Out of Ashes, An Opportunity - the great basin restoration initiative
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the great basin
restoration initiative
Out of Ashes,
An Opportunity
bureau of land management
national office of fire and aviation
boise, idaho
november · 1999the great basin
restoration initiative
“Imagine a gnarled and venerable
live oak-tree reduced to
a little shrub two feet high,
with its rough bark,
its foliage,
its twisted boughs,
all complete...
It is an imposing monarch
of the forest
in exquisite miniature...”
Mark Twain (of sagebrush)
Roughing It, 1872table of contents the great basin
restoration initiative
Executive Summary ....................................................................................................... 1
Historical Perspective: An Ocean of Sagebrush ............................................................ 4
Out of Ashes, An Opportunity ...................................................................................... 5
The Great Basin – What it is, How it is Changing and Why ........................................ 7
Native Plant Communities ................................................................ 7
Watersheds and Soils ......................................................................... 8
Wildlife ............................................................................................ 10
Wild Horses ..................................................................................... 12
Noxious Weeds and Exotic Annual Grasses ................................... 13
Livestock Grazing ............................................................................ 15
Recreation ........................................................................................ 16
Wildland Fire ................................................................................... 16
A Proposal for Restoration: Why Restoration is Needed ............................................ 18
What Must be Done in the Great Basin .......................................... 19
Proposal ........................................................................................... 21
Maps ............................................................................................................................ 23
Key Contacts for the Great Basin Restoration Initiative ............................................. 27
Team Members of the Great Basin Restoration Initiative ........................................... 28
Page ithe great basin
restoration initiative
“The interior of the Great Basin,
so far as explored, is found to be a
succession of sharp mountain
ranges... They are thinly wooded
with some varieties of pine..., cedar,
aspen, and a few other trees, and
afford an excellent quality of bunch
grass, equal to any found in the
Rocky Mountains. Black-tailed deer
and mountain sheep are frequent in
these mountains; which...may be
called fertile, in the radical sense of
the word...Sterility, on the contrary, is
the absolute characteristic of the
valleys between the mountains – no
wood, no water, no grass, the gloomy
artemisia the prevailing shrub...
Such is the Great Basin, heretofore
characterized as a desert, and in
some respects meriting that appella-
tion, but already demanding the
qualification of great exceptions, and
deserving the full examination of a
thorough exploration.”
—John Charles Fremont,
Geographical Memoir, 1848
Page iiexecutive summary the great basin
restoration initiative
The Great Basin is facing a crisis. • Emergency fire rehabilitation,
A century ago, it consisted of a network which occurs immediately
of dynamic ecosystems that supported following a fire, focuses on
diverse species of plants and animals. stabilizing soils but doesn’t
Today, the Great Basin’s vast landscape is always meet long-term
changing with alarming momentum. restoration goals.
Encompassing most of Nevada, the lower • The weed program, with its
third of Idaho, the western half of Utah effectiveness limited by cost and
and southeast corner of Oregon, the the overwhelming presence of
Great Basin has arrived at the threshold invasive species, cannot be used The Great Basin is facing
of a critical, and potentially permanent, to protect plant communities
change. Huge wildland fires the summer susceptible to invasive species.
a crisis. A century ago,
of 1999 burned at least 1.7 million acres it consisted of a network
of land, wiping out much of the remain- • Hazardous fuels treatments, which of dynamic ecosystems
ing native shrublands. allow land managers to create fuel
breaks to isolate critical native
that supported diverse species
Although these fires were devastating, plant communities from cheatgrass of plants and animals.
they are only partially at fault for the invasion, or reintroduce fire Today, the Great Basin’s
condition of Great Basin rangelands today. where exclusion has degraded
The blame must be shared with noxious vegetation, cannot alone meet
vast landscape
weeds and exotic annual grasses that have long-term restoration goals. is changing with
crept persistently across native shrublands alarming momentum.
the past few decades. These invasive Altogether, these options do not provide
species quickly gained a foothold in lands land managers with the necessary tools to
where fire weakened or removed native restore native shrublands that have been
shrubs and perennial grasses and forbs. in decline for decades.
