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MARCH 2022 ISSUE 90
PREVENTING HIDDEN CORROSION
COVID LAB-ON-A-CHIP
ACCURATE LOCATION MAPPING
MAKING ORGANS IN MINIATURE
www.ingenia.org.uk
INGENIA
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who have made contributions. The information contained in this publication has
used in computer chips to be able to emulate
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not of the Academy. The Royal Academy of Engineering cannot accept any (‘Life on a chip’, page 19). Such advances
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Front cover
Highly invasive human paediatric brain tumour derived cells.
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INGENIA
CONTENTS
UP FRONT
02 IN BRIEF 06 HOW I GOT HERE 08 OPINION
– World’s strongest permanent Kate Todd-Davis shares how she Dr Shaun Fitzgerald OBE FREng sets
magnet innovator wins 2022 gained a first-class degree during out the ways in which buildings can
QEPrize her manufacturing apprenticeship. be COVID-safe and climate friendly.
– Northeast gigafactory given the
go ahead
– Putting ethics at the heart of
engineering
– Brain stimulator implanted in
patients for the first time
– We want to hear from you
– Get involved in engineering
FEATURES
10 SUPERCHARGING 14 QUICKER TESTING 19 LIFE ON A CHIP
GPS PRECISION FOR COVID Researchers hope that miniaturised
Accurate GPS positioning in cities Lab-on-a-chip technology, developed model organ-on-chips, currently
can be affected by obstructions such to help us live healthier, has been under development, could lead to
as tall buildings. A new technology adapted to provide rapid, lab-free more realistic alternatives to testing
aims to improve this accuracy and tests for COVID-19. drugs on animals.
even navigate indoors.
25 AVERTING HIDDEN
CORROSION
Corrosion can cause severe issues
if left undetected in pipelines
and other infrastructure, but it is
frequently hidden from view. A new
tool aims to identify the problem
before damage is caused.
30 PROFILE 36 HOW DOES THAT WORK?
Professor Trevor Cross FREng is a Advanced technology in robotic
key player in the development of vacuum cleaners helps them steer
quantum technology. clear of all kinds of obstacles.
35 INNOVATION WATCH
Dr Youmna Mouhamad used her
real-world experience to develop
an innovative comb for detangling
textured hair.
INGENIA ISSUE 90 MARCH 2022 1
IN BRIEF
IN BRIEF
WORLD’S STRONGEST
PERMANENT MAGNET
INNOVATOR WINS 2022 QEPRIZE
also used in a wide range of
other applications, from robots
to automation systems and
domestic appliances.
This year’s Create the Trophy
competition winner, announced
on the same day, was Anshika
Agarwal, a 17-year-old content
writer from India. Anshika’s
design features interwoven
hexagons, representing the
global connections created by
modern technology. Open to
those aged between 14 and 24
around the world, competitors
enter innovative trophy designs
to be presented to the winners
The neodymium magnet is critical for clean technologies: it is a key component of the electrical of the QEPrize.
generators in wind turbines © Hugo Delauney/Unsplash Dr Sagawa will be formally
On 1 February, the 2022 Queen cobalt and samarium with more The magnet has a significant honoured at the QEPrize
Elizabeth Prize for Engineering abundant and cheaper iron and advantage in high-efficiency presentation ceremony
(QEPrize) was awarded for the neodymium. He also introduced and high-torque density later this year, where he will
development of the world’s boron to improve the magnetic applications, such as motors and receive £500,000 and the
most powerful permanent properties, which was the generators for electric vehicles unique trophy.
magnet, which has been an first step in delivering high and wind turbines. They are www.qeprize.org
integral component of clean performance to a mass market.
technologies such as electric However, the magnet
vehicles and wind turbines. The demagnetised at high
technology underpins everyday temperatures – a real problem
life as we know it – and for the in extremely hot conditions,
most part, without many of us such as car engines. To
even knowing it’s there. overcome this problem, Dr
Japan’s Dr Masato Sagawa Sagawa led the R&D in the
was awarded the prize for late 1980s and early 1990s to
his pioneering work on the overcome this problem, notably
discovery, development and by adding dysprosium to
global commercialisation of the improve heat resistance. Thanks
sintered Neodymium-Iron-Boron to this work, high-volume
permanent magnet, also known manufacturing techniques
as the neodymium magnet. were developed, resulting in
Dr Sagawa’s breakthrough a new magnet that almost
innovation was replacing the doubled the performance of the The winning design for the 2022 Create the Trophy competition by
scarce and expensive elements previous best. Anshika Agarwal
2 INGENIA
IN BRIEF
NORTHEAST GIGAFACTORY
GIVEN THE GO AHEAD
The UK government has in Blyth, Northumberland. wider supply chain. Production is with almost 200,000 sold
awarded startup Britishvolt, a Britishvolt says this should create scheduled to begin in 2024 and last year across the country.
manufacturer of car batteries, a around 3,000 highly skilled to reach full capacity in 2028. For the UK’s car industry
grant of £100 million that will jobs in Northumberland, plus The company has to meet the continuing
help fund a full-scale Gigaplant over 5,000 jobs indirectly in the also announced several needs of the transition, local
complementary initiatives since battery manufacturers will be
the news of the Gigaplant. vitally necessary to secure a
It is pairing up with mining manufacturing presence in
company Glencore to address the UK and supply power to
a contentious issue: end of life future vehicles.
for electric vehicle batteries. The High-performance car
collaboration aims to set up a manufacturer Lotus is also getting
world-leading recycling centre in on the action, partnering
to recover critical metals needed with Britishvolt to develop a
for the energy transition into the Lotus electric vehicle. The hope
battery supply chain. is that as with Formula 1, high
Electric vehicles are becoming performance R&D will ultimately
an increasingly important piece have beneficial trickle-down
A architectural rendering of the Britishvolt electric vehicle battery of the transition to net zero. effects for more affordable
plant, due to be built in Northumberland © Britishvolt Sales in the UK are booming, batteries and electric vehicles.
