Agreement, Koronivia
re-emphasized the importance
of agriculture and food security
Maria-Helena Semedo, in the climate change agenda.
FAO Deputy Director-General for Climate
and Natural Resources
Countries agreed to work together
to address issues related to soil,
6
livestock, and nutrient and water THE FOOD–AGRICULTURE–CLIMATE NATIONAL
management, as well as on the NEXUS ADAPTATION
food security and socio-economic FAO’s Strategy on Climate
impacts of climate change Change focuses on enhancing PLANS
across the agriculture sectors. capacities to implement NDCs, Since 2015, the Integrating
FAO is working to support supporting countries to adapt to Agriculture in National Adaptation
countries in the development and and mitigate the effects of climate Plans (NAP-Ag) programme, jointly
implementation of this joint work change through research-based coordinated by UNDP and FAO,
through webinars and workshops programmes and projects geared has worked with 11 developing
allowing agriculture experts under towards adapting smallholder countries to identify and integrate
the United Nations Framework production, and making the climate adaptation measures into
Convention on Climate Change livelihoods of rural populations national planning in the agriculture
(UNFCCC) to informally share more resilient. The strategy sectors in support of achieving
their views on how to develop and moves away from a reactive the Sustainable Development
implement the decision. FAO held response to crises to proactively Goals. Uruguay, in September
the third Koronivia Dialogue at preventing and anticipating 2019, became the latest of the
its headquarters in Rome from them, supporting people before, countries to launch a National
September 25-27. during and after shocks. Adaptation Plan.
7
FAO’S WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
KEY
MESSAGES
To meet the Sustainable Development
Goals, in particular those on poverty
and hunger, agriculture and food
systems need to sustainably boost
productivity and efficiency.
➨ Food and agriculture needs to produce 49 percent
more food by 2050, but it is already a major driver of,
and hugely vulnerable to, climate change. It emits Nature-based solutions are key.
around a quarter of greenhouse gas emissions and They help mitigation, adaptation
supports around 2.5 billion people.
➨ Climate impacts such as extreme weather events, and resilience, conserve and restore
spreading pests and diseases, loss of biodiversity, ecosystems, and ensure nature
degrading ecosystems, and water scarcity will
worsen as the planet warms. These impacts will contributes to resilient livelihoods,
damage food security and livelihoods and lead to green job generation and rural
forced migration.
poverty reduction.
➨ Reducing deforestation and restoring degraded
Agriculture and food systems are forests and landscapes are cost-effective, rapid ways
a huge part of the climate solution. to cut emissions by over 5 gigatonnes of carbon
dioxide equivalent each year – about ten percent of
But they must transform through total 2018 emissions – while boosting biodiversity and
inclusive, multisectoral approaches healthy ecosystems.
➨ Restoring agricultural land and degraded soils can
that reduce emissions, draw down remove up to 51 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide from
carbon, and boost climate resilience the atmosphere in total and raise food production by
17.6 megatonnes per year.
and adaptation. ➨ As agriculture accounts for 70 percent of freshwater
withdrawals, actions to produce more with less
➨ Almost half of the solutions to stay within agreed water will go a long way towards adapting to
climate goals come from food and agriculture. climate change.
These solutions involve action on forests and other ➨ Protecting and restoring coastal and marine
ecosystems, soils, water, livestock, oceans and ecosystems – such as mangroves, salt marshes,
food systems – as well as on food environments seagrass beds, seaweeds and coral reefs – can provide
and consumers. protection against waves and storms.
8
LAO PEOPLE'S
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
Children water a kitchen-garden
at the Farmer Nutrition
School in Houayjay.
©FAO/Manan Vatsyayana
But the transformation of agriculture
and food systems can only succeed if
it harnesses innovation by women and
Sustainable food systems and diets youth, technology, digital solutions,
can make a huge contribution to and indigenous and traditional
climate action. knowledge – ensuring that approaches
➨ As healthy and sustainable diets are almost always are inclusive and pro-poor.
best for the environment, reforming food systems
to prioritize these diets can protect the climate and ➨ Biodiversity and communities are key pillars for
water resources, increase adaptation and resilience, restoring agriculture sectors and resilient landscapes
boost food security and improve human health. and livelihoods.
➨ Reducing food losses from production to retail, ➨ Leveraging investments in climate-smart
which FAO estimates costs USD 400 billion a year, agriculture, including from the private sector, is also
can bring further cuts in emissions and gains in crucial to lifting millions of people out of hunger
agricultural productivity. and poverty.
9
FAO’S WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
FACTS
AND FIGURES
CHALLENGES ➨ Transboundary animal and SOLUTIONS
➨ Over 820 million people were plant pests and diseases are ➨ One third of existing, feasible
undernourished in 2018, while spreading faster with climate solutions for agreed climate goals
agriculture provides livelihoods for change. Plant diseases alone come from agriculture.
2.5 billion people. cost the global economy
USD 220 billion annually. ➨ Nature-based solutions
➨ Climate change could push can keep up to 12 gigatonnes
122 million more people, mainly ➨ Agriculture, forestry and of carbon dioxide out of the
farmers, into extreme poverty by 2030. other land use cause almost one atmosphere each year and
quarter of human greenhouse gas add USD 2.3 trillion to the
➨ Climate change is projected to emissions. Tropical deforestation global economy.
increase cereal prices 29 percent and forest degradation account for
by 2050. 11 percent. ➨ Rehabilitating agricultural
and degraded soils can remove
➨ Agriculture absorbs 26 percent ➨ A third of global soils are 51 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide
of the economic impact of climate degraded, releasing 78 gigatonnes from the atmosphere in total,
disasters, rising to 83 percent for of carbon dioxide into the and raise food production by
drought in developing countries. atmosphere, and costing over 17.6 megatonnes per year.