A wildland fire/annual grass cycle was
begun that accelerates with increased Funding is needed to support a long-term
weed and annual grass invasions. restoration program that will lead to
diverse and resilient plant communities.
Ultimately, the loss of native shrub BLM believes this solution will help
habitat means loss of wildlife species; restore the health and productivity of
unstable watersheds and degraded water Great Basin rangelands by allowing the
quality; less forage for wild horses; agency to gradually return lands domi-
reduced livestock grazing; fewer recre- nated by weeds and annual grasses to its
ation opportunities; and more dangerous native character.
and costly wildland firefighting.
Millions of dollars would be needed for a
The remedies currently used to battle 10 year restoration project to achieve
invasive species and restore native these goals. Eventually an estimated
habitat are not enough to slow or stop 500,000 acres could be treated annually
the downward spiral of native shrublands using private contractors. To facilitate
in the Great Basin: habitat restoration, treatments would
Page 1the great basin vary from mechanical to chemical and • Drastic and extremely expen-
restoration initiative include seedings, plantings, fence and sive measures will have to be
water developments. taken to reverse the downward
spiral of sage grouse, which is
Restoration efforts would be done in now teetering on the edge of
conjunction with emergency fire rehabili- being listed as an endangered or
tation. Efforts would protect areas with threatened species. Big game,
high-resource values from noxious weed such as mule deer, elk and
and exotic annual grass invasions, and bighorn sheep, will continue
restore crucial areas and native to decline as shrub habitats,upon
shrublands degraded by invasive species. which they depend, diminish.
Restoration priorities would be set based When more than 165,000 hunters
The remedies currently used on inventories and assessments; public within the Great Basin each year
involvement; proximity to adjacent pursue mule deer alone, this
to battle invasive species
landowners; level of community support; means an annual $145 million
and restore native habitat places where wildlife habitat, especially injected into the region’s econo-
are not enough to slow or threatened and endangered species, are a mies through retail sales and jobs.
concern; and wildland-urban interface.
stop the downward spiral
• Wild horse populations will
of native shrublands The bottom line is that unless and until shrink as native vegetation is
in the Great Basin. an aggressive, well-planned and long- replaced by cheatgrass and
term restoration is begun: competition for forage among
• Native shrubs, plants and grasses wild horses, wildlife and
will continue to decrease, domestic livestock increases.
making room for noxious weeds
and exotic annual grasses. This • Invasive species will continue
habitat change will severely to move in and dominate
impact watersheds, soils, wildlife wildlands previously
and wild horses, and human characterized by native
uses such as livestock grazing shrublands, costing taxpayers
and recreation. millions of dollars in weed
treatments and job losses. In the
• Watersheds will become more West, livestock and wildlife
unstable and water quality will grazing capacity is commonly
suffer. This will affect livestock reduced between 35 to 90
industries and recreationists, percent. In Montana, North
such as anglers, who depend on Dakota, Wyoming and Oregon,
healthy waterways. Worse, these invasions are resulting in
people who live at the base of annual treatment costs ranging
burned hillsides could find from $42 million to $155 million
themselves and their property in annually and potential job losses
danger from flooding that often nearing 2,000.
occurs when soil-stabilizing
vegetation is burned.
Page 2• Many Great Basin communities Although the habitat loss we’re facing the great basin
that are completely dependent in the Great Basin has not occurred restoration initiative
on the livestock industry and overnight and is not a new problem,
income of ranchers will suffer. the 1.7 million acres of land scorched in
These losses will strike at the the 1999 wildland fire season may be the
heart of many rural communities last wake-up call. What we’ve tried before
in the Great Basin. hasn’t worked very well. A restoration
effort like none ever tried before must
• Losses in income from hunting, begin now, before the downward spiral
camping and fishing will continue to becomes irreversible.
affect not only those who live in the
Great Basin, but the region’s tourism
industry. Although the habitat loss
what’s next
we’re facing in the Great Basin
• Fire frequencies and intensities
will continue to increase, trigger- As critical rehabilitation proceeds on has not occurred overnight
ing fire behavior that’s more lands burned in 1999, the implementa-
and is not a new problem,
unpredictable, more erratic, and tion of the Great Basin Restoration
Initiative must begin with the develop- the 1.7 million acres of land
increasingly more dangerous to
firefighters and the public, and to ment of a strategy. To develop this scorched in the 1999 wildland
natural resources and public strategy, an interagency, interdisciplinary
fire season may be the
property. The costs of fighting team will be established. This team will
develop the steps required to identify and last wake-up call.