PUTTING ETHICS AT THE HEART
OF ENGINEERING
On 24 February, leading can follow. Countless other
engineers set out plans to instances show where engineers
embed a more ethical culture could have better implemented
at the heart of the UK’s ethics in decision-making,
engineering profession, starting whether it’s crash test dummies
with a new report and tools based on male drivers that leave
for higher education students women more at risk in car
from the Royal Academy of accidents; or how algorithms
Engineering and the Engineering and search engines have further
Professors’ Council. embedded pre-existing
Engineers make critical structural inequalities.
decisions all the time – about As part of the work, the
everything from the physical committee has written a report
infrastructure that surrounds recommending ways to help
us, to the climate, the digital improve awareness of ethical 12 case studies for undergraduate new software could misuse
fabric of our lives and how issues in the profession and help students to explore scenarios personal data.
information flows through engineers to deal with and call where ethics could relate to their To read the report and case
it, and much more besides. out bad practice. It also designed own everyday working lives, studies and watch the launch
Where the wrong outcomes are including considering trade-offs event, please visit
prioritised, catastrophic results in the energy transition to how www.raeng.org.uk/ethics
INGENIA ISSUE 90 MARCH 2022 3
IN BRIEF
BRAIN STIMULATOR IMPLANTED
IN PATIENTS FOR THE FIRST TIME
implanted into their brains.
These devices, which can ease
symptoms, are inserted deep
into the brain to stimulate the
tissue with electrical signals.
MSA is a rare, degenerative
neurological disorder that
shares many similarities with
Parkinson’s disease. The team’s
research will explore the role
of circadian rhythms, motion
and different brain signals in
the disease and its treatment.
It also aims to identify
biomarkers that signify the
state of the disease, and how
these vary throughout the day/
night cycle. Ultimately, the
plan is to develop stimulation
patterns that optimise
symptom management and
improve sleep.
Along with the trials
studying MSA, the team is also
A group of engineers and Bioinduction on a clinical trial Engineering Chair in Emerging preparing separate trials to
neuroscientists from the to implant a brain stimulator in Technologies, the trial has seen study how the technology can
University of Oxford have patients for the first time. five patients with multiple be used for post-stroke chronic
worked with Bristol-based Led by Professor Tim system atrophy (MSA) have the pain, epilepsy and disorders
bioelectronics startup Denison, a Royal Academy of Picostim™-DyNeuMo pacemaker of consciousness.
WE WANT TO HEAR FROM YOU
As Ingenia looks towards the about. Are there any exciting stories that cover the
future and plans to increase engineers or engineering creativity, variety and breadth
its presence online, we want projects you’d like us to cover? of engineering, please scan
you to share your thoughts on Any areas of engineering that the QR code (right) and
the magazine – what you like, don’t get enough attention? complete our anonymous
what you don’t like, what digital We’d also really like to know reader survey.
content you’d like to see, your how it’s used in schools and To help us develop insight
favourite parts of the magazine, colleges so that we can develop into how different groups of
and more. content that’s useful for teachers readers experience Ingenia, it
Your feedback helps inform and that will help students make would be really useful if you
the continued development of choices about their future study could also complete as many
Ingenia, so we’d like to hear what and career options. of the ‘about you’ questions as
you think about its content and So that we can continue to possible
what you’re interested in reading bring you exciting, inspiring Thank you for your support.
4 INGENIA
IN BRIEF
GET INVOLVED IN ENGINEERING
FOR YOUR INSPIRATION: POWERING OUR
SUSTAINABLE FUTURE
6.00pm, 18 March
Royal Institution, London
Join researchers working at the Faraday Institution to find
out how new breakthroughs in battery technology will help
the world meet global challenges such as climate change, air
pollution and sustainable jobs.
www.rigb.org/whats-on/events-2022/march/family-for-your-
inspiration-powering-our-sustain
EDINBURGH SCIENCE FESTIVAL
9 to 24 April
Edinburgh Science Festival is back: from the 9 to 24 April, venues THE FUTURE OF LIFE ON EARTH
across the city will host experiences for all ages, from interactive 1.00pm, 9 May
exhibitions to workshops, performances, screenings, and evening Barnard’s Inn Hall, London, or online
talks and discussions. This year’s theme is ‘Revolutions’ and Award-winning author, science communicator, and cosmology
will explore multiple senses of the word: the power of circles, and data science expert Roberto Trotta reflects on what’s in store
lifecycles, and revolutionary technologies and approaches to for life on our pale blue dot, Earth.
tackling global problems, from health to the climate crisis. www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/future-life
www.sciencefestival.co.uk/festival
BRITISH SCIENCE WEEK
11 to 20 March
This year’s British Science Week is themed ‘Growth’: look out for
events happening in your area or plan your own activities with
the packs available online. You’ll be guided through making a © Jason Charters/Unsplash
terrarium, designing an aeroplane or building a gentoo penguins’
nest. An annual poster competition is also open until 15 April for FOOTBALL: DESIGNING THE
ages 3 to 14. BEAUTIFUL GAME
www.britishscienceweek.org/plan-your-activities/poster-
From 8 April
competition
Design Museum, London
It’s been estimated that half the world’s population – 3.5 billion
people – watched the World Cup in 2018. But what innovations
have made football what it is today? How were the world’s
most significant stadiums master-planned? What innovative
materials are used to make today’s boots? Learn about all this
and more and see a pair of Lionel Messi’s very own boots at the
Design Museum.