10 percent of GDP through lost
➨ Water scarcity affects 40 percent biodiversity and ecosystem services. ➨ Emissions from livestock
of the population. For every 1 °C production, in particular methane,
rise, 500 million extra people will ➨ Livestock supply chains can be cut by 30 percent.
face a 20 percent dip in renewable account for 14.5 percent of
water resources. human emissions. ➨ Reducing deforestation and
restoring degraded forests can cut
➨ The ocean has absorbed over emissions by over 5 gigatonnes
SUSTAINABLE
90 percent of human-induced of carbon dioxide equivalent
warming and 30 percent of carbon each year.
FOOD SYSTEMS dioxide emissions. In some Western
and Central Pacific island states, ➨ Fisheries and aquaculture
AND DIETS CAN small-scale fisheries’ harvests could
fall up to 50 percent by 2050.
offer significant opportunities
to reduce fuel consumption
MAKE A HUGE ➨ Around 14 percent of food, worth
and emissions.
CONTRIBUTION USD 400 billion, is lost post-harvest
before it reaches retailers. Total food
➨ Agriculture accounts for
70 percent of freshwater
TO CLIMATE losses and waste cause 8 percent withdrawals; producing more
ACTION
of greenhouse gas emissions, with less water can address
according to earlier estimates. water scarcity.
10CHALLENGES SOLUTIONS
1/4
➨
AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND OTHER
LAND-USE CAUSE ALMOST ONE QUARTER
1/3
ONE THIRD OF SOLUTIONS FOR
OF HUMAN GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS CLIMATE GOALS COME FROM AGRICULTURE
15%
LIVESTOCK SUPPLY CHAINS
ACCOUNT FOR 14.5 PERCENT
-30%
METHANE EMISSIONS FROM
LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION CAN BE
OF HUMAN EMISSIONS CUT BY 30 PERCENT
+78Gt
SOIL DEGRADATION HAS RELEASED
−51Gt
REHABILITATING SOILS CAN REMOVE
78 GIGATONNES OF CARBON 51 GIGATONNES OF CARBON
DIOXIDE INTO THE ATMOSPHERE DIOXIDE FROM THE ATMOSPHERE
40%
WATER SCARCITY AFFECTS 40 PERCENT OF
PEOPLE. FOR EVERY 1 °C RISE, 500 MILLION
70%
AGRICULTURE ACCOUNTS FOR
70 PERCENT OF FRESHWATER
EXTRA PEOPLE WILL FACE A 20 PERCENT DIP IN WITHDRAWALS. PRODUCING MORE
RENEWABLE WATER RESOURCES WITH LESS CAN ADDRESS WATER SCARCITY
11FAO’S WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
TECHNOLOGY
AND TOOLS
The transformation
of agriculture and
food systems can
only succeed if it
harnesses innovation.
The following section looks at the FAOSTAT
methods, tools and technology, FAOSTAT includes a global
including apps, that FAO inventory of GHG emissions from
provides to help farmers and all agricultural activities, including
nations mitigate and adapt to crop production, livestock, and
climate change. forestry and land-use changes.
www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data
INVENTORIES AND MEASUREMENT
OF GREENHOUSE GAS (GHG) Global Forest Resources
EMISSIONS Assessments (FRA)
Taking stock of emissions FRA 2015 is the most
from the agricultural sectors comprehensive assessment of
allows countries to monitor forests to date. It examines the
progress against their Nationally status and recent trends for
Determined Contributions (NDCs) about 100 variables covering the
and climate action commitments, extent, condition, use, and value
assess their status, and consider of forests and other wooded land. FAO IS A KEY
potential areas of action. The next edition is due in 2020.
Additionally, FAO assists countries PARTNER
Ex-Ante Carbon-balance Tool
(EX-ACT)
in strengthening their national
forest monitoring systems. IN CREATING
This system provides ex-ante
estimates of the impact of land use
www.fao.org/forest-resources-assessment/en/
RESILIENT
and land-use changes, and natural
resource management on GHG
Global Livestock
Environmental Assessment
AGRICULTURAL
emissions and carbon balance.
EX-ACT is a powerful tool that can
Model (GLEAM)
This model supports the
DEVELOPMENT
ensure agricultural investments assessment of adaptation and TO BOOST
are climate-proofed.
www.fao.org/tc/exact/en/
mitigation scenarios in the livestock
sector. It calculates livestock FOOD SECURITY
12AUSTRALIA
A forestry expert assesses
the Blackwood State Forest
after a bushfire.
©FAO/Salahuddin Ahmad
production, GHG emissions and environmental performance development, thus contributing to
mitigation potential using IPCC and GHG emissions in livestock national and global climate change
Tier 2 methods. A user-friendly supply chains. mitigation goals.
version is available for download www.fao.org/partnerships/leap/en/ www.slideshare.net/FAOoftheUN/tag/namatool
to support governments, project
planners, producers, industry, and Learning tool on Nationally Open Foris
civil society organizations. Appropriate Mitigation Actions Open Foris is a set of open-source
www.fao.org/gleam/en/ (NAMAs) in the agriculture, software tools to facilitate flexible
forestry, and other land-use and efficient data collection,
Livestock Environmental sectors analysis and reporting. Its modules
Assessment and Performance Through this tool, FAO can be used for forest inventories,
(LEAP) Partnership supports developing countries land use and land-use change
This multi-stakeholder partnership in identifying, developing and assessment, and climate change
develops harmonized metrics implementing NAMAs in the reporting.
and methodologies to track context of national sustainable www.openforis.org
13FAO’S WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
TECHNOLOGY
AND TOOLS
ASSESSING, IMPACTS, RISKS characteristics that enable them
AND VULNERABILITIES to thrive in local conditions and
Understanding the vulnerability meet the needs of the people
of people’s food security to climate that keep them. This tool models
change is essential to identify potential future habitats for 8 800
appropriate adaptation measures livestock breeds, allowing more
and so reduce both vulnerabilities informed decision-making on breed
and impacts. management as climate change
alters habitats.