these fires will increase as well.
inventory plant communities needing
Without a doubt, costs of implementing protection or restoration, partnerships
this massive, long-term restoration would necessary to obtain critical research and
be substantial. However, the alternative increase seed production, develop a
looks worse. Nearly $71 per acre is spent monitoring strategy, and determine how
each year in wildland fire management, priorities for restoration will be decided.
$64 per acre in emergency fire rehabilita- Throughout this process, the BLM will
tion, and $70 per acre for weed treat- continue to work closely with its partners
ments. Add to that millions of dollars in and the public.
lost natural resources and public
property. These numbers will only
increase as noxious weeds and exotic
annual grasses continue to spread and
dominate public lands, perpetuating the
wildland fire cycle.
Page 3the great basin historical perspective: an ocean of sagebrush
restoration initiative
The Great Basin has been described as subtlety. Shadscale may spread across one
one of the least novelized, least painted, basin while sagebrush fills a valley on the
and least eulogized of American land- other side of the hill. Perennial bunch-
scapes. Stretching from the Sierras grasses and plants speckle the ground
to the Rockies, the Snake River Plain between large shrubs in sagebrush areas
to the Mojave Desert, the Great Basin of southern and central Nevada and
features “an ocean of sagebrush,” become more frequent in the northern
native bunchgrasses and plants, Great Basin. Pinyon-juniper woodlands
woodlands and forests. lap the flanks of mountains while forests
of pines, spruce, firs and aspen saddle
In this desert lies an ocean of Early settlers may have described the their peaks.
Great Basin as “wild and barren,” and
shrubs, several hundred Native Americans may have appreciated Subtlety in the Great Basin’s wildlife has
mountain ranges, ...and the Great Basin’s sustaining bounty in never been a factor. The region is home
considerably more game animals, but to many today, the to many diverse species of wildlife.
sagebrush country of the Great Basin Black-tailed jackrabbits, sagebrush voles
dune grasshoppers, symbolizes something entirely different. and pygmy rabbits as well as sage grouse,
kangaroo rats, and And the region’s value is certainly pronghorn, elk, mule deer, and mountain
Pinyon Jays. reflected in the words of author Stephen lion still thrive in some Great Basin areas.
Trimble: “Beyond the sagebrush horizon The Snake River Birds of Prey National
More than anything else, the pale ranges go on and on, in rhythms Conservation Area in southwest Idaho
however, in this Great Basin that give the silent land its music.” hosts the nation’s largest population of
lies a message about time. nesting raptors including golden eagles,
The Great Basin’s values are also reflected ferruginous hawks and red-tailed hawks,
in its vast, wide-open spaces that support and one of the largest populations of
Stephen Trimble a mix of plant communities, wild animals badgers in the world.
and birds, wild horses, and human uses
such as ranching, hunting, camping and Diverse plants, animals and climate
wildlife viewing. dominated the Great Basin’s past. The
effects of human presence dominate it
The nature of the Great Basin’s plant today. Tomorrow, however, the Great
communities changes with remarkable Basin must be dominated by a concern
for its future or this
area “deserving
the full examination of
a thorough explora-
tion,” will suffer, as
well as the wildlife and
humans who depend
upon it for survival.