https://designmuseum.org/exhibitions/football-designing-
© The Ice Stupa Project | Sonam Wangchuk
the-beautiful-game
CREATE THE FUTURE PODCAST
All podcast providers NEW SCIENTIST LIVE
The first few episodes of season three of Create the Future are 12 to 14 March
now live. Opening the series is award-winning mechanical Manchester Central Convention Centre, or online
engineer Sonam Wangchuk, discussing the origins of his famous Manchester’s Central Convention Centre will welcome over 9,000
Ice Stupa project and ongoing mission to inspire global change visitors, 40 speakers and 30 exhibitors in person for on-stage talks
in the face of multiple climate crises. Other episodes include the and hands-on demonstrations. Saturday and Sunday of the event
winner of the 2022 QEPrize, Dr Masato Sagawa, and pioneering are open to everyone, while Monday is focused on schools and
audio engineer Leslie Gaston-Bird. learners at home.
https://qeprize.org/podcasts live.newscientist.com
INGENIA ISSUE 90 MARCH 2022 5
HOW I GOT HERE
HOW I GOT HERE
QA
& KATE TODD-DAVIS
MANUFACTURING
ENGINEERING APPRENTICE
Apprentice Kate Todd-Davis WHY DID YOU FIRST BECOME both, I knew that I wanted to follow the
INTERESTED IN SCIENCE/ apprenticeship route.
followed her passion for ENGINEERING? I graduated with a first-class honours
aerospace and automotive I’ve had an inquisitive mind from a young degree in manufacturing technology from
age, always questioning how and why the University of Sheffield’s Advanced
engineering to Rolls-Royce things work, but I wasn’t really exposed Manufacturing Research Centre (AMRC)
– and gained a degree in to engineering until I was in secondary Training Centre, while gaining invaluable
school. When I was 14, I visited the Santa industry experience at the Rolls-Royce
manufacturing technology Pod Raceway and witnessed the astounding facility in Washington, UK. I’ve also
from the University of speed of the drag cars – I had to understand completed a Level 2 NVQ in fundamental
how they managed to travel so fast. engineering and am now working
Sheffield along the way. Since then, my passion for aerospace and towards a Level 4 NVQ in engineering
automotive engineering has grown and I’ve and advanced manufacturing – both
continued to fuel my curiosity by working delivered by the Sunderland Engineering
for Rolls-Royce. Training Association.
HOW DID YOU GET TO WHERE WHAT HAS BEEN YOUR BIGGEST
YOU ARE NOW? ACHIEVEMENT TO DATE?
After studying triple science, maths and Getting a first in my degree has been my
further maths at GCSE, I studied A levels in greatest academic achievement so far, and I
maths, physics and chemistry. When I was was recently awarded ‘Highly Commended
at college, I completed work experience Degree Apprentice of the Year 2021’
at Caterpillar and was accepted onto the through the National Apprenticeship Service.
EDF Energy Mentoring Scheme at the I was also named ‘Apprentice of the Year
Hartlepool Nuclear Power Station. I applied 2021’ and ‘Degree Apprentice of the Year
to Newcastle University to study a master’s 2021’ through the University of Sheffield
degree in design and manufacturing AMRC Training Centre, where I studied
engineering as well as the Manufacturing towards my degree.
Engineering Degree Apprenticeship through I’ve also been involved with the recently
Rolls-Royce. Although I was accepted for set up women in science and engineering
6 INGENIA
HOW I GOT HERE
group onsite. This has been a fantastic instructions, which are used by the
networking opportunity and has helped me inspectors and operators on the shop floor. QUICK-FIRE FACTS
appreciate the challenges my colleagues I am currently completing a Lean Six Sigma Age: 21
who are women have faced during their Green Belt and Level 4 NVQ qualification, Qualifications: BEng (Hons) in
careers. Hearing their stories has motivated while volunteering as a North East Young manufacturing technology, University of
me to be more ambitious and hopefully Apprentice Ambassador. Sheffield AMRC Training Centre
encourage more women to pursue a career Biggest engineering inspiration:
in engineering through my involvement in WHAT WOULD BE YOUR ADVICE TO Katharine Parsons, an engineer who
local STEM events. YOUNG PEOPLE LOOKING TO PURSUE advocated for women in the field and
A CAREER IN ENGINEERING? co-founded the Women’s Engineering
WHAT IS YOUR FAVOURITE THING Anyone, at any age, considering a career Society in 1919
ABOUT BEING AN ENGINEER? in engineering should go for it! It’s such
Most-used technology: Spotify – music
I love being given the opportunity to a diverse and captivating industry, and
helps me to stay focused and motivated
constantly learn, develop and challenge the opportunities are vast. I would also
current ways of working. Being at Rolls- encourage considering an apprenticeship. Three words that describe you: Driven,
Royce has exposed me to a variety of I think it’s the most logical route to success, ambitious, inquisitive
experienced and passionate colleagues as it provides you with both work experience
who have mentored and supported me and technical knowledge.
to achieve my potential. Seeing their
achievements and progression within the WHAT’S NEXT FOR YOU?
company has further motivated and inspired In the next few years, I’d like to be in a
me to maintain a strong work ethic and full-time position at Rolls-Royce. I want
support my future ambitions. to continue my involvement in digital
aspects of engineering as I think this is the
WHAT DOES A TYPICAL DAY INVOLVE future of the company, with the improved
FOR YOU? process capability and more efficient ways
On a day-to-day basis I spend most of my of work that will become possible. From
time on CAD/CAM software, updating an academic perspective, I’d also like to
models and processes and analysing complete a master’s degree to continue my
data. I also write and update technical professional development.
INGENIA ISSUE 90 MARCH 2022 7
OPINION
OPINION
BETTER BUILDINGS
NEED A BREATH OF
FRESH AIR
As the world adapts to living with COVID-19, buildings such as schools, hospitals and
office blocks should be well ventilated to reduce risk of transmission. But how can we
achieve this while keeping warm and lowering energy consumption? Dr Shaun Fitzgerald
OBE FREng, Director of Research in the Centre for Climate Repair at the University of
Cambridge, says that good ventilation doesn’t mean throwing open all the windows, and
that existing buildings need to be better regulated and monitored to ensure they can be
warm, safe and climate friendly.