Agricultural Stress Index www.fao.org/breed-distribution-model/en/
System (ASIS)
Using data on vegetation and land Analysis and Mapping of
surface temperature, ASIS detects Impacts under Climate Change
hotspots where crops may be for Adaptation and Food
affected by drought. It contributes Security (AMICAF)
to the food security monitoring Aimed at strengthening household
work of Global Information and food security through livelihood
Early Warning Systems on Food adaptation approaches, the
and Agriculture (GIEWS). assessment was implemented in
www.fao.org/giews/en/ Indonesia, Paraguay, Peru and
the Philippines. Funded by the
Assessment services and digital Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry
inclusion in Africa and Fisheries of Japan, its main of different climate change scenarios
Four new apps are bringing objective is to connect climate in crop yield.
agricultural services closer to change impact assessment, food www.fao.org/aquacrop/en/
farmers, providing real-time insecurity vulnerability analysis
information on weather, livestock and livelihood adaptation Event Mobile Application
care, markets, and nutrition-related approaches. (EMA-i)
aspects of food production: Weather www.fao.org/climatechange/amicaf/en/ This app enables data collection
and crop calendar, Cure and feed and real-time reporting at country
your livestock, Agrimarketplace AquaCrop level of geo-referenced information
and e-Nutrifood. AquaCrop is a crop model that on animal diseases, facilitating both
www.fao.org/3/CA1050EN/ca1050en.pdf simulates the yield response to water surveillance and early warning.
of herbaceous crops in different www.fao.org/3/CA1078EN/ca1078en.pdf
Assessment tool for the agro-ecological conditions. It is
potential impact of climate particularly suited to addressing Fall Armyworm monitoring
change on breed distribution conditions where water is a key and early warning system
Livestock breeds raised in certain limiting factor in crop production. It (FAMEWS)
environments have acquired allows the simulation of the impact Through this app and its platform,
14SRI LANKA
Farmers in Mahailuppallama
learn about the new Fall
Armyworm Monitoring and
Early Warning System
(FAMEWS) mobile application.
©FAO/Lekha Edirisinghe
LEVERAGING
INVESTMENTS IN
CLIMATE-SMART
data on Fall Armyworm can
be collected at the farm level
users to browse and analyse
price series as well as to make AGRICULTURE,
and collated for sharing at
local, national and global levels
comparisons across markets,
commodities and seasons.
INCLUDING FROM
to manage the pest, identify
priority areas, and foster early
www.fao.org/3/CA1093EN/ca1093en.pdf THE PRIVATE
warning mechanisms for Global assessment of
fisheries and aquaculture
SECTOR, IS
CRUCIAL TO
all stakeholders.
www.fao.org/3/CA1089EN/ca1089en.pdf compliance with the Code
Food Price Monitoring and
of Conduct for Responsible
Fisheries. LIFTING MILLIONS
Analysis (FPMA) tool
This customizable tool supports
Implementation of the Code
is monitored through global OF PEOPLE OUT
country-level analysis and
dissemination of agricultural
questionnaires sent to all
FAO Members twice a year.
OF HUNGER
commodity prices. Through
an online interface it allows
The progress report can be
used by members to improve
AND POVERTY
15FAO’S WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
TECHNOLOGY
AND TOOLS
performance and address their management practices; the selection
adaptation to climate change. of sustainable land management
www.fao.org/fishery/code/en practices that are well adapted to
the local context; and assessment,
Global early warning system documentation and sharing.
for transboundary plant pests www.fao.org/nr/lada and www.wocat.net
and diseases
The Desert Locust early warning Land Resource Planning (LRP)
system monitors locusts, weather Toolbox
and ecological conditions, and This online resource provides
provides forecasts and alerts to tools for stakeholders directly or
countries as part of a strategy to indirectly involved in land-use
reduce the frequency, duration, planning.
and magnitude of plagues. The www.fao.org/land-water/land/land-governance/
system can be adapted to other land-resources-planning-toolbox/en/
transboundary plant pests and
diseases. A new system of drones, Modelling System for
dLocust, is under development. Agricultural Impacts of
www.fao.org/ag/locusts Climate Change (MOSAICC)
This system allows
Information Network on interdisciplinary climate change
Post-harvest Operations impact assessments on agriculture
(INPhO) through simulations. It allows for
This platform facilitates access to a better integration of scientific
FAO SUPPORTS
technological solutions to help reduce information in the design of
food loss in developing countries. agricultural development projects
COUNTRIES IN The information on the platform
is accessible through four types
and policy.
www.fao.org/in-action/mosaicc
TURNING THEIR of media – virtual reality, mobile
phones, computers and audio. Nuclear and isotopic
CLIMATE www.fao.org/3/CA1199EN/ca1199en.pdf techniques for better
adaptation and resilience to
COMMITMENTS Land Degradation Assessment
in Drylands (LADA)
climate change
Nuclear and isotopic techniques
INTO ACTION The LADA-WOCAT toolset are important tools to measure the
THROUGH
facilitates participatory processes impact of climate change, so that
involving land users and experts agriculture can better adapt to and
INNOVATION for national and local assessment of
land degradation and existing land
be more resilient to climate change.
www-naweb.iaea.org/nafa/index.html
16ROME
WaPOR, a tool to monitor
water productivity, is presented
during the Global Framework
on Water Scarcity Partners
Meeting at FAO headquarters.