The Great Basin supports a mix of shrubs, and perennial bunchgrasses
Page 4 and forbs.out of ashes, an opportunity the great basin
restoration initiative
Much of the Great Basin burned in the If noxious weeds gain a greater foothold
summer of 1999, in part because a low- and spread further in the Great Basin,
pressure weather system anchored itself “We’ll long for the days when we only
off the shore of northern California in had cheatgrass to deal with,” one federal
early August, and spun enough moisture manager pointed out.
inland to create perfect conditions for
hatching thunderstorms. When the Yet among the ashes of the big burns
thunderstorms rolled northward from in the Great Basin — Sadler, Dun Glenn,
California through northern Nevada and Mule Butte, Jungo, Poker Brown and
into southern Idaho, southeastern dozens of others — federal land
Oregon and western Utah, they often managers and others familiar with Yet among the ashes of the
were accompanied by high, gusty winds natural resources see an opportunity.
and lightning with little or no moisture. The Great Basin wildland fires represent
big burns in the Great Basin —
more than the chance to merely rehabili- Sadler, Dun Glenn,
You don’t need to be a weather forecaster tate the burned areas, which essentially Mule Butte, Jungo,
or firefighter to recognize what usually amounts to measures taken to stabilize
happens next: wildland fires. And in the soils. The vision is to restore the land to
Poker Brown and
case of the Great Basin in 1999, they were its proper functioning condition. dozens of others —
numerous, large, intense and destructive. federal land managers
By mid-August, about 1.7 million acres of Restoration, of both burned rangeland
the Great Basin in four states had burned. and other Great Basin areas at risk, must
and others familiar with
Nevada, in particular, was hard hit. In the be the goal. A commitment must be made natural resources
space of five days in early August, more now to benefit the next generation. see an opportunity.
than one million acres were scorched. Settling for less will allow the wildland
fire cycle to perpetuate at an ever-
A million-and-a-half acres of black increasing rate — fire disturbs the land,
present a formidable challenge to land allowing cheatgrass and other highly
managers. The fires burned in areas flammable annual weeds to invade. They
dominated by annual weeds and in areas cure quickly, making the area more
composed of native perennial vegetation. susceptible to devastating wildland fire,
The fires and subsequent annual grass which, when lightning strikes the Great
invasions affect an array of resources: Basin, begins the cycle anew. What
wildlife, vegetation, forage for livestock, happened in the Great Basin in 1999 is,
wild horses, watersheds, soils, and in some ways, natural. What may happen
others. The effects on communities and because of the wildland fires is not. If the
families may not be realized fully for cycle is not broken, then fire managers
years. The threat of an unprecedented and the public in the Great Basin face
invasion of annual weeds may be the more frequent wildland fires of longer
most severe consequence of all in the duration and intensity, causing more
Great Basin. If annual weeds are not damage and disruption than was wit-
checked now, the incidence of wildland nessed even in the summer of 1999.
fire will increase in the future, perhaps
setting the stage for domination by an
even more imposing foe, noxious weeds.
Page 5the great basin “We need to look at the whole picture in with the specter of noxious weeds taking
restoration initiative the Great Basin,” said one fire specialist. over larger chunks of the Great Basin.
“Emergency fire rehabilitation only
comes after the fire and it is limited in Doing nothing is not an option. No less
what it can do. The weed fund only kicks than the natural and economic health of
in when weeds appear. The fuels manage- the northern Great Basin may be at stake.
ment program is designed to reduce
hazardous fuels, primarily in forests and
woodlands. rangeland restoration:
a definition
“You add it up and the sum of the three Restoration has a different meaning and
programs doesn’t meet the needs of the connotation to many people. For this
whole,” he added. “In the Great Basin, report, restoration is defined as:
Doing nothing is not an option.
we need to fill in the gaps left by the
No less than the natural and “Implementation of a set of actions
other programs through restoration.”
economic health of the that promotes plant community diversity
Restoration will not be easy, nor will it and structure that are more resilient to
northern Great Basin
be inexpensive. It will be a multi-year disturbance and invasive species over
may be at stake. the long term.”
effort. It will not magically transform
1.7 million acres of blackened earth into
a pristine rangeland. What it will do is Restoration work in the Great Basin
help restore the land to a naturally would not be limited to areas that burned
functioning condition and, in some in the summer of 1999. The work will
places, reverse the trend of cheatgrass also target unburned areas that are
followed by wildland fire, followed by especially vulnerable to invasive species
more cheatgrass and more wildland fire, and areas with a high potential to attain
proper functioning condition.