COVID-19 has wreaked havoc on the world levels of concentration, reduced likelihood
in so many devastating ways over the last of mould growth, and reduced risk of
two years. Importantly, researchers have transmission of other airborne pathogens.
discovered that ventilation of buildings While it is easier to ventilate buildings
can effectively reduce the risk of SARS- by opening windows during the spring and
CoV-2 virus transmission. In 2021, Sir Patrick summer, there are challenges in delivering
Vallance KBE FRS, the government’s Chief the appropriate amount of ventilation in
Scientific Adviser, commissioned a report colder weather – especially with a focus on
from the Royal Academy of Engineering on reducing buildings’ energy consumption
how to reduce the risk of infection indoors, and keeping warm.
in which experts say the importance of Heat loss through conduction,
ventilation is too often “neglected” and there uncontrolled air leakage and radiation
is an “urgent need” to improve it. are the biggest issues engineers face in
The Infection Resilient Environments report reducing energy use in buildings. Improving
recommends that multiple occupancy insulation levels helps to reduce the heat
spaces should be well ventilated to minimise lost by conduction through the building
the build-up of virus if infectious persons are fabric. However, action is needed to not
present. Additionally, the benefits of a well- only improve panels’ insulation, but also the
ventilated space go beyond helping reduce quality of the areas where they are joined.
the risk of SARS-CoV-2 transmission; higher Additionally, sealing gaps in the building
ventilation rates can lead to enhanced fabric means that when a building is empty,
8 INGENIAOPINION
it will not leak out the warm air from the the same level of ventilation directly via low to rise. Therefore, our focus should be on
previous day or occupied period. This helps level windows. Occupants will therefore close addressing buildings that don’t meet
keep the building warm and reduces the them, which should be avoided from a health current building regulation standards for
need for a heating system to preheat the perspective now. Monitoring of buildings to ventilation as these buildings arguably
building before re-occupation. Finally, check whether adequate levels of fresh air are present the greatest risk for transmission.
installing coatings on windows or foil- in fact being provided is extremely variable – They are also likely to consume the most
backed insulation in the attic space can buildings with controlled ventilation systems energy as a result of poor building fabric
help reduce heat loss by radiation. and CO2 sensors in occupied spaces can and systems. There is a role for different
Once the building fabric has been more easily provide appropriate levels of controlled ventilation systems ranging from
upgraded to a good level, when the fresh air. Buildings that have people together natural ventilation to full heat recovery
building is occupied the space can be for extended periods of time that rely on schemes. In addition, high efficiency
well ventilated, even in cold weather, manual openings are more challenging, as particulate air (HEPA) filters or ultraviolet
without excessive energy use. This is was highlighted in a study of an outbreak light (UVC) systems can help reduce
because natural heat gains within the space in a restaurant in Wuhan. For example, can infection risks in locations where good
can often be sufficient to maintain the restaurant visitors be assured of the level of ventilation is difficult to achieve. However,
interior at a comfortable 21°C and provide fresh air at their table? There are health and the benefits of using other kinds of air
ventilation without extra heating or a heat safety issues in food preparation in kitchens, cleaning devices are less clear.
recovery scheme, even when the external but it is a different situation in the public The pandemic has revealed flaws in
temperature drops to 5°C. The combined area. Now that an environment’s air quality the way in which we design, manage
heat gains from IT equipment, lighting, and its role in creating safer spaces has been and operate buildings. Unless they are
solar, and the occupants themselves are brought into sharper focus, government and addressed, these could disrupt management
considerable. If the ventilation system is professional bodies will need to develop of this and future pandemics, impose
designed to exploit these heat gains by further regulations and guidance and high financial and health costs on society,
premixing the incoming cold air with warm communicate these clearly and consistently. and constrain our ability to address other
room air, adequate levels of ventilation can More importantly, architects, engineers, and challenges such as climate change. Well-
be provided without cold draughts. building owners and operators must ensure designed and maintained ventilation
Unfortunately, many existing buildings these are applied. systems can help overcome the challenges
have poorly maintained ventilation systems. Finally, engineers must find a balance in that COVID-19 poses and contribute to the
For example, if a building has opening winter between reducing the risk of SARS- transition to zero-carbon buildings. As the
windows, not all the windows may in fact CoV-2 transmission to an acceptable level Infection Resilient Environments report notes:
work: many windows at lower levels that and keeping energy use low. Increased “government policy on net zero must be
are easily accessed by occupants are better levels of ventilation reduce the risk of developed in a way that is consistent with
maintained than those at higher levels. transmission, but once these are considered priorities around indoor air quality and
While losing a few opening windows isn’t a reasonable, the benefits from reducing making buildings resilient to infection.” It
problem in the spring or autumn, it can be the risk of transmission decrease for each is not a choice between COVID-19 resilient
a problem in winter if they are the top ones. litre per second per person of outdoor and climate-friendly buildings; it is a case of
Cracking open all the high-level windows air provided – and energy costs continue improving buildings to meet both goals.
a small amount provides good levels of
ventilation but without cold draughts – the BIOGRAPHY
incoming cold fresh air can mix with the Dr Shaun Fitzgerald OBE FREng is Director of Research in the Centre for Climate
air in the space and be warmed before it Repair at the University of Cambridge. His academic research on ventilation led to
hits the nearest occupant. This means that him founding and leading Breathing Buildings from 2006 to 2018. He is a member
of the SAGE Environmental Modelling Group, one of the authors of the Chartered
radiators should not need to be turned up
Institution of Building Services Engineers Emerging from Lockdown series, and
to alleviate cold draughts. Without the high-
currently part of the AIRBODS research team.
level windows, it will be too cold to provide
INGENIA ISSUE 90 MARCH 2022 9SUPERCHARGING GPS PRECISION
© Unsplash/NASA
SUPERCHARGING
GPS PRECISION
10 INGENIAEMERGING TECHNOLOGY
Did you know?
• At any given time, at least four GPS satellites are visible in the sky anywhere
on Earth
• GPS positioning is less accurate in cities because the signals are reflected by tall
buildings in ‘urban canyons’
• New technologies could boost accuracy and even help us navigate indoors
Satellite-based positioning technologies have taken over the world
since their inception during the Space Race. Although they can
now pinpoint a location to within a few metres outdoors, they still
suffer from unsolved problems, such as drift near obstructions
like tall buildings, bridges and trees. Now, companies like Focal
Point Positioning (FocalPoint) are using sensor fusion and signal
processing technology to overcome these problems and find new
applications for the technology.
person in need of medical equipped it with a radio Global Navigation Satellite
assistance down to a few metres. emitter to allow people on Systems (GNSS). The overarching
Air traffic controllers at airports Earth to track the satellite’s term GNSS encompasses
can track and monitor inbound launch and orbit. Scientists different satellite-based
planes to prevent delays and knew that the frequency of positioning, navigation and
collisions. Ships can be carefully these signals dropped slightly timing systems used across
guided through the busy English as the satellite passed the the globe:
Channel. Conservationists can receiving station, thanks to the – GPS, operated by the US
track animals and their migratory Doppler Effect (which describes – GLONASS (Global Navigation
patterns, from flocks of swifts to the difference between the Satellite System), operated by
It’s hard to imagine life without herds of bison. frequency of a wave when it the Russian Federation
GPS. Instead of poring over So how does this technology leaves a source compared to – Galileo, operated by the EU
a map and writing down work, and what possibilities when it reaches an observer). – BeiDou Navigation Satellite
directions, we grab a postcode could open up if it was to They then realised that this System (BDS), operated
and plan a journey at the touch become even better than it frequency data could be used by China.
of a button on a smartphone already is? to predict the satellite’s orbit, All GNSS are, at their core, just
or satnav. We can watch a and furthermore, that they atomic clocks in space, ticking.
taxi driver or takeaway as it could use this same principle The messages we receive from
approaches or watch ourselves GPS AND GNSS to calculate the position of an the satellites tell us the time
trundle towards an e-scooter Satellite-based positioning object on Earth, and so GPS from these incredibly precise
around the corner. Of course, was conceived in the days of was born. clocks, along with information
it goes beyond our everyday the Sputnik I satellite and the GPS stands for Global that lets us calculate exactly
conveniences: thanks to GPS, Space Race. When Sputnik I Positioning System technology where the satellites are in space.
paramedics can pinpoint a was launched, Soviet engineers and is one of the better-known By comparing timestamps from
INGENIA ISSUE 90 MARCH 2022 11SUPERCHARGING GPS PRECISION
ATOMIC CLOCKS
To be able to provide navigation to the nearest few metres,
extremely precise and stable clocks are needed onboard GNSS
satellites: atomic clocks. With counters based on the frequency of
oscillating atoms, they can keep time to within three billionths of
a second.
different satellites at different encounter high GNSS errors to
locations, we can work out this day, such as in cities.
exactly where (and when) we Today’s consumer watches
are, as GNSS receivers don’t just and smartphones determine
calculate position to within a location using more than just
few metres in good conditions, GNSS data. They incorporate
but also calculate time to within Wi-Fi and cellular positioning, as
a few nanoseconds too. well as using inertial data from
accelerometers and gyroscopes,
which measure directional
MINIMISING ERROR change and orientation as you
In the late 1990s, civilian GPS walk, run or drive. They can also
signals were intentionally include a digital compass that
degraded by an inbuilt feature senses the Earth’s magnetic field.
called ‘selective availability’. This Finally, a tiny barometer helps
was designed to prevent the to calculate an accurate height
US’s enemies from using GPS to measurement. All this data
their advantage and introduced can be combined to provide
errors of 50 metres horizontally the most accurate position
and 100 metres vertically. It was fix available, and to help to
disabled in 2000 for various maintain position estimates in
reasons – primarily because regions where GNSS signals are
academics and commercial blocked, such as indoors. But
enterprises across the world had can we also change how GNSS
developed a variety of methods works to improve performance
Incoming GNSS positioning signals from satellites reflect off tall
to counter it. right at the very core? buildings in urban canyon environments like Canary Wharf
With the flick of a switch, © Focal Point Positioning
civilian GPS accuracy went called an ‘urban canyon’, as there from a ride-hailing app, it could
from 50 metres to 5 metres and MAXIMISING is limited view of the open sky present real safety challenges if
the world changed in a way ACCURACY IN CITIES and, as a result, the satellites. This autonomous vehicles are to rely
that many people have never GNSS receivers struggle to means any GNSS device in the heavily on GNSS.
considered. Imagine if your sat maintain high accuracy in cities vicinity will be inundated with However, a solution to
nav was always wrong by at because the signals from the reflected copies of the signal as these urban GNSS challenges
least 50 metres? How annoying satellites can be blocked by they bounce around between may be just around the corner.
would that be for door-delivery buildings and bounce around the buildings. A normal receiver One approach comes from
services like Deliveroo and between them, leading to will detect all available versions Cambridge-based startup
Amazon? How dangerous incorrect measurements being of the signals and be unable FocalPoint. The company
would it be for the emergency processed by the GNSS chip. to tell the difference between has developed a software-
services? Precise GPS-based It is likely that most people a signal that has arrived on the based GNSS technology
technologies that we take for have experienced confusing or line-of-sight path, and one with called Supercorrelation, which
granted today, such as those incorrect GNSS fixes while trying extra delay from reflections. The performs position calculations
in autonomous agriculture to navigate in a built-up area. result is poor positioning, such using only the measurements
systems and low-cost drones, Canary Wharf, London’s that your location may appear from line-of-sight signals. It
could not have been developed. financial district, is an excellent across the street or further does this by determining the
Our fitness trackers would be example of a difficult GNSS away from where you actually arrival angle of signals, allowing
useless. However, even with environment: a forest of are. Although that might cause it to keep any signals that have
selective availability disabled, skyscrapers with highly reflective havoc with getting to your travelled in the correct straight-
there are still places where we surfaces. It’s what is sometimes destination or finding a driver line path from the satellite, while
12 INGENIAEMERGING TECHNOLOGY
Improved positioning
using Supercorrelation
Canary Wharf, London
Standard GNSS location from a
consumer smartphone
Improved location when combined
with FocalPoint’s Supercorrelation
technology
Mapping corrections like FocalPoint’s Supercorrelation can significantly improve GNSS positioning where obstructions are present
© Focal Point Positioning
discarding reflected signals sports, as marathons and official most accurate metrics for sport- Centimetre-level accuracy is
that arrive at the user from championship-status events fitness applications, where the already being used in China
other directions. According were staged virtually. These combination of information for early-warning systems for
to the company, the result required runners to upload their from GNSS and human-motion- landslides with the BeiDou GNSS
is consistently accurate and sports watch data to determine modelling software provides network. Expanded elsewhere,
reliable fixes, even in the most medal places. In one case, there more precise metrics than either it could make possible further
difficult signal environments. was a gap of just 0.05 seconds alone can. applications in disaster planning
Supercorrelation’s approach between second and third and recovery.
combines sensor fusion, machine
learning and signal processing,
podium places. It is unlikely that
the current consumer-grade
ENABLING Looking to more
commonplace applications,
developed over several years GNSS chips in sports watches AUTONOMY AND technologies such as FocalPoint’s
by FocalPoint’s expert team. are accurate enough for that INDOOR NAVIGATION will enable autonomous vehicles
But FocalPoint isn’t alone in decision to have been any more While it’s important to provide and drones to navigate more
developing a solution to the confident than the flip of a coin. high-performance wearable safely in cities, mountainous areas
urban canyon GPS issue. The This is another challenge technology to athletes so and forests. We may see last-
company has developed another FocalPoint has been working they can use accurate data to mile delivery robots navigating
approach in collaboration with towards addressing. The govern their training, shape pavements, or apps that help
Google. This is currently used in company has developed performance and shave us navigate to the right train
Android devices and provides D-Tail, a human-motion- precious seconds off race times, platform or supermarket shelf.
mapping corrections based on modelling software package precision positioning will have And of course, we will never
Google’s own 3D models of that converts motion patterns a far greater impact elsewhere. again get lost in Canary Wharf.
buildings in nearly 4,000 cities in the accelerometer and
around the world. gyroscope data from a BIOGRAPHY
smartphone or sports watch Dr Ramsey Faragher is President, Founder and CTO of
into a 3D reconstruction FocalPoint. He is a world-leading expert in positioning, sensor
KEEPING ATHLETES of motion through space. fusion and machine-learning for navigation systems. Alongside
TO TIME FocalPoint says it allows accurate his roles in FocalPoint, he is a Fellow of the Royal Institute of
The COVID-19 lockdown saw positioning to be maintained Navigation and a Bye-Fellow of Queens’ College at the University
GNSS being stretched to its as people move in and out of of Cambridge.
limits in the world of elite buildings, and provides the
INGENIA ISSUE 90 MARCH 2022 13QUICKER TESTING FOR COVID
QUICKER TESTING
FOR COVID
DnaNudge’s consumer genetics technology has been adapted to deliver an award-winning rapid, lab-free test for COVID-19
© Pixabay/Mahmoud-Ahmed
Testing for COVID-19 has become routine for almost everyone, from schoolteachers
and shop workers to actors and dancers. An award-winning test that doesn’t require
specialist laboratories or trained clinicians to analyse the results is being used in
UK hospitals and has helped organisations such as the Royal Ballet and the London
Symphony Orchestra to ensure that their shows can go on safely. Stuart Nathan spoke
to Professor Christofer Toumazou FREng FRS FMedSci of Imperial College London
about his rapid, affordable COVID-19 test, based on lab-in-a-cartridge technology,
that provides results in just over an hour.
14 INGENIAINNOVATION
Did you know?
• An interdisciplinary team has created a simple swab test that analyses individuals’
genetic profiles
• The test maps people’s unique DNA and nudges them towards healthier food
shopping choices
• It has now been adapted to accurately detect the SARS-CoV-2 virus from saliva
samples on-site in just over an hour
If it hadn’t been for a family on treating the effects of disease dollars into consumer-friendly Sykes FRS FMedSci HonFREng,
health crisis, Professor Christofer rather than preventing its worst technologies in the telecoms former Chair and Chief
Toumazou’s career may not effects from developing. area, but we’ve invested very Executive of GlaxoSmithKline,
have gone in the direction that “Had we known that Marcus little into consumer health and had recently been appointed
has now won his team the had inherited this condition in using technologies in a way rector of Imperial College
Royal Academy of Engineering’s there were things that we that can help consumers look London and was keen on
MacRobert Award – the longest- and the health system could after their own health.” interdisciplinary research, which
running award for engineering have done earlier,” Professor The lab-on-a-chip concept was more commonplace in the
innovation in the UK. In Toumazou explains. “That could was then in its infancy, but pharmaceutical industry and had
2021, DnaNudge, created by have avoided the side-effects Professor Toumazou realised proved extremely fruitful. “With
biomedical Professor Toumazou he experienced because we that it could have potential for his backing, I created an Institute
and geneticist Dr Maria Karvela – didn’t know early enough. this kind of application; with of Biomedical Engineering where
CEO and CSO respectively of the I witnessed first-hand how his knowledge of design and medics, engineers, biochemists,
London-based startup – won the primitive chronic disease fabrication of silicon wafers he electrical engineers, and
award for its pioneering genetic management was in a home could be well placed to develop physicists all worked together,”
testing technology, which has setting. Hospitals often find it it. While his background was in says Professor Toumazou.
pivoted and was adapted into difficult to bring in preventative electronics and semiconductors, “That interdisciplinarity and
a rapid, lab-free RT-PCR test for technologies because it means he had little knowledge of collaboration allowed us to
COVID-19 in NHS hospitals. additional cost to the healthcare microfluidics – the branch develop the complete lab-on-a-
Having working in electronics system. Although it would be of fluid dynamics concerned chip technology.”
for telecommunications, cheaper in the long run and with liquid flow through very The lab-on-a-chip developed
Professor Toumazou embarked better for patients, it is set up small channels – and hardly from a need to decide whether
on this new path because both to treat disease rather than to any knowledge of genetics. to attack the problem by
he and his wife had inherited a prevent it.” Fortunately, only a few years sequencing or by detection.
single copy of the same faulty earlier the Human Genome Sequencing required analysing
gene, which in 2007 caused Project, the international large stretches of the patient’s
their son, Marcus, to develop LAB-ON-A-CHIP research effort to determine genome, a lengthy process
severe kidney disease. After Professor Toumazou started the DNA sequence of the entire needing a lot of processing
Marcus suffered organ failure, thinking about whether his human genome, had issued its power. “Sequencing is a very
the Toumazou family spent a skills in miniaturising complex first report, so characterising good medical technology that
great deal of time in London’s technology could help develop human genes and finding we now value so much today,
Great Ormond Street Hospital for equipment to carry out genetic practical uses for the information for example in discovering the
Sick Children, where Professor testing to detect genes that was of great interest. SARS-CoV-2 virus’s genes, but my
Toumazou realised that could potentially have a serious The idea required heart was more in detection than
healthcare related to genetic effect on people’s future health. interdisciplinary working for sequencing,” Professor Toumazou
conditions focused too much “We had invested billions of development. Sir Richard says. “I thought that if we could
INGENIA ISSUE 90 MARCH 2022 15QUICKER TESTING FOR COVID
Once the NudgeBox has mapped the user’s genetic profile to key nutrition-related health traits, they can use the wrist-worn DnaBand or
the mobile app to scan food products sold in UK supermarkets to find out whether the nutritional contents are a good match for their
individual biology
detect genes with mutations reagents to detect those SNPs. extract a sample from a swab sequences. When the target
that made people vulnerable to Although you can collect saliva and then extracts DNA from DNA sequences are present
avoidable health conditions, we samples easily, you then have the sample, which is minute. in the sample, fluorescence is
would have a powerful tool.” to extract the DNA and make Professor Toumazou explains: released proportionate to the
sure there is enough for the “Think of DNA molecules as number of copies of target
reagents to detect the SNP you very small ‘fish’ and as before, DNA. This fluorescence is then
FISHING FOR SNPS are looking for.” the SNP reagents as ‘bait’, detected by the NudgeBox, and
This detection approach led The chip plugs into a palm- spotted in each well. Each ‘bait’ a profile in the array of wells is
DnaNudge’s newly established sized circular cartridge, which is will bind to its specific target created. The first thing it does is
team to develop a chip similar then inserted into a ‘NudgeBox’ ‘fish’. However, to detect this encrypt it so we can throw away
to devices used to identify – an appliance a little smaller ‘fish–bait’ interaction, we need a the cartridge; we don’t keep
active ingredients to target than a shoebox that contains large number of fish hooked on DNA information.”
specific receptors on cells. The sensors and heating elements. their unique baits. We use the DnaNudge used the
chip contains a micro-array of Lab technicians normally extract polymerase chain reaction (PCR) national guidelines for nutrition
72 tiny wells, each containing DNA by pipetting samples into to do that. When DNA is heated, published by the Chief Medical
a chemical reagent that binds a machine that uses chemical the two strands separate. You Officer’s office and ensured that
to a genetic sequence of steps to purify the genetic can then add some short, these were integrated into the
interest. The sequences are material. Over two to three single strands of synthetic app. The software, hosted on a
known as single-nucleotide years, DnaNudge worked DNA, which bind to the target mobile phone, allows consumers
polymorphisms (SNPs), with Cambridge-based The strand when it cools. Then, the to check their SNP profile against
conveniently pronounced ‘snips’. Technology Partnership (TTP) to polymerase attaches to the foods’ nutritional information
“Think of the SNP reagents develop a system where every ‘fish–bait’ construct and adds using a small wireless barcode
as being like fishing bait that step required for extraction and on other individual building scanner to get an instant
only catch one species of fish,” purification takes place inside blocks of DNA (called free read out showing whether a
Professor Toumazou explains. the cartridge. “That’s the key nucleotides) to make a whole particular item is good or bad
“We decided that the first health to decentralisation,” Professor new double strand. If you repeat for them. For example, people
conditions we would target Toumazou adds, “allowing this heating–cooling–addition with a predisposition to type 2
were obesity, hypertension and unskilled workers to run this cycle many times you get more diabetes must reduce saturated
type 2 diabetes, which are huge with no need for chemistry copies of the target DNA. The fat and sugar in their diets, while
public health issues putting a degrees or understanding of NudgeBox contains all the those with a predisposition to
strain on the NHS. The genetic medical devices.” heating and cooling hardware hypertension must reduce salt.
mutations – the SNPs – that The cartridge has a micro needed to do this. In less than “It won’t say ‘you should eat
leave people vulnerable to motor in its base – powered by an hour it extracts the DNA and a banana instead of a biscuit’,
them are well known, so we the NudgeBox – that operates performs enough PCR cycles to because we know that kind
baited some of the wells with miniaturised equipment to detect the presence of the target of advice doesn’t work,” says
16 INGENIAINNOVATION
Alongside its use in NHS hospitals, the test is being in used in care homes across the UK. The test also has multiplex capabilities and can check
for FluA, FluB and respiratory syncytial virus in addition to COVID-19 © thisisjude.uk 2020
Professor Toumazou. “What it In January 2020, DnaNudge took locked down. The government detecting SNPs in human DNA,
does say is that these biscuits its technology to the Consumer started to ask industry for ways it could detect the virus. “I had
would be better for you than Electronics Show in Las Vegas, to help tackle the pandemic. deliberately tried to avoid the
those others. That’s what we where it attracted interest from With the genetic sequence ‘real’ medical area, but this threw
mean by the ‘nudge’.” Professor US health retailers. However, of the SARS-Cov-2 virus me straight into it,” he explains.
Toumazou is himself predisposed cases of COVID-19 were already quickly determined, Professor “I had discussions with the
to hypertension, and by using rising dramatically in China, Toumazou instantly realised Department of Health and Social
the system discovered that dry- and just weeks after the team’s that DnaNudge’s technology Care, and we agreed we would
roasted peanuts are worse for return from the US, the UK also could be useful: instead of do this at cost”.
him than standard salted peanuts
because of higher salt content in
the flavoured coating.
ADAPTING TO COVID
The technology was launched
commercially in November
2019. DnaNudge partnered with
Waitrose to attract customers
and opened a shop in London’s
Covent Garden to provide the
service, adding a series of tests
to determine which active
ingredients in skincare products
were most likely to benefit the
customer. “To launch the service,
we needed show people that
with just small changes they
could see definite results.
Healthcare and appearance are
both appealing things for people
to latch onto: in a way, we were Without a laboratory or any manual steps involved, the ‘lab-in-cartridge’ technology can return results
appealing to people’s vanity to in just over an hour. This rapidity has proved popular in the arts and culture sector, with institutions
get this off the ground,” adds including London Symphony Orchestra, Glyndebourne Festival and the Royal Opera House – home of the
Professor Toumazou. Royal Ballet – all using the tests to support safe rehearsals and performances
INGENIA ISSUE 90 MARCH 2022 17QUICKER TESTING FOR COVID
The first issue was that the virus Having 72 wells available on the is human DNA in the sample and we helped them with
contains RNA (ribonucleic acid) analysis chip allows DnaNudge – and therefore the swab has material choice, which machines
rather than DNA, and only DNA to include all the viral variants been effective – so if COVID-19 to use, what quality control
can be amplified by PCR. The of interest as soon as their isn’t detected, you know it’s a was necessary,” says Professor
DnaNudge team developed genetic sequence is available true negative,” says Professor Toumazou. “It was a challenging
a technique using reverse and allows for a primed well to Toumazou. “This tackled a process that otherwise could
transcription PCR to convert RNA detect human DNA in the saliva huge problem, as 20% of tests have taken years.”
to DNA, using a combination of sample from a patient. When a in hospitals were returning Although challenging,
freeze-dried reagents. However, swab is taken, it often doesn’t false negatives. We did a Professor Toumazou believes
this wasn’t very stable and pick up any genetic material at huge validation in London that the engineering effort
sometimes didn’t work, so the all, which means it can show and Oxford hospitals to satisfy that went into adapting his
team needed to find a way to as a false negative on a COVID- the MHRA [Medicines and system to detect COVID-19
heat the RNA as well – in less 19 test. “Our system includes Healthcare products Regulatory may have been a blessing in
than a month. a control, to check that there Agency] and then published disguise for future diagnostic
a paper in The Lancet showing applications. He thinks that the
96% to 97% sensitivity and technology’s most valuable use
100% specificity, meaning we will be in helping doctors to
didn’t miss any positives.” determine which medicines are
The major engineering likely to be the most effective
problem for the project for patients, enabling them
revolved around the to prescribe and dose based
manufacturability of the on patients’ metabolism of
cartridge. Switching from particular drugs and addressing
consumer testing to COVID-19 antibiotic resistance. “Lots of
testing required a large scale- bacteria have resistant genes
up of production. DnaNudge that must be treated with
partnered with a contract the right antibiotics,” adds
manufacturing company Jabil, Professor Toumazou. “The
which makes Hewlett-Packard current tests take far too long;
printer cartridges in Ireland, to while doctors are waiting for
manufacture the cartridges. results their patients will be on
Inkjet printer cartridges have ineffective drugs. This is known
some mechanical similarities as personalised or precision
with the test cartridges – both medicine, and there is resistance
depend on precise handling from pharmaceutical companies
of small amounts of liquid and as it might impact sales of some
must be plugged into another of their blockbuster antibiotic
box to interface with separate drugs. But I hope things are
mechanisms. “They helped us changing. I’m going back to the
understand what they needed, concept of one chip, one drug.”
BIOGRAPHY
Professor Christofer Toumazou FREng FRS FMedSci is
DnaNudge’s CEO, and Regius Professor of Engineering, Chair in
Biomedical Circuit Design, Director of the Centre for Bio-Inspired
Technology, and Founder and Chief Scientist for the Institute of
Biomedical Engineering at Imperial College London. He is also
Co-Founder and Executive Chair of DNA Electronics. In 1994,
As well as winning the MacRobert Award in 2021, the Royal Academy Professor Toumazou was the youngest Professor ever to be
of Engineering also awarded Professor Toumazou with a President’s
Special Award for Pandemic Service in 2020 © thisisjude.uk 2020 appointed at Imperial College London, at the age of 33.
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