©FAO/Giuseppe Carotenuto
Self-evaluation and Holistic productivity for Africa and the Climate and Land Hub
Assessment of climate Near East. It is a vital new tool to (CL-Hub)
Resilience of farmers and address water scarcity and adapt to To support countries in turning
Pastoralists (SHARP) changing weather patterns. their climate commitments
This tool helps farmers and www.fao.org/in-action/remote-sensing-for-water- into action, FAO is developing
pastoralists assess and prioritize productivity/wapor/en/#/home an online knowledge platform
the resilience of their livelihoods. called the Climate and Land
SHARP is used for monitoring World Agriculture Watch Hub (CL-Hub). The CL-Hub
and evaluation, as well as a This portfolio of products and platform offers a "one stop
learning method, integrated into services supports country-based shop" of knowledge products
agropastoral/farmer field schools initiatives to develop information helping countries and other
in sub-Saharan Africa. systems centred on family farmers stakeholders to navigate a
www.fao.org/in-action/sharp/en/ and to generate appropriate rapidly proliferating landscape
typologies that characterize the of virtual networks and
Water Productivity through diversity of farming types. This online platforms and to
Open access of Remotely allows targeting of investments to address climate change in
sensed derived data (WaPOR) adapt to climate change, increase the agriculture and land
This FAO portal monitors and resilience and reduce poverty. sector effectively. It will be
reports on agriculture water www.fao.org/world-agriculture-watch/en/ available soon.
17FAO’S WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
FAO
IN ACTION
AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SYSTEMS and food security, and lead to
FAO’S CLIMATE ARE A HUGE PART OF THE CLIMATE
SOLUTION
forced migration.
PORTFOLIO To meet the SDGs, in Accelerating and scaling up actions
can strengthen the resilience
Starting in 2009, particular those on poverty
and adaptive capacity of food
over 300 projects and and hunger, agriculture and
systems and people’s livelihoods
food systems need to boost – moving from a reactive response
programmes have productivity and resource to crises such as droughts to
addressed climate efficiency. At the same time, proactively preventing and
they must reduce emissions, anticipating them. Reaching out
change adaptation to rural producers with diversified
draw down carbon, and boost
and mitigation in resilience and adaptation to
agricultural opportunities and
climate-smart practices can reduce
the agricultural the changing climate. extreme poverty.
sectors. Through its
More than three billion people, Adapting agriculture to climate
extensive network of 80 percent of the poor, live in rural change requires action based on
professionals, FAO areas, with around 2.5 billion science and must include three
dependent on agriculture for their important components: innovation,
supports countries livelihoods. But agriculture and investment – including technology
on climate-related food systems, which must increase – and inclusiveness, across borders
production 49 percent by 2050, are and sectors. Because agriculture
issues, from particularly vulnerable to climate is directly engaged with climate
policy design to change. Agriculture sectors absorb change, biodiversity, soil fertility
about 26 percent of the economic and land degradation, it is the key
improved practices impacts of climate-induced to bringing together fragmented
and capacity disasters – this rises to 83 percent stakeholders – resource managers,
for drought only in developing producers, value-chain operators,
development. countries. Climate change advocates and policy makers.
will increase losses by causing
more frequent and extreme Agriculture and food systems,
weather events (droughts, meanwhile, contribute almost one
floods, unreliable rainy seasons, quarter of global greenhouse gas
hurricanes) escalating pest and emissions. But almost half of the
disease risks, loss of biodiversity solutions to stay within agreed
and ecosystem degradation. climate goals come from food
This will impact land-use systems, and agriculture. These solutions
livelihoods, water resources involve action on forests and other
18PAKISTAN
A farmer surveys his
wheat crop.
©FAO Pakistan
ecosystems, soils, water, livestock, biodiversity, use natural resources FAO in action
oceans and food systems – as sustainably, restore degraded ➨ FAO reached over 25 million
well as on food environments lands and promote ecosystem people in 2018 through inclusive,
and consumers. services. Mutually supportive multisectoral interventions to
climate and land policies have the ensure continued access to food,
Agriculture can reform by adopting potential to save resources, amplify reduce acute hunger and poverty,
climate-smart, nature-positive social resilience and inclusion, and build resilience.
farming systems, better forest support ecosystem restoration, ➨ Recent FAO field assessments
governance and land-use planning, and foster collaboration between show that every USD invested
and approaches that safeguard multiple stakeholders. in early action has generated a
return on investment ranging from
USD 2.5 to USD 7.1 in avoided
disaster losses.
CUTTING EMISSIONS FROM ENERGY ➨ A recent FAO study showed
USE IN AGRICULTURE that farm-level practices and
Globally, agrifood chains consume adequate supply of modern energy technologies aimed at reducing
about 30 percent of available services along agrifood chains disaster risks provide farmers with
energy, mostly in post-harvest by improving energy efficiency, economic and social benefits that
operations and in the form of increasing renewable energy, in are 2.2 times higher than standards
fossil fuels. The challenge is to particular sustainable development practices previously used by farmers
disconnect the development of of bioenergy, contributing to the under natural hazard conditions.
agrifood chains from the use of development of a bioeconomy, ➨ FAO developed the Agricultural
fossil fuels without compromising and implementing the above Stress Index System (ASIS) for
food security. FAO’s Energy-Smart through a water–energy–food early warning and monitoring of
Food Programme aims to ensure nexus approach. agricultural droughts. ASIS uses
satellite-based remote sensing
19FAO’S WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
FAO
IN ACTION
data to detect agricultural areas with efficient water management in
a high likelihood of water stress. irrigation to optimize soil water
➨ FAO leads the Global Framework retention and plant uptake,
on Water Scarcity in Agriculture water harvesting for household
to support knowledge exchange and societal use, and efficient
and collective action in order to water distribution among
improve adaptation to climate water users.
change and water scarcity including ➨ FAO works with countries
through drought management and on adaptation planning and
water-harvesting for agriculture. implementation in agriculture,
➨ A key area of FAO´s work to supporting 69 countries through
enhance resilience is to support 76 projects.
NATURE-BASED SOLUTIONS
BUILDING CLIMATE RESILIENCE Nature-based solutions – such
IN PAKISTAN as agroforestry – can quickly
The Green Climate Fund (GCF) broader support to countries to reduce emissions, remove
has provided FAO with a grant respond to climate change.” carbon from the atmosphere
of nearly USD 35 million to In the Indus River Basin, agriculture and help adapt to climate
transform Pakistan’s Indus River employs nearly 26 percent of change.
Basin by improving agriculture Pakistan’s labour force and
and water management to make produces more than 90 percent of Nature-based solutions for
this vital food-producing region the country’s agriculture outputs. mitigation, adaptation and
more resilient to climate change. However, extended droughts resilience conserve and restore
The provincial governments of and floods have affected millions ecosystems, and ensure nature
Punjab and Sindh have committed of people in recent years. The contributes to resilient livelihoods,
an additional USD 12.7 million in project will help shift Pakistan green job generation and rural
co-financing. and its Indus Basin agriculture poverty reduction. They can
“We are at a critical moment that from high vulnerability to an enable sustainable production
calls for bold climate action that alternative paradigm wherein better intensification to meet demand
can stimulate concrete solutions to information, water management from increasing populations while
help build resilience,” said Maria and farming practices will keeping up to 12 gigatonnes of
Helena Semedo, FAO Deputy significantly increase resilience to greenhouse gases per year out
Director-General, Climate and climate change, directly benefiting of the atmosphere and adding
Natural Resources. “This project is 1.3 million rural people and millions USD 2.3 trillion to the global
an important step forward in FAO’s more indirectly. economy. They can also optimize
the capture, retention in the
20BURKINA FASO
A nursery in Ouedraogo Salif,
part of the Action Against
Desertification initiative of the
African, Caribbean and Pacific
Group of States.
©FAO/Giulio Napolitano
soil, and recharge of surface and
groundwater resources, reducing
threats of drought and unreliable
rains on food production and food
security. Nature-based solutions
receive only 3 percent of climate
action funding. Awareness and
funding in these areas need to be
scaled up.
FAO in action
➨ A recent FAO study shows
that nature-based solutions – like
conserving or planting mangrove
forests to protect coastal areas
GREET GREEN WALL FOR CITIES from flooding, soil and water
FAO’s Great Green Wall for Cities winds, floods and landslides.” conservation through contour
Initiative, announced in September FAO, together with partners, is farming across hillsides, and
2019, builds on the progress made aiming to support at least three cities conservation agriculture systems –
under the Great Green Wall of in each of 30 countries in Africa and can offer higher returns than hard
Africa and the Sahel project and Asia. By 2030, the action will have infrastructure measures.
will see the creation of urban green helped cities create up to 500 000 ➨ FAO combats deforestation
areas that are integrated into wider hectares of new urban forests and and desertification, including
landscape restoration activities. restore or maintain up to 300 000 by supporting large-scale
“The rapid expansion of cities hectares of existing natural forests in initiatives such as Action Against
takes place without land-use and around cities in the Sahel and Desertification in support of the
design and the resulting human Central Asia. Great Green Wall across the Sahel.
pressure causes highly damaging The enhanced green infrastructure ➨ Restoring 350 million hectares
environmental effects through will reduce the costs of preventing of degraded landscapes – an area
clearing or degradation of forests and addressing the impacts of the size of India – by 2030 under
and other green spaces,” said FAO climate change and improve the well- the FAO- and UNEP-led UN
Director-General Qu Dongyu. “The being of citizens. If well managed, Decade for Ecosystem Restoration
problem is particularly severe in urban forests and trees can reduce could secure USD 9 trillion in
drylands, where the effects of climate air temperature by up to 8 °C, ecosystem services.
change are expected to increase the reduce the costs of air conditioning ➨ In the upper basin of El
exposure of cities and surrounding by up to 40 percent, reduce storm Salvador’s Lempa River, farmers,
areas to severe droughts, sand and water flows and improve air quality as part of an FAO and Global
dust storms, heatwaves, extreme by filtering dust and pollutants. Environment Facility project,
restored micro-watersheds,
21FAO’S WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
FAO
IN ACTION
areas of land that collect water, to
reduce the risk of disaster and help
small-scale rural farmers adapt to
climate change.
➨ In the Kagera basin, Burundi,
FAO promoted watershed
management and community
land planning for the integrated
management of crops, pastures,
agroforestry and wetlands and
restoration of soil and water
resources. Farmers were taught
how to grow vegetables that
require a small amount of land, an estimated 296 gigatonnes of management is essential
have a short growth cycle and are carbon, which can be increased. for sustaining vegetation
easily marketable. Reducing deforestation and cover; reducing soil loss;
➨ FAO is tackling land restoring degraded forests can cut sequestering carbon above
degradation and drought in emissions by over 5 gigatonnes and below ground; sustaining
mechanized cropping systems of CO2 equivalent each year, the hydrological cycle that
by promoting conservation which is around 10 percent of all ensures the recharge of surface
agriculture systems that combine 2018 emissions. and groundwater to supply
improved vegetation cover for rural communities, irrigation
optimizing rainwater infiltration Mountain ecosystems and systems and urban centres; and
and soil organic matter, direct watersheds are an important indeed regulating the climate.
drilling of seed and reduced source of water, energy and
traffic to reduce soil disturbance, biological diversity. However, loss There is a need to address the
and rotations and plant mixes to of protective vegetation cover drivers of deforestation and
optimize soil function. due to fires, logging, agricultural degradation, ensure responsible
expansion, overgrazing and governance of forests and land,
THE POWER OF FORESTS loss of wetlands are resulting scale up successful restoration
Increasing forest cover is in accelerated runoff and soil strategies and actions, and
a cost-effective and rapid erosion, landslides, reduced water ensure effective monitoring
storage, increased emissions, and reporting. Tenure and
solution to climate change.
and rising levels of poverty and resource use protection and
Tropical deforestation and vulnerability of inhabitants. benefits need to be fair.
forest degradation account Livelihoods, food security
for 11 percent of the world’s The integrated management needs and the culture of
greenhouse gas emissions. of mountains/hillsides and traditional forest keepers need
The world’s forests currently store valleys through watershed to be addressed.
22NICARAGUA
A fire protection brigade clears
brush for fire protection and to
give trees room to grow.
©FAO/Lou Dematteis
planning and actions at all levels. to restore more than 100 million
FAO supports monitoring of hectares by 2030.
progress towards REDD+ and ➨ FAO’s Forest and Landscape
restoration goals at all levels. Restoration Mechanism has shown
➨ FAO is developing programmes results in three continents. In Africa,
with public and private partners FAO and partners organized a Forest
for sustainable and climate-smart and Landscape Investment Forum
non-timber forest value chains to to promote investments in forest
build up resilient livelihoods for and landscapes, including climate
women and youth while restoring change mitigation and adaptation.
forests and landscapes. In Lebanon, innovative restoration
➨ FAO supports the African models have helped reduce erosion
Union Development Agency accelerated by intense weather
FAO in action (AUDA-NEPAD) in the events. In Uganda, the integration of
➨ The UN-REDD Programme is implementation and monitoring restoration activities in the national
an initiative of FAO, UNDP and of the African Forest Landscape Forest Investment Programme
UNEP, with 65 partner countries, Restoration Initiative (AFR100) with allows for greater climate change
that supports forest and land-use commitments from 28 countries mitigation action.
KNOWING YOUR FORESTS TO STORE MORE CARBON
FAO, the UN Development improving governance and advancing against climate change by halting
Programme and the UN Environment national policy and institutional deforestation and forest degradation
Programme established a systems to safeguard forests and under the UNFCCC’s REDD+ scheme.
collaborative partnership known as mitigate climate change. Technical expertise and support
the UN Programme on Reducing Some 34 governments have now from FAO, provided through UN-
Emissions from Deforestation been able to submit critical baseline REDD, has helped countries identify
and Forest Degradation, and the data on forest carbon stores and drivers of deforestation and forest
conservation and enhancement of forest-related greenhouse gas degradation, while making significant
forest carbon stocks (UN-REDD) in emissions to the United Nations advances in modernizing forest
2008 to support countries wishing to Framework Convention on Climate monitoring. FAO support for new
participate in reducing emissions from Change (UNFCCC). Together, those technologies, satellite data and
deforestation and forest degradation. 34 countries account for 1.4 billion open-source software allows countries
The Programme supports partner hectares of forest — 36 percent of to collect an unprecedented wealth
countries in strengthening and the planet’s forest area. This data of data on forests and generate
innovating their National Forest is an essential basis for developing detailed maps, statistics and studies
Monitoring Systems, constructing countries to tailor their REDD+ on forest-use that were not previously
Forest Reference Emission Levels, actions and contribute to the fight possible.
23FAO’S WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
FAO
IN ACTION
CONSERVING AND
RESTORING SOILS
Soils are our allies in the
fight against hunger and
climate change.
Soils help to supply clean water
and food, prevent desertification
and provide resilience, while
mitigating climate change
through carbon sequestration.
A third of global soils are
degraded, impacting at least
3.2 billion people and costing
over 10 percent of annual
global gross product in loss
of biodiversity and ecosystem of carbon – roughly equivalent System monitors and forecasts
services. to total global emissions in the condition of the Earth’s
2018 – from the atmosphere soil resources.
However, by managing soils while raising food production by ➨ FAO developed the first
sustainably, restoring degraded 17.6 megatonnes per year. Global Soil Carbon Map to
land and improving soil health, identify degraded areas, setting
the full potential of soils can be Rangeland and pastoral systems restoration targets and exploring
unlocked. The rehabilitation of occupy two thirds of global sequestration potential.
agricultural and degraded soils dryland areas and are estimated
can remove up to 51 gigatonnes to store up to 30 percent of the PUTTING COMMUNITIES
world’s soil carbon in addition AT THE CENTRE OF
to the substantial amount of CONSERVATION
FAO and the Global Soil above-ground carbon. In view AND RESTORATION
Partnership are supporting of the degraded nature of Biodiversity and
countries in the Implementation large areas of rangelands, the communities are key pillars
of the Voluntary Guidelines on potential to sequester carbon
for restoring agriculture
Sustainable Soil Management to through improved management
is significant. sectors and resilient
increase the resilience of soils and
landscapes and livelihoods.
natural resource systems to the
effects of climate change, while FAO in action
simultaneously reducing greenhouse ➨ FAO manages the Secretariat Large-scale restoration and
gas emissions from soils. of the Global Soil Partnership. agro-ecological practices
Its Global Soil Information in cropping systems
24EGYPT
In Tiba, a technical expert
teaches farmers how to check soil
to make sure it is disease-free.
©FAO/Heba Khamis
managed landscapes – terms of mitigation, adaptation
including a mosaic of forests and resilience.
and tree-based landscapes,
as well as grasslands – they FAO in action
can build resilience of the ➨ The Dryland Sustainable
sector to climate change, help Landscape Impact Program,
produce the 49 percent of more led by FAO, assists 11 countries
food the world needs by 2050, across Africa and Asia in
and increase carbon sinks. fostering resilience of production
Investing at scale in these systems in drylands, promoting
practices is a win-win solution restoration and rehabilitation,
for tackling climate change in and improving livelihoods.
HELPING NEPAL TO MAINSTREAM
are crucial to building CLIMATE RESILIENCE INTO
climate-smart agriculture. VULNERABLE ECOSYSTEMS
Successful restoration practices The Green Climate Fund (GCF) has towards the goals of the national
include assisted or natural allocated nearly USD 40 million REDD+ strategy.
regeneration in forests and to a project that will help nearly The Churia hills region in the
agroforestry landscapes, and 1 million people respond to forest Himalayan foothills is critical to
planting using the seeds and degradation, flooding and soil Nepal’s food security, but decades
seedlings of local and adapted erosion in the Churia hills region of unsustainable use of natural
species from rich forest of Nepal. resources has resulted in forest
and grassland biodiversity. Nepal’s Government, through degradation, floods and soil
These practices work because its Ministry of Forests and erosion. Somsak Pipoppinyo, FAO
they put communities and Environment (MoFE), is adding a Representative to Nepal, said
people at the centre of action, further USD 8 million – for a total the GCF contribution to FAO’s
address the root causes of of more than USD 47 million. This work in partnership with the
degradation, combine local first project approved by GCF for government would benefit more
knowledge with science and Nepal will be implemented over than 200 000 households and
adapted technology, and a period of seven years, with help them become more resilient to
diversify livelihoods. technical assistance from FAO. the changing environment.
It will help build planning and “It will also help them adapt to,
Agriculture, forestry and food extension capacities within the and mitigate, the effects of climate
security should not be treated newly decentralized provincial and extreme weather events in the
in isolation. When cropping governments, and contribute years to come,” said Pipoppinyo.
is integrated into sustainably
25FAO’S WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
FAO
IN ACTION
REFORMING THE LIVESTOCK population, a key source of food 34 times the warming impact
SECTOR and protein. of CO2 (although it stays in the
Better livestock atmosphere for ten years, far
management offers huge Livestock-generated emissions are less than CO2, which persists for
correlated with low productivity: a century).
mitigation potential.
currently, the emissions intensity
Livestock supply chains account of dairy systems in sub-Saharan To reduce the environmental
for 14.5 percent of global Africa is five times higher than in footprint of livestock requires
anthropogenic greenhouse Western Europe. These emissions increasing production through
gas emissions, with cattle can be reduced by a third, improved feeding, genetics and
responsible for about two-thirds particularly by tackling methane. animal health, and recycling
of that figure. But livestock Methane accounts for about half by-products and waste as feed, fuel
remains, for much of the world’s of livestock emissions, and has and fertilizer.
FAO in action
➨ Working with over
CLIMATE-SMART LIVESTOCK 150 stakeholders in 13 countries,
IN ECUADOR FAO and partners have developed
This project seeks to reduce land smart livestock management, a knowledge base that has
degradation, mitigate greenhouse gas including through pilot projects and increased awareness of the role
(GHG) emissions and boost adaptation technical assistance to farmers on of methane in climate change
to climate change in Ecuador’s livestock environmental and climate problems. and food security, and supported
sector. It is implemented by FAO and countries in advocating for
the national government with Global Project results methane mitigation.
Environment Facility funds. A total of 26 424 hectares was ➨ In Kenya, FAO supported the
In Ecuador, the agriculture sector influenced by the climate-smart design of nationally appropriate
contributed almost 20 per cent livestock approach in six provinces mitigation action for the dairy
of total GHG emissions for 2012, All of the producers linked to the sector, “Low-carbon and Climate
with over 40 per cent coming project in the village of Tangalí have Resilient Dairy Development in
from enteric methane. The project implemented good livestock practices, Kenya”, which was submitted
works to strengthen coordination including the incorporation of forage to the Green Climate Fund
and institutional capacities to species with high protein content and for funding.
incorporate the climate-smart livestock a paddock division with the addition of ➨ The FAO-hosted Livestock
approach in the management of electric fences and live fences. Environmental Assessment and
territories and the development of Climate change adaptation and Performance (LEAP) Partnership
livestock instruments and policies. mitigation measures have contributed has developed consensus
The project disseminates and to a 40 per cent increase in production on accounting methods and
implements technologies for climate- on the farms of Tangalí producers. guidelines for the assessment of
climate emissions for the sector.
26CHILE
A man cultivates molluscs,
part of a programme to
develop the fisheries and
aquaculture sector's capacity
to adapt to climate change,
Caleta El Manzano.
©FAO
OCEANS AND SUSTAINABLE
FISHERIES
Oceans and inland waters
are essential to food security
and climate regulation.
The ocean has absorbed more than
90 percent of the additional heat
generated by anthropogenic climate
change. This puts it at the forefront
of long-term impacts of climate
change. Climate change will
increase sea surface temperatures,
sea-level rise and ocean acidification
and will intensify tropical storms
which will reach higher peak
wind speeds. Climate change also
contributes to dangerous declines in
ocean oxygen levels.
SUPPORTING THE CHILEAN FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE
SECTOR IN ADAPTING TO CLIMATE CHANGE
Chile is one of the main diversification. They are officials, experts and decision-
fish-producing countries, but in recent incorporating new methodologies makers at national, regional and
decades the sector has experienced and techniques, which allows communal levels were trained in
a downward trend. A new project them to maintain or improve adaptation to climate change in
by the Chilean Undersecretariat their income level. An additional fisheries and aquaculture.
of Fisheries and Aquaculture, the 60 fishermen and fish farmers were The direct involvement of artisanal
Ministry of the Environment, FAO trained in the use of equipment and fishers and small-scale aquaculturists
and the Global Environment Facility instruments for measuring variables allowed the project to tap into their
is helping reverse this trend by such as sea surface temperature empirical knowledge about changing
equipping the fishing and aquaculture and the salinity of the water, with fish resources. They also participated
sector adapt to climate change. the aim of improving the activities in the decision-making process on
The project trained 800 fishermen they perform – such as oyster new regulations needed as climate
and fish farmers in productive cultivation. A total of 400 public change moves fishing grounds.
27FAO’S WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
FAO
IN ACTION
All of this means that ➨ FAO reduces ecosystem
sustainable fisheries impacts from fishing, including
management is essential. Fish is effects on bycatch and
crucial to a healthy diet – as well associated species.
as sustaining the livelihoods ➨ In 7 Caribbean countries,
of an estimated tenth of the FAO works with local
global population. But nearly governments to adapt the
33 percent of the major fisheries sector to climate
commercial fish species that change. These actions include
FAO monitors are being fished the sensitization of fishers, the
at biologically unsustainable incorporation of early warning
levels. In high warming systems via mobile technology
scenarios, there could be a 10 and training to increase
percent fall in ocean primary income through productive
production by the end of the diversification. Access to
century. In some Western and insurance is also promoted to
Central Pacific island states, allow fishing to resume quickly
Small Scale Fisheries’ harvests after storms or hurricanes.
are projected to fall up towards
50 percent by 2050. TRANSFORMING FOOD SYSTEMS can protect climate and water
AND DIETS resources, increase adaptation and
Fisheries need support to shift Sustainable food systems resilience, boost food security and
to ecosystem-based approaches and diets can make a huge improve human health.
that fish sustainably and to
contribution to climate action.
ensure they remain productive The EAT-Lancet Commission has
in the face of the changing Growing consumption, combined recommended that everybody
climate. Coastal communities with a huge amount of food adopt the Planetary Health
are highly exposed to sea-level waste, is driving the conversion Diet. If adopted universally, this
rise and extreme events such of land for agriculture – which diet would reduce emissions,
as cyclones and storm surges, is destroying ecosystems and feed 10 billion people and
but restoring mangroves and biodiversity and driving up save 11 million lives each year.
coral reefs can help build climate change. This is happening According to the Commission,
ecosystem resilience. while more than 820 million a planetary health plate should
people go hungry and many consist largely of vegetables and
FAO in action more are overweight or obese. fruits, with the rest made up
➨ FAO supports implementation As healthy and sustainable diets of whole grains, plant protein
of sustainable and efficient are almost always best for the sources, unsaturated plant oils,
fisheries management and environment, reforming food and, occasionally, small amounts
fishing practices. systems to prioritize these diets of meat or fish.
28KYRGYZ REPUBLIC
A Kyrgyz rider drives sheep
to the pasture in Tuyk canyon,
60 km from Bishkek.
©FAO/Vyacheslav Oseledko
Reducing food losses and waste
could make a massive difference.
According to the most recent
FAO report on the State of Food
and Agriculture 2019, around
14 percent of food produced is lost
from the post-harvest stage up
to, but excluding, the retail stage.
This represents USD 400 billion
in lost produce. Earlier estimates
– which are being updated –
found that food losses and waste,
including retailers and consumers,
are responsible for 8 percent of
total greenhouse gas emissions,
and cost up to USD 2.6 trillion per
year, including USD 700 billion
GREENING THE AGRIFOOD SECTOR IN KAZAKHSTAN AND
THE KYRGYZ REPUBLIC
Greater adoption of climate and contribute to climate change 30 percent respectively. In the Kyrgyz
technologies in the agrifood adaptation. In 2018, FAO and the Republic, pasture improvement has by
sector is an important step EBRD used the methodology to far the greatest mitigation potential,
towards more sustainable food conduct rapid assessments of climate followed by manure management,
systems. Such technologies can technologies in the Kyrgyz Republic drip irrigation and improved
help improve productivity, reduce and Kazakhstan. Both countries have greenhouses. In terms of adaptation
carbon emissions, build climate seen a considerable rise in agrifood potential, drip irrigation is the most
resilience and make better use of emissions over the past 15 years, promising technology given its
natural resources. largely due to expanded livestock ability to increase water availability
FAO and the European Bank for production. and agricultural production. In
Reconstruction and Development The studies found that by investing Kazakhstan too, pasture improvement
(EBRD) developed a methodology USD 1 billion in climate technologies has the best mitigation potential,
to identify and prioritize climate in the Kyrgyz Republic and then conservation agriculture, field
technologies in the agrifood USD 2.3 billion in Kazakhstan, machinery and precision agriculture,
sector based on their potential to agrifood sector emissions could be while drip irritation has the best
mitigate greenhouse gas emissions reduced by almost 60 percent and adaptation potential.
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