RED LIST VERSION 3.0 SUSTAINABILITY ACTION PLAN - The Miller Hull Partnership, LLP
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RED LIST VERSION 3.0
SUSTAINABILITY ACTION PLAN
The Miller Hull Partnership, LLPMILLER HULL
RED LIST V3.0
DO WE REALLY NEED IT?
In connection with human health, it is important to know materials ingredients and
their toxicity concerns, which is why we support the efforts behind emerging scientific
data that continue to evolve our understanding of materials heatlh. As part of our IS IT WORTH IT?
Sustainability Action Plan, Miller Hull has comitted to removing Red List chemicals from
our projects. Our list includes an effort to address chemical classes.
IS THERE A SAFER
CHEMICAL CLASS CHEMICAL / ELEMENT / MATERIAL ALTERNATIVE?
CHLORINATED POLYMERS POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC)
FLAME RETARDANTS HALOGENATED FLAME RETARDANTS
PTHALATES PTHALATES
FORMALDEHYDE (ADDED) FORMALDEHYDE (ADDED)
BISPHENOL A (BPA) BISPHENOL A (BPA) - GREEN SCIENCE POLICY INSTITUTE
TOXIC HEAVY METALS HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM (HEX 6)
LEAD
MERCURY
PER- AND POLYFLUORALKYL SUBSTANCES PER- AND POLYFLUORALYKL SUBSTANCES
(PFAS) (PFAS)
ALKYLPHENOLS (APES) AND RELATED ALKYLPHENOLS (APES)
COMPOUNDS
WOOD TREATMENTS CREOSOTE
PNETACHLOROPHENOL
PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE:
When an activity raises threats of harm to human health
or the environment, precautionary measures should be
taken even if some cause and effect relationships are not
fully established scientifically.
Bullitt Center, Seattle, WACHLORINATED POLYMERS
POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC)
WHAT • Polyvinyl Chloride, commonly abbreviated PVC, is the world’s third-most widely
produced synthetic plastic polymer. PVC is largely used in construction because it can be more
HOW As contractors, we care because...
IS IT? effective in weight, cost, and performance than traditional materials such as copper, iron or TO MAKE A • The greatest risk of exposure is to workers in production facilities and those who
work with the products during construction, primarily through inhalation.
“Because infinitesimal
wood in pipe applications. CHANGE
doses of dioxin are enough • The production of PVC results in the release of toxins including dioxins. The burning of PVC While many health and environmental problems are associated with PVC, the construction
to cause health damage, results in the release of dioxins. Additives of PVC can be toxic to users. The manufacturing industry has been unaware of its true cost and long considered it as a cheap convenient material.
and incineration of PVC also creates and releases dioxins, which cause a wide range of health There exist a variety of cost effective materials with less health hazard to workers, building users,
the only level of dioxin effects including cancer, birth defects, diabetes, learning and developmental delays, and the general public that perform equally well.7
exposure that should be endometriosis, and immune system abnormalities. One type of dioxin present in PVC is the
considered acceptable most potent carcinogen ever tested. These toxin’s primary pathway into the human body is
from a public health through inhalation. “Exposure to a single PVC Alternative Options
Products with Vinyl Safer Alternative Material
perspective is zero.” fire can cause permanent
• The chemicals present in PVC are known as persistent biocumulative toxins (PBT’s) which Cast Iron, Steel, Concrete Depending on the plumbing application, a wide
mean they will persist in the environment and species around the world indefinitely. respiratory disease… Due Vitrified Clay, Lead-free range of materials can be used to construct pipes
Joe Thornton, Environmental Impacts of
Polyvinyl Chloride Building Materials15 These are also commonly referred to as “forever chemicals.” to its intrinsic hazards, Copper (interior only), for hot and cold potable water, as well as waste
Piping HDPE (high density pipe and sanitary drains.
we support efforts to
• A common myth is that PVC can be recycled. PVC never completely breaks down in the identify and use alternative
polyethylene),un-crosslinked
environment, it cannot be recycled and interferes with the recycling of other plastics.1 PEX, Polypropylene
building materials that Cork and linoleum both source their primary
do not pose as much risk ingredients from plants and natural minerals.
Be sure to select a cork floor made without a
as PVC to fire fighters,
WHY As architects, we care because...
building occupants or
Resilient
Flooring Cork, Linoleum, Rubber PVC backing. While rubber flooring is based on
styrene-butadiene chemistry and has a number of
• As one of the most common building products, PVC is a toxic chemical largely used
DO WE CARE? in building materials such as pipes, electric cables, photo-effect wood finish, window communities.”
concerns, a 2009 evaluation of resilient flooring
from the Healthy Building Network still indicated it
frames and sills, fascia, siding, weather boarding, flooring, ceiling tiles, interior Richard M Duffy, International Association
as a preferred option over PVC.
of Fire Fighters6 Some carpet backing and other flooring products
cladding, and more.
can contain a PVC backing. Be sure to ask the
• Healthy Building Network research shows vinyl (PVC) is the number one driver Carpet Backing Polyvinyl Butyral (PVB) manufacturer for a product that has an alternative
of asbestos use in the US. The vinyl/asbestos connection stems from the fact bio-based backing that is less harmful and
that PVC production is the largest single use for industrial chlorine, and chlorine persistent than PVC.
production is the largest single consumer of asbestos in the US. Fabrics offer an alternative to PVC wall coverings.
• More than 70% of PVC is used in building and construction applications. This Wall Covering Textiles, Polyethylene Xorel, made by Carnegie Fabrics, features a
polyethylene fabric made from sugar cane rather
makes the building and construction industry the single largest product sector than petroleum.
consuming chlorine, bearing sizable responsibility for the ongoing demand for
Aluminum, Bio-based Metal sheeting and plates offer a simple alternative
asbestos.2 Wall Protection Polymers, Stainless Steel, to PVC wall protection, while some corn-derived
Zinc polymers are also entering the market.
As building owners, we care because... When specifying fabric shades, avoid PVC-
• Potential health and environmental hazards during the use phase could include the Window Blinds Textiles, Polyethylene, coated, stain resistant, anti-static, or other surface
release of toxic substances from largely plasticized PVC products into the indoor or treatments that may introduce unwanted hazards.
and Shades Aluminum Anti-microbial coatings are not needed and have
natural environment. more harmful human health effects.
• Studies have linked dust containing phthalates from homes with PVC flooring with Wood, fiberglass and aluminum window frames
an increase in asthma, rhinitis and eczema. The presence of PVC flooring in the are readily available in a variety of colors. Vinyl
child’s bedroom was the strongest predictor of respiratory ailments.3 Window Aluminum, Wood, Fiberglass window frames have been found to have significant
• The average American’s exposure to the dioxin in PVC poses a calculated risk Frames moisture infiltration and leaking failures years after
installation leading to costly lawsuits, mold issues
of cancer of greater than 1 in 1,000 – thousands of times greater than the usual and high building energy uses.
standard for acceptable risk. The incidences were higher in multiple family dwellings
where a higher percentage of PVC flooring was found.4 Table 1. Substitute Materials for Common PVC Building Components and Interior Finishes8
• The use of PVC as a building material contributes to the degradation of indoor air
and is linked to respiratory symptoms in children and office workers. The plasticizers
with which it is treated pose clear threats, at background level, to fetal development
of the male reproductive tract and may also damage sperm cells in adult males.5
• Disposal Issue: Landfilling or burning of PVC causes toxic plasticizers and metal
based stabilizers to leach into the environment through soil, water and air exposure.FLAME RETARDANTS
HALOGENATED FLAME RETARDANTS
WHAT • Flame retardants are chemicals added to products to delay or prevent ignition and
the spread of fire. They are used in levels of about 1% to 30% of the weight of foam or plastic
HOW As contractors, we care because...
IS IT? found in products such as textiles, furniture, electronics, building insulation, baby products, TO MAKE A • Occupational exposure: HFR’s release toxins during manufacturing, transportation,
and construction process.
surface finishes and coatings, wire and cable. Flame retardants are broadly classified into
halogenated and non-halogenated flame retardants. Bromine, chlorine, fluorine and
CHANGE
iodine, are the elements in the chemical group known as halogens.9 No, we do not need flame retardants for fire safety.
• Surprisingly, flame retardants, as used to meet current standards for furniture and baby
• Flame retardants are associated with reduced IQ (similar to lead poisoning), reduced fertility, products, do not increase overall fire safety. While they may delay ignition a few seconds, they
birth defects, and hormonal changes. Many are similar in structure or even identical to will eventually burn and can produce the toxic gases that cause most fire injuries and deaths.
banned chemicals such as DDT, Mirex and PCBs.10 When these products ignite, the chemicals
can produce the toxic gases that cause most fire deaths and injuries. • Halogenated Flame Retardants: HFRs are added to too many building materials – even when
they are not needed. Fire scientists, toxicologists, and even firefighters are raising alarm
• There is no significant fire safety benefit from HFRs. bells around the world. There is no significant fire safety benefit from HFRs in foam or
wiring behind walls or under concrete slabs, yet current US codes requires HFRs in these
applications. Sadly, during a fire, HFRs release significantly more smoke and very toxic gases
WHY As architects, we care because... that harm/kill occupants and firefighters. The European Union has already banned some
HFRs, but the US lags behind. There is currently a concerted effort in the green building
• Halogenated flame retardants (HFR’s) are used in building materials such as surface
DO WE CARE? finishes and coatings. movement to remove HFRs from materials when there is no added fire safety benefit.12
• Our specifications have the power to drive market change for safer materials.
• Flame retardants can come into direct contact with building occupants. • Policy actions are taking such other factors into consideration. For example, the updated
California Furniture Flammability Standard (TB117-2013), which has implemented in January
2014 is based on a smolder test for fabric, which is where the majority of fires begin. The new
standard does not lead to the use of flame retardants, so it will now be possible to have
increased fire safety without harmful chemicals.13
As building owners, we care because...
• Flame retardants are a human health concern, and building users will have direct
contact with building materials that contain Halogenated Flame Retardants. “Instead of adding new fire
Alternative Options
• Product treated with HFR’s are toxic and cannot be recycled. Thus, they are either • Select fabrics, building insulation and furniture foams without HFR’s.
retardant chemicals that
burned or placed in landfills. When burned, toxins are released into the air; and
when landfilled, toxins can leach into water and soil, affecting food and water ultimately may be shown • To increase fire safety, there are insulation and furniture products available without HFR’s.
supplies.11 to cause health problems,
we should be asking • Alternatives-GREEN Flame Retardants: Compro FR-60
whether we need to use Compro FR-60-P is a safe, non toxic, non halogen, flame retardant. It is designed for flexible
these chemicals or if there
foams. They provide a variety of features for these coatings outside of excelled flame
retardancy such as impact strength, flexibility, and water repellency. On saturated polyester
are other ways to achieve resins cured with melamine such as our Compromel, Compro FR-60-P will impart film thickness
equivalent fire safety...” and greater chemical resistance. In PET coatings it will facilitate cast and mold properties and
Arlene Blum, a biophysical chemist
reduce stress and strain afterwards.16
and visiting scholar at the University of
California, Berkeley14PHTHALATES
WHAT • Phthalates know as “plasticizers,” are used to make plastics such as polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) more flexible or resilient. They are a group of industrial chemicals used as esters of
HOW No, we don’t we need Phthalates in building materials.
Avoiding unnecessary plastics, or fragrances and resins removes these toxic chemicals.
IS IT? phthalic acid and are most commonly found in plastics and primarily in PVC as plasticizers TO MAKE A
to increase their flexibility, transparency, durability and longevity.25 CHANGE Alternative Options
The available data suggest that non-phthalate plasticizers present fewer human health hazards
• Phthalates are used in a wide range of common products, from plastics to perfumes, and are than phthalates. This is not the same as saying that there are no health hazards associated with
easily released into the environment. Because they are not chemically bound to products, these non-phthalate plasticizers. It is important to remember that plasticizers – phthalates or
leaching, migration, and evaporation during use can occur, resulting in human exposure. not – will migrate from products causing building occupants to be inevitably exposed to
Phthalates can be taken into the body in different ways, both through food, breathing and them. However, some phthalate-free plasticizers raise fewer concerns than others.29
through the skin.
• Phthalates are suspected of disrupting hormones and may be related to several chronic • Two bio-based products – Grindsted Soft-n-Safe (made by Danisco/DuPont) and Polysorb
diseases in children, like asthma and allergies. Some phthalates such as DEHP have been ID 37 (made by Roquette) are well studied and appear to be the least toxic of the six non-
linked to reproductive problems including shorter pregnancy duration and premature phthalate plasticizers reviewed.
breast development in girls and sperm damage and impaired reproductive development in • Di-(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHT), sold by Eastman Chemical under the trade name
boys. Some studies have also found a correlation between phthalates and obesity.26 Eastman 168, fares better than DINP (Di-isononyl phthalate) in most health and environmental
hazard endpoints. However, further study is needed due to uncertainties surrounding endocrine
disruption and reproductive toxicity.
• Hexamoll DINCH (Diisononyl cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate) also compares favorably
WHY As architects, we care because...
overall to DINP, including for carcinogenicity and developmental toxicity. However, DINCH
• Building materials are the largest end use for PVC. Major uses of flexible PVC
DO WE CARE? in buildings include carpet backing, resilient flooring, wall coverings, acoustical
uses DINP in its manufacture and DINCH is less biodegradable and more persistent in the
environment than DINP.
ceiling surfaces, upholstery textiles, roof membranes, waterproofing membranes,
and electrical cord insulation. And they can be released from PVC in to the air. • Eastman Chemical’s dibenzoate plasticizers, sold under the Benzoflex trade name,
Phthalates can be found in other building products besides just PVC. 27 compare well with DINP, but contain substances that are more ecotoxic and have the potential
• The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) currently lists 8 chemicals in their to bioaccumulate.30
Phthalate Action Plan to evaluate and limit the use of.
Products with Phthalates Safer Alternative Material
Vinyl Flooring EPDM Type Rubber, Natural Linoleum, Polyolefin flooring
As building owners, we care because... Paints and Lacquers Phthalate-free Paints and Coatings
• Phthalates cling to dust and can then be breathed in by building occupants with Electrical Cabling Polyethylene or Rubber Sheathed Cables
children being the most easily affected. Carpet Backing Recycled PET and Glass Carpet Backing
• Occupants and tenants have many opportunities to come in direct contact with
Phthalates. Table 3. Substitute Materials for Common Phthalates Building Components and Interior Finishes
• Phthalates are moderately persistent in the environment. They can be degraded
biologically or chemically in the presence of air in days or weeks; in anaerobic
conditions, like those often found in groundwater, little if any degradation occurs,
with a hydrolysis half-life of 2000 years.28
As contractors, we care because...
• Eating, breathing and skin contact, as well as blood transfusion, are all ways that
Phthalates make their way into our bodies. Workers have direct contact with toxic
Phthalates during construction and manufacturing process.FORMALDEHYDE (ADDED)
WHAT • Formaldehyde is a colorless, strong-smelling, and flammable gas. Pure
formaldehyde is extremely reactive. For this reason, it is often mixed into chemical compounds
HOW No, we don’t need Formaldehyde.
Wood is one of the primary products that contain added formaldehyde and with some effort it is
IS IT? to form a stable substance. Formaldehyde is used in a wide spectrum of products. Examples TO MAKE A possible to avoid these hazards.
include shampoo, lipstick, nail polish, some glues, ink, paint and wrinkle-free fabrics, and
building materials, such as sealants and wood composites as a binder.31
CHANGE Alternative Options
• Pressed wood adhesive alternatives include those labeled “formaldehyde-free” or “low-emitting”
• The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) describes formaldehyde as causing ‘…watery or those made from phenol-formaldehyde (such as oriented strand board, softwood plywood or
eyes, burning sensations in the eyes and throat, nausea, and difficulty in breathing in some exterior grade plywood) generally emit lower levels of formaldehyde. However, formaldehyde-
humans. High concentrations may trigger attacks in people with asthma. There is evidence free can still mean that lower levels of formaldehyde are allowed so requesting “no added
that some people can develop a sensitivity to formaldehyde. It has also been shown to cause formaldehyde (NAF)” is the best course of action.38
cancer in animals and may cause cancer in humans. Health effects include eye, nose, and
throat irritation; wheezing and coughing; fatigue; skin rash; severe allergic reactions.’32 Because of government • Alternative adhesives may be used in wood products, note that one of the resin feedstocks is
standards, a certain level epichlorohydrin, which is a probably human carinogen that can result in negative impacts on
• Phenol formaldehyde and urea formaldehyde are two main resins used in composite wood. of formaldehyde is allowed respiratory and hematological systems. Hardwood plywood and softwood plywood or oriented
No added urea formaldehyde (NAUF) and most structural products use phenol-formaldehyde strand board can be manufactured using alternative adhesives, such as the soy-based resin
in products labeled as
resins that, when cured, do not release significant amounts of formaldehyde back into the developed for wood panel applications by Columbia Forest Products.
environment. Urea formaldehyde can still release some formaldehyde after curing, especially “formaldehyde-free”. To
under high heat and humidity.33 avoid formaldehyde, you • Composites of wood fiber and polypropylene thermoplastics are used extensively as
should select products with substitutes for wood lumber, and are being developed for use in wood panel applications.39
WHY As architects, we care because... “no added formaldehyde.”
• Soybean protein modified with sodium dodecyl sulfate can also be used as an alternative
• In construction, formaldehyde is still widely used in pressed-wood products, such
DO WE CARE? as particleboard, plywood, and fiberboard; glues and adhesives; permanent-
resin for wood fiber medium density fiberboard preparation.
press fabrics; paper product coatings; and certain insulation materials.34 • Other composite wood products, such as softwood plywood and flake or oriented strandboard
• Higher formaldehyde levels are usually found in newer construction. The levels are produced for exterior construction use and contain the dark, or red/black-colored phenol-
decrease over time due to off-gassing. Formaldehyde levels also increase with formaldehyde (PF) resin. As the name implies, formaldehyde is present in this type of resin
increases in temperature and humidity.35 also, but composite woods that contain PF resin generally emit formaldehyde at considerably
• Formaldehyde is a human carcinogen found in composite wood products. Those lower rates than those containing Urea Formaldehyde (UF) resin.
who live in mobile homes or spend time in portable buildings or classrooms are
especially at risk. Gas can be released into the air naturally and increases with • The most widely used completely formaldehyde-free alternative resins are MDI (methylene
diphenyl isocyanate) and PVA (polyvinyl acetate). Despite its name, PVA is not closely
temperature rise. related to PVC. Without chlorine in its molecule it avoids many of the worst problems that PVC
has in its life-cycle.40
As building owners, we care because... • No Added Urea Formaldehyde (NAUF) products does not mean the product is formaldehyde
• Formaldehyde exposure is a special concern for children and the elderly. If children free. No added formaldehyde (NAF) and Ultra Low Emitting Formaldeyhde (ULEF) are
or elderly people are regular occupants in your building, it is important to reduce better options which are emissions tested and certified by a third party.
their exposure to formaldehyde.
• Formaldehyde has been known to cause cancer in laboratory animals and could • Alternative building materials include those made from non-wood sources (e.g., recycled paper,
possibly cause cancer in humans. There is no known maximum threshold level rammed earth, metal, stone and brick) or solid wood. Agricultural fiber alternatives can come
and no known level below which there is not a threat of cancer. The risk of getting from crops grown specifically for fiber (e.g., kenaf and bagasse) and residues of crops grown
cancer from formaldehyde depends upon the amount and duration of exposure.36 for other purposes (e.g., corn stalks/cobs and cotton stalks).41
As contractors, we care because... Products with Formaldehyde Safer Alternative Material
Wood Binders / Methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI)
• Formaldehyde is a chemical used widely to manufacture building materials Adhesives Soy Flour
and products, such as glue in fiberboard. Formaldehyde is also a by-product Foam Carpet Backing Foam Carpet Backing
of combustion and certain other natural processes. Thus, it may be present in Paint & Coating
substantial concentrations both indoors and out.37 Workers have direct contact with Preservative Unknown
toxic formaldehyde during construction process. Laminates Solid Surface, Solid Wood, Tile, Concrete
Composite Wood Solid Wood
Products
Table 4. Substitute Materials for Common Formaldehyde Building Components and Interior FinishesBISPHENOL A (BPA)
WHAT • Bisphenol A (BPA) is a chemical produced in large quantities for use primarily in the
production of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. BPA can also be found in certain paints
HOW No, we don’t need BPA and we must be careful not to utilize regrettable substitutions.
IS IT? or coatings such as powder coat.42 TO MAKE A Alternative Options
• Scientific studies have linked BPA to a range of health effects including, endocrine disruption CHANGE Sometimes found in paints and coatings, there are alternative ways to provide a BPA-free finish,
(decreased sperm production in men, early puberty in girls, fertility issues, greater chance of like mill finish or coatings without BPA.
miscarriage, endometriosis, stimulation of early mammary gland development, and ovarian
dysfunction), obesity, heart disease, thyroid disruption, neurological effects, cancer, • Use BPA-free products. Manufacturers are creating more and more BPA-free products. Look
insulin resistance, diabetes, food tolerance issues, decreased cognitive function. This for products labeled as BPA-free. If a product isn’t labeled, keep in mind that some, but not all,
chemical leads to genetic issues that impact not just our children, but our grandchildren and plastics marked with recycle codes 3 or 7 may be made with BPA.49 However, BPA-free may
future generations by changing our DNA.43 not mean a product is safe as there may be regrettable substitutions that are less safe or more
unknown like BPS.
• BPA is used in the production of polycarbonate (PC) plastics (used in food contact materials,
such as baby bottles and food containers) and epoxy resins (used as protective linings for
WHY As architects, we care because... canned foods and beverages and as a coating on metal lids for glass jars and bottles) that
• BPA is a toxic chemical component of epoxy resins used in a wide range of building
DO WE CARE? materials, including high performance coatings (paints, floor sealers, and other
come into contact with a wide variety of food. Some alternatives to BPA-containing materials
for PC bottles and containers and epoxy can linings are available on the market or proposed
protective coatings), adhesives and fillers (caulk, grout, mortar, and putty), for use. However, at present, there appears to be no single replacement for BPA for all food
fiberglass binders, and cement additives.44 contact applications. Furthermore, data on the safety of some of these replacement materials
• Epoxy resins are also in some electronic equipment, industrial tooling applications, are limited or nonexistent. 50
“A poison kills you, and materials used in the art, aerospace and marine industries.45
a chemical like BPA
• With 90% of the population testing positive for BPA and a growing body of science • For polycarbonate, replacement materials include those polymers that are currently used to
raising increasing concern, responsible specifiers do not need to wait for regulatory make bottles and containers for food packaging applications, including glass, polypropylene,
reprograms your cells and action, but can take a precautionary approach to protect building occupants and polyethersulfone, polyethylene terephthalate, high-density polyethylene, polyamide and
ends up causing a disease manufacturing and installation workers. Low VOC products are available that can silicone. An example of a new alternative to polycarbonate is Tritan copolyester.
in your grandchild that kills replace epoxy paints and other epoxy-based products.46
him.” • It is important to note that any of these new or existing alternative materials would need to
Fredrick vom Saal, Biology Professor,
be assessed for appropriate functionality and safety using state of the art methodology and
University of Missouri scientific knowledge. 51
As building owners, we care because...
• The major human exposure route to BPA is diet, including ingestion of contaminated Products with BPA Safer Alternative Material
food and water. Building occupants may have direct contact with BPA because it Protective Coating Numerous alternatives
is used to form epoxy resin coating of water pipes. In older buildings, such resin
coatings are used to avoid replacement of deteriorating pipes.47 Epoxy Resins Numerous alternatives
Wire/Electronic Sheathing PET Plastics
Polycarbonate Plastics PET Plastics
As contractors, we care because...
• In the workplace, while handling and manufacturing products which contain BPA,
inhalation and dermal (through skin) exposures are the most probable routes.48
Table 5. Substitute Materials for Common BPA Building Components and Interior FinishesTOXIC HEAVY METALS
HEXAVALENT CHROMIUM
WHAT • Hexavalent Chromium (known as Cr6 and Hex 6) is a toxic form of chromium
in the environment, which occurs naturally but it is usually produced by industrial process.
HOW No, we don’t need Hexavalent Chromium for hard coating.
IS IT? Chromium’s ability to easily react with other elements can produce hard coatings. Its TO MAKE A Alternative Options
properties include corrosion-resistance, durability and hardness. CHANGE • Metal coil used in steel stud framing and ductwork are available without the Cr6 coating
• Hex 6 is classified as a human carcinogen (cancer-causing), Chronic inhalation of Hex 6 upon request. Ask Manufacturers to eliminate the “passivation coating” that contains
has been shown to increase risk of lung cancer and may also damage the small capillaries the hexavalent chromium and ensure that any coatings used are RoHS (Restriction of
in kidneys and intestines. Other adverse health effects associated with Hex 6 exposure, Restriction of Hazardous Hazardous Substances, pronounced: row-haas) compliant. RoHS is a European materials
according to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), include skin Substances (RoHS) originated standard that prevents, among other toxins, hexavalent chromium. The restricted materials are
irritation or ulceration, allergic contact dermatitis, occupational asthma, nasal irritation and in the European Union and
hazardous to the environment and pollute landfills, and are dangerous in terms of occupational
ulceration, perforated nasal septa, rhinitis, nosebleed, respiratory irritation, nasal cancer, exposure during manufacturing and recycling.
restricts the use of specific
sinus cancer, eye irritation and damage, perforated eardrums, kidney damage, liver damage, • Anodized Aluminum is an alternative material for Chrome Plating.
pulmonary congestion and edema, epigastric pain, and erosion and discoloration of one’s hazardous materials found • Stainless Steel without passivation coating is an alternative for pigments in paint/textiles
teeth.17 in electrical and electronic • Trivalent chromium (known as Cr3) plating is an alternative to Hexavalent Chromium in
products. industrial process. From a health standpoint Cr3 is intrinsically less toxic than Cr6. Because
of the lower toxicity it is not regulated as strictly, which reduces overhead costs. Other health
advantages include higher cathode efficiencies, which lead to less chromium air emissions;
lower concentration levels, resulting in less chromium waste and anodes that do not
WHY As architects, we care because... decompose. However, taking into account the Precautionary Principle, not enough information
is known about the full human and environmental health effects of Cr3. 23
• It is used in chrome plating and as an alloy in the production of stainless steel,
DO WE CARE? as well as in anti-corrosion and conversion coatings. It is used to produce CCA
Table 2. Summary of Non-Chromium Substitutes for Hard and Decorative Chromium Baths24
(chromated copper arsenate) that is applied as a preservative in the treatment of
structural timber.18 Cr6 Possible Substitutes Notes Vendor / Product
• Hexavalent Chromium is a toxic chemistry that is commonly used on building Nickel-tungsten-boron Uses conventional plating equipment and operates similar to a conventional nickel plating
bath; may be more costly than hex chrome AMPLATE
materials for surfaces coating, such as ductwork, steel studs and plumbing fixtures.
May provide higher plating rates and higher cathode current efficiencies; may provide better
• The process of working with Hex 6 content will severely effect human health. Nickel-tungsten-silicon-carbide Takada Inc.
Electroplated nickel
throwing power and better wear resistance; may be more costly than hex chrome
Tin-nickel Good corrosion resistance in strong acids, breaks down above 320C, less wear resistance
than hex chrome
As building owners, we care because... Nickel-iron-cobalt Vendor claims twice the wear resistance and 2.6 times the corrosion resistance of hex Shining Surface Systems, METTEX6
chrome; same color can be obtained http://www.surfacesystems.com
• Owners create the demand for Hex 6 and have the power to reduce the demand. Enthone, Enloy Ni-150
• Most industrial output of Hex 6 occurs in water but coal burning also increases air Nickel-tungsten-cobalt Contains no chloride or strong chelators; can be used in rack and barrel plating;
good corrosion resistance except in marine environments; may tarnish; contains ammonia http://www.afonline.com/articles/
concentration. Most of the chromium in air will eventually settle and end up in waters 00sum03.html
or soils. We currently lack confirmed knowledge and clear guidelines concerning the Plate on nickel; decorative only Seaboard Metal Finishing, Seachrome
www.seaboardmetalfin.com
level at which Cr6 in drinking water becomes a public health hazard. (Refer to the
electroplate
Non-nickel
Tin-cobalt Plate on decorative nickel and nickel alloy; may be used in racking; mildly alkaline Enthone, Achrolyte
Precautionary Principle) Great color, light blue cast; no ammonia; no fluorides; no chlorides MacDermid, CROMVET
• A lawsuit concluded that Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E) had contaminated
Nano-crystalline deposit produces extreme hardness; Plating current waveform modification Integran Technologies, Inc.
groundwater in the California town of Hinkley, leading to a high number of cancer Cobalt Phosphorous (electrically mediated deposition) used to produce nanocrystalline deposit. http://www.integran.com/
cases.19 Electroless nickel
-nickel-tungsten Abrite, Millenium series, www.abrite.com
Electroless
-nickel-boron MacDermid, NiKlad
-nickel-diamond composite Possibly less hardness and abrasion resistance than hex; no build up on corners Sirius
As contractors, we care because... -nickel-phosphorous
-nickel-polytetraflourethylene
Surface Technology
Micro Surface Corp.
• A major source of worker exposure to toxic Cr6 occurs during “hot work” such as HVOF (high velocity oxygenated fuel) Hardness and wear resistance similar to hex chrome; limited to line-of-sight applications.
welding on stainless steel and other alloy steels containing chromium metal.20 thermal sprays
• Excess lung cancer found in heavily exposed workers through inhalation of chrome Physical vapor deposition (PVD) Greater hardness than hex chrome with a thinner coating; less corrosion resistance
-titanium nitride
plating, chromate pigment production, use of pigments, spray paints and coatings.21
• Workplace exposure to Cr6 may cause health effects such as lung cancer, irritation
Other Methods
Ion beam-assisted PVD Line-of-sight; thinner coatings give same properties as other thicker coatings Skion Corp.
or damage to the nose, throat, and lung (respiratory tract), irritation or damage to the Plasma spray-titanium carbide Aluminum, steel, carbon steel, titanium substrates A-Flame Corp.
eyes and skin.22 Chemical vapor deposition Vacuum deposition; not limited to line-of-sight; resistant to acids; high deposition rate
Ion implantation Ions are implanted – no thickness; non-line-of-sight Southwest Research Institute
Powder coating Vacuum metallization (PVD) – has met OEM wheel industry testing requirements including PermaStartm-Goodrich Technology
ASTM B117, GM4472P, GM9508P, GM9682P, and GM6 Corp.
Laser cladding Non-line-of-sight; nickel carbide coating Surface Treatment TechnologiesTOXIC HEAVY METALS
LEAD
WHAT • Lead is a naturally occurring element found in small amounts in the earth’s crust. While it
has some beneficial uses, it can be toxic to humans and animals causing health effects.52
HOW Alternative Options
• Look for products, particularly metals for piping and door hardware, that have “no lead” as
IS IT? TO MAKE A opposed to “lead-free.”
• Much of our exposure comes from human activities including the use of fossil fuels including
past use of leaded gasoline, some types of industrial facilities, and past use of lead-based CHANGE • Find alternative materials where lead may be used as in the case of lead boots around roof
paint in homes. Lead and lead compounds have been used in a wide variety of products found penetrations.
in and around our homes, including paint, ceramics, pipes and plumbing materials, solders,
gasoline, batteries, door hardware, children’s toys and cosmetics.53 • In consumer products, be cautious of plated jewelry, children’s toys and even cosmetics that
may contain lead.
• Lead can effect nearly every organ of the body and as a rule, the more lead you have in The term “lead free” does
your body, the more likely it is that you will have health problems.54 The health hazards not mean there is no lead • Advocate for laws that aim to prevent the use of lead in building and consumer products and
of lead can be especially worse for children and pregnant women but in all humans can cause present. The classification that help support ingredients transparency.
behavioral effects, delayed puberty, decreases in cognitive performance, cardiovascular of “no lead” is the goal to
effects, nerve disorders, fertility problems and more.55
aim for. Products with Lead Safer Alternative Material
Plumbing Fittings,
• The term “lead free” does not mean there is no lead present. When referencing plumbing Pipes, Valves Stainless Steel, No lead brass, HDPE
for example, by law, it allows for .25% lead as calculated across the wetted surface of a pipe. PVC Roofing Metal Roof, HDPE, TPO, Modified Bitumen, Polymer Flashings
The classification of “no lead” is the goal to aim for.
Carpet Backing Products exist without, consult full ingredients lists
• Mass exposures as in Flint Michigan’s drinking water and political efforts to undermine Fluid Applied Flooring Products exist withou, consult full ingredients lists
the reduction of lead and its classification as a human and environmental health hazard has
reignited the importance of banning this toxin.
WHY As architects, we care because...
• Some levels of lead can still be found in products we specify from piping to roofing
DO WE CARE? accessories. We have a responsibility to eliminate them and look to the future
impacts. Long ago lead was not assumed to be a danger and was included in
drinking water pipes. It is up to architects to try to think about what could be the lead
of the future that we will one day have wished we stopped using.
As building owners, we care because...
• The choices made about the materials used in our buildings can impact everyone
who uses them and have consequences for generations to come.
As contractors, we care because...
• Those in occupations related to mining, ironwork or welding, construction, renovation
and remodeling activities, smelters, firing ranges, the manufacture and disposal of
car batteries, automobile radiator repair, metal shop work, and the manufacture of
pottery or stained glass are particularly at risk for lead exposure.56TOXIC HEAVY METALS
MERCURY
WHAT • Mercury is a naturally-occurring chemical element found in rock in the earth’s crust,
including in deposits of coal. Mercury becomes a problem for the environment when it is
HOW Alternative Options
• Mercury can be a common toxin present in a range of cementitious products. While
IS IT? released from rock and ends up in the atmosphere and in water. Human activities, however, TO MAKE A it can be hard to eliminate mercury content in products like concrete, our efforts to reduce
are responsible for much of the mercury that is released into the environment. The burning of
coal, oil and wood as fuel can cause mercury to become airborne, as can burning wastes
CHANGE the use of cement can not only help eliminate the toxin concerns but also help to reduce
embodied carbon.
that contain mercury. This airborne mercury can fall to the ground in raindrops, in dust, or
simply due to gravity (known as “air deposition”). The amount of mercury deposited in a given • For finishes like carpet, ask manufacturers for products that do not contain any fly ash or
area depends on how much mercury is released from local, regional, national, and international mercury as additives to the backing.
sources. Since mercury occurs naturally in coal and other fossil fuels, when people burn
these fuels for energy, the mercury becomes airborne and goes into the atmosphere. These • Move to the use of LED lighting to eliminate the mercury found in fluorescents.
metals and compounds can damage multiple human organs at low doses and are known to be
carcinogens.57
• Mercury is a consistent bioaccumulative toxin and considered by the World Health Products with Mercury Safer Alternative Material
Organization to be one of the top ten chemicals of a major health concern which can have
Fluorescent, Metal
toxic effects on the nervous, digestive and immune systems, lungs, kidneys, skin and eyes.58 Halide, High Pressure LED Lighting
Sodium lighting
• Mercury can be commonly found in building products such as concrete, gypsum board, Thermostats, Mercury No Mercury Thermostats, Electronic Type and Mechanical
ceiling tiles, adhesives, fluorescent light bulbs and even carpet backing. Tilt Switches Switches
Mercury Oxide
• Recent political efforts to roll back mercury protection laws have made it increasingly necessary Batteries Zinc Air or Silver Oxide Batteries
to help eliminate the use of this toxic chemical. Carpet Backing Products Exist Without, Consult Full Ingredients Lists
Tile Products Exist Without, Consult Full Ingredients Lists
Adhesives and Products Exist Without, Consult Full Ingredients Lists
Sealants
WHY As architects, we care because...
DO WE CARE? • Both concrete and carpeting are some of the most widely used building materials
that often contain hazardous mercury. In addition, our industry’s continued
specification of these products provides a market for the use of the by-products from
fossil-fuel fired power plants. In this case, reducing toxins can also serve to help
reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
As building owners, we care because...
• Mercury as found in many common building products is a global pollutant, bio-
accumulating, mainly through the aquatic food chain, resulting in a serious health
hazard for children and adults.59
As contractors, we care because...
• “Occupations that have a greater potential for mercury exposure include
manufacturers of electrical equipment…that contain mercury, chemical processing
plants that use mercury, metal processing, construction where building parts contain
mercury (e.g., electrical switches, thermometers). Family members of workers who
have been exposed to mercury may also be exposed to mercury if the worker’s
clothes are contaminated with mercury particles or liquid.” 60PER- AND POLYFLUORALKYL SUBSTANCES
PER- AND POLYFLUORALKYL SUBSTANCES (PFAS)
WHAT • PFAS are a large, complex, and ever-expanding group of manufactured chemicals that are
widely used to make fluoropolymer coatings and products that resist heat, oil, stains, grease,
HOW No, we do not need PFAS.
IS IT? and water. Best known are PFOS, formerly used to make DuPont’s Teflon, and PFOA, formerly TO MAKE A Alternative Options
in 3M’s Scotchgard. CHANGE To halt the ongoing buildup of PFAS in the environment, an international research team proposes
that society move away from these “forever chemicals.” It is calling for an orderly elimination of
• Very low exposure to some PFAS chemicals has been linked to cancer, thyroid disease, PFAS-containing products from commerce. 66
weakened childhood immunity and many other health problems.61
• PFAS molecules are made up of a chain of linked carbon and fluorine atoms. Because • Look at the ingredients. There are many everyday products that consumers can choose not
the carbon-fluorine bond is one of the strongest, these chemicals do not degrade in the to use if it contains this class of harmful chemicals. PFAS may be found in any product that is
environment. In fact, scientists are unable to estimate an environmental half-life for PFAS, advertised as waterproof, stain resistent, and heat resistent.
PFAS and related chemicals which is the amount of time it takes 50% of the chemical to disappear.62 These substances
don’t break down over time. That means they build up in the environment and in our • Substitution of hazardous materials is a fundamental measure to reduce risks to environment,
are notoriously known workers, consumers, and public heatlh.
bodies.
as “forever chemicals”
meaning that once they are • The sheer volume of different PFAS and their use in a huge variety of products makes it • Consider a change to expectations and fabric care procedures. Instead of using dangerous
made, they will never go daunting, if not practically possible, to identify all the potential forms, not to mention possible forever stain repellent chemicals, is it acceptable to spot clean when needed?
away from our earth. situations where they might be found. Because of the wide spread usage, background levels
of PFAS are truly ubiquitous in the environment and in humans.63 • Research is needed to understand alternatives for PFAS. The best course of action is to
eliminate use of them completely.
WHY As architects, we care because...
DO WE CARE? • Perfluoroalkyls have been used in surface protection products such as carpet and
clothing treatments and coating for paper and cardboard packaging. They have also
been used in fire-fighting foams. 64
• They are often used in fabric stain repellents and this level of seeming protection
may not be necessary when care or spot cleaning can be a safer alternative.
As building owners, we care because...
• PFAS are found in a wide range of consumer products that people use daily such
as cookware, pizza boxes and stain repellants. Most people have been exposed to
PFAS. Certain PFAS can accumulate and stay in the human body for long periods of
time. There is evidence that exposure to PFAS can lead to adverse health outcomes
in humans.65
• Drinking water can be a source of exposure in communities where these chemicals
have contaminated water supplies.
As contractors, we care because...
• There are four major known sources of PFAS: fire training/fire response sites/
airports, industrial sites, landfills, and wastewater treatment plants/biosolids.
• People who work at PFAS production facilities, or facilities that manufacture goods
made with PFAS, may be exposed in certain occupational settings or through
contaminated air.ALKYLPHENOLS AND RELATED COMPOUNDS
ALKYLPHENOLS (APE’S)
WHAT • Alkylphenols and their ethoxylates are a family of chemicals used mainly as surfactants
in commercial detergents and cleaners. They are also used in paints, pesticides and other
HOW No, we don’t need alkylphenols.
IS IT? agro chemicals, personal-care products, in industrial processes, and oilfields. Their breakdown TO MAKE A Alternative Options
products include persistent toxic chemicals that build up in fish and wildlife.67 CHANGE • Avoid products containing the following alkylphenols: propylphenol, butylphenol, amylphenol,
• Alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEs), a group of chemicals that includes nonylphenol ethoxylates heptylphenol, octyphenol, nonylphenol, dodecylphenol, methlyphenol and ethylphenol.
(NPEs) and octylphenol ethoxylates (OPEs), are chemicals of concern commonly used as
surfactants in acrylic paint. According to the U.S. EPA, NPEs represent approximately 80% - • Choose APE-Free Interior Paint. Benjamin Moore and Sherwin-Williams offer APE-free
85% of the volume of APEs. paint in some of their standard product lines. There are likely other manufacturers who have
eliminated APEs. Ask your favorite paint supplier if they are in this group.73
• APEs are among the chemicals found at the highest concentrations in U.S. house dust. They
are also found in air, drinking water, and food. As a result, APEs have been detected in • Dispose of household chemicals properly, by using a free household hazardous waste pick-
human urine, cord blood, and breast milk. up, or any other safe dispoal method.
• There are concerns about the effects of alkylphenols on human health, including reproductive, • Most concerns are focused on alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEs), which bioaccumulate and have
nervous system, and immune effects.68 Alkylphenols are endocrine disruptors that have been shown to cause endocrine disruption in fish. APEs are in cleaning products that end up
the ability to mimc or disrupt estrogen hormones. Biological processes that are generally in waterways from wastewater treatment effluent. Some alkylphenols, especially nonylphenol,
controlled by estrogen, such as cell communication and protein formation, can be altered when are being phased out in Europe, and more research into their impacts is needed. A few
cells are exposed to alyphenols.69 governments with environmentally preferable purchasing programs restrict or ban APEs. 74
WHY As architects, we care because...
DO WE CARE? • Alkylphenols can be found in building cleaning products, coatings, adhesives, paints,
fire retardants, rubber and thermoplastics.
• Nonylphenol Ethoxylates (NPEs) are surfactants commonly added to paints to help
the pigments stay evenly spread throughout the paint base. They have been banned
in the European Union, Denmark, and Japan.70
As building owners, we care because...
• Studies show that low levels of APEs have been detected in indoor dust and
primarily affects toddlers and teenagers. Though the daily exposure doses are
low, there is a cause for concern as these surfactants are not regulated in many
developing countries and their use may be increasing 71
As contractors, we care because...
• During use of specialty paints that contain nonylphenol ethoxylates, contractors
may be exposed to NPEs during the mixing of paint and spray application through
inhalation and dermal exposure.72WOOD TREATMENTS
CREOSOTE OR PENTACHLOROPHENOL
WHAT • Creosote is a general term covering coal tar creosote, coal tar, and coal tar pitch. Coal tar
creosote is the most common mixture, and is widely used as a wood preservative in the U.S.
HOW No, we don’t need toxic wood treatments.
IS IT? As many as 10,000 chemicals may comprise this mixture. 75 TO MAKE A Alternative Options
• Breathing vapors of the creosotes, coal tar, coal tar pitch, or coal tar pitch volatiles can cause CHANGE • Research groups have been studying more environmentally friendly alternatives to wood
irritation of the respiratory tract. Eating large amounts of creosote (any form) may cause preservatives. It’s best to discuss with your structural engineer and wood supplier about
a burning in the mouth and throat and stomach pains. Long-term exposure to low levels of alternative options that do not contain Red List chemicals. Often, it is the final supplier or seller
creosote, especially direct contact with skin during wood treatment or manufacture of coal tar that provides the wood treatment. Specifiers are encouraged to speak with these suppliers
creosote-treated products, has resulted in skin cancer and cancer of the scrotum. Cancer of about what treatments are used and find safer alternates when needed.
the scrotum in chimney sweeps has been associated with long-term skin exposure to soot and
coal tar creosotes.76 • Contact both your wood supplier and wood treatment manufacturer about options and always
request a full list of ingredients. Be sure to ask the manufacturer about avoiding the two wood
• Pentachlorophenol is a manufactured chemical which is a restricted use pesticide treatment chemicals listed here.
and is used industrially as a wood preservative for utility poles, railroad ties, and wharf pilings.
Exposure to high levels of pentachlorophenol can cause increases in body temperature,
liver effects, damage to the immune system, reproductive effects, and developmental
effects.77
• The general populations can be exposed to very low levels of pentachlorophenol in
contaminated indoor and outdoor air, food, drinking water and soil.
WHY As architects, we care because...
DO WE CARE? • Wood preservative products are those that claim to control wood degradation
problems due to fungal rot or decay, sapstain, molds, or wood-destroying insects.
Both the treatment process and the use of treated-products can result in exposure to
pesticides for both people and the environment.78
As building owners, we care because...
• Living in treated-wood houses that may result in air or skin contact with
creosote. Humans can also be exposed by drinking water contaminated by a
hazardous waste site.
• Pentachlorophenol was a widely used pesticide for a long time. Today its use
is restricted and it can only be used by certified applicators. You may have
old containers of pesticides in your attic, basement, or garage that contain
pentachlorophenol. Removing these old containers will reduce your risk of exposure
to pentachlorophenol.79
As contractors, we care because...
• Workers in the wood preservative, coke-producing, or asphalt industries can be
exposed in the manufacturing process. Installers that use creosote-treated wood
in building fences, bridges, or railroad tracks, or installing telephone poles risk
exposure.
• People who work or live near a wood treatment facility or in the production of utility
poles, railroad ties, or wharf pilings may be exposed to pentachlorophenol in the air
or by coming in contact with the treated wood.80REFERENCES
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Meeker JD, Johnson PI, Camann D, Hauser R. Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) 36. Green Spec, Formaldehyde, http://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/formaldehyde-health-environment/ 66. Hogue, Cheryl (2019, November). How to say goodbye to PFAs, Chemical & Engineering News,
concentrations in house dust are related to hormone levels in men. Sci Total Environ. 2009 37. James Armstrong and Andy Walker, Formaldehyde Use in Building Construction, Reed Construction https://cen.acs.org/environment/persistent-pollutants/say-goodbye-PFAS/97/i46
May;407(10):3425–9. Data 67. Toxic Free Future, APEs: Troubling Bubbles, https://toxicfreefuture.org/key-issues/chemicals-of-concern/
Turyk ME, Persky VW, Imm P, Knobeloch L, Chatterton R, Anderson HA. Hormone disruption by 38. Toxics Use Reduction Institute, Formaldehyde Facts/Alternatives, http://www.turi.org/TURI_Publications/ apes-troubling-bubbles/
PBDEs in adult male sport fish consumers. Environ Health Perspect. 2008 Dec;116(12):1635–41. TURI_Chemical_Fact_Sheets/Formaldehyde_Fact_Sheet/Formaldehyde_Facts/Alternatives 68. Ibid
11. Lisa Marchi, Flame Retardants: Health Effects Summary 39. Ibid 69. Breast Cancer Prevention Partners, Alkylphenols, https://www.bcpp.org/resource/alkylphenols/
12. Alex Stadtner, Toxic Building Materials in Residential Construction, http://healthybuildingscience. 40. Healthy Building Network, Formaldehyde and Wood, www.healthybuilding.net/formaldehyde/ 70. Healthy Materials Lab, Interior Paints, https://healthymaterialslab.org/material-collections/no-and-low-voc-
com/2012/11/27/toxic-building-materials-in-residential-construction
41. Toxics Use Reduction Institute, Formaldehyde Facts/Alternatives paints
13. Center for Environmental Health, Safer Furniture Flammability Standard and Flame Retardant
Chemicals Fact Sheet, http://www.ceh.org/wp-content/uploads/FR-Safer-Furniture-Fact-Sheet.pdf 42. National Toxicology Program, NTP BRIEF ON BISPHENOL A, http://aseh.net/teaching-research/teach- 71. Science Direct, Alkylphenols and alkylphenol ethoxylates in dust from homes, offices and computer
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14. Kellyn S. Betts, New Thinking on Flame Retardants, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/.../PMC2367656/
DraftBrief-4.14.08.pdf com/science/article/pii/S2405665017300203
15. Joe Thornton, Environmental Impacts of Polyvinyl Chloride Building Materials, Healthy Building
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16. Green Flame Retardants, https://www.greenflameretardant.com/index.html 44. Global Health & Safety Initiative, Bisphenol A in Building Materials: High Performance Paint Coat-
17. Larry West, What Are the Health Risks Associated with Hexavalent Chromium? http://environment. ings, http://healthybuilding.net/uploads/files/bisphenol-a-in-building-materials-high-performance-paint-coatings.
about.com/od/healthenvironment/f/Hexavalent-Chromium-Health-Risks.htm pdf
18. Greenspec, Hexavalent chromium (aka Chromium-6), http://www.greenspec.co.uk/building-design/chromi- 45. Ibid
um-6-environment-human-health/ 46. Ibid
19. Wikipedia, Hinkley groundwater contamination, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinkley_groundwater_contam- 47. Savita G. Pawara, I.L. Pardeshib and S.G. Rajputc, Convenience Foods and Its Packaging Effects
ination on Human Health: A Review, http://www.jakraya.com/journal/pdf/4-jrefArticle_1.pdf
20. United States Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, https://www.osha. 48. Stacey E Anderson and B Jean Meade, Potential Health Effects Associated with Dermal Exposure to
gov/SLTC/hexavalentchromium/
Occupational Chemicals, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4270264/
21. L. S. Levy, P. A. Martin and P. L. Bidstrup British Journal of Industrial Medicine, Vol. 43, No. 4 (Apr.,
49. Medical Center, The University of Mississippi, What is BPA? Should I be worried about it? https://
1986), pp. 243-256
www.ummchealth.com/healthlibrary/Article.aspx?articleid=FAQ-20058331
22. OSHA Fact Sheet, Health Effects of Hexavalent Chromium, https://www.osha.gov/OshDoc/data_Gener-
al_Facts/hexavalent_chromium.pdf 50. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization, Joint FAO/
WHO Expert Meeting to Review Toxicological and Health Aspects of Bisphenol A, 1-5 November
23. Northeast Waste Management Officials’ Association, Pollution Prevention Technology Profile
Trivalent Chromium Replacements for Hexavalent Chromium Plating, November 18, 2003, http://www. 2010, Ottawa, Canada
newmoa.org/prevention/p2tech/TriChromeFinal.pdf 51. Ibid
24. Ibid. 52. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Learn about Lead, https://www.epa.gov/lead/learn-about-lead
53. IbidYou can also read