1999 major wildland fires
in the great basin
Fire Name Location Size
Dun Glenn Complex S. of Winnemucca, NV 361,658
Sadler Complex S. of Elko, NV 209,500
Corridor Complex NE of Winnemucca, NV 171,442
Battle Mtn. Complex E. of Battle Mtn., NV 156,958
Mule Butte N. of Aberdeen, ID 138,915
Slumbering Hills NW of Winnemucca, NV 103,641
Jungo NW of Winnemucca, NV 83,939
Eureka Complex S. of Battle Mtn., NV 82,000
Denio S. of Denio, NV 77,244
New Pass Complex SW of Battle Mtn., NV 74,900
Frenchie SW of Elko, NV 50,000
Cedar Butte NW of Blackfoot, ID 49,727
Rose SW of Elko, NV 48,480
TOTAL 1,608,404
Other Fires Great Basin 160,064
Page 6 TOTAL GREAT BASIN 1,768,468the great basin: the great basin
what it is, how it is changing, and why restoration initiative
The Great Basin is changing more rapidly native plant
now than at any other time in the last communities
150 years. Millions of acres in the How an ecosystem functions can be as
Great Basin have changed from healthy, complex as the workings of the human
functioning ecosystems primarily brain. Yet the components, or pieces, that
consisting of native species to biological form an ecosystem are really pretty basic:
systems dominated by annual weeds. plants, wildlife, watersheds, climate.
Certainly, wildland fire has been one of These pieces are each critical to an
the major factors in the transformation, ecosystem, for without one, the others
and, ironically, the nature of wildland fire cannot thrive. Plants, for example,
provide food and cover for wildlife, help The threat of an unprecedented
has changed because of the transforma-
tion. The changes affect virtually every hold soils in place, and help the soil invasion of annual weeds
natural resource, plus the economic and recycle nutrients and water.
may be the most severe
social health of Great Basin communities.
Within the Great Basin, there are three consequence of all in
Eight resource concerns are of special major plant communities: sagebrush, the Great Basin.
interest in the wake of the Great Basin salt desert shrub and pinyon-juniper
wildland fires. They are: woodland. Where these communities
• loss of native plant communities; are found depends largely on temperature
• stability of watersheds and soils; and moisture. For instance, salt desert
• declining habitat for wildlife; shrub is usually found in low, dry
• less forage for wild horses; elevations, while sagebrush, spread
• increase of noxious weeds across much of the Great Basin, grows in
and exotic annual grasses; areas that receive at least seven inches of
• reduced livestock grazing; moisture each year. Pinyon-juniper
• fewer recreation opportunities; woodlands, the Great Basin’s only
• more dangerous and costly widespread tree community, stretch
wildland firefighting. across higher elevations in areas with
more rain or snowfall. Although junipers
Those concerns are addressed in this grow mostly in the lower elevations, both
section of the report, with special pinyon and juniper grow in the mid-
attention paid to resource conditions elevations, and eventually pinyon
up to the time of the wildland fires, replaces juniper at the higher elevations.
the projected condition of the resources,
and the consequences of doing nothing Of the three vegetation types, sagebrush
beyond basic rehabilitation. communities, consisting of a mix of
shrubs, and perennial grasses and forbs,
are the Great Basin’s most common.
However, grazing practices in the late
1800s changed sagebrush and salt desert
shrub communities. Grazing removed
much of the perennial grasses, and native
shrubs expanded, allowing cheatgrass
and other exotic species to move in.
Now, where cheatgrass has gained a
Page 7the great basin foothold, fire frequency has been tion,” said a natural resource specialist
restoration initiative reduced from 40 to 100 years from southwest Idaho’s
to 10 years or less eliminating most Lower Snake River District.
shrubs and native bunchgrasses.
The bottom line is simple: without
Pinyon-juniper woodlands tell a some- restoration, native grasses and plants will
what different story. Fire in these areas continue to decrease. Cheatgrass and
was reduced or eliminated by livestock other exotic species will continue to
grazing — which removed grassy fuels — spread, triggering a wildland fire cycle
and active fire suppression, which began that will only accelerate the degraded
in the 1960s. The frequent, large, and condition of Great Basin rangelands.
low-intensity fires of pre-settlement years And the impact of this habitat loss will
The bottom line is simple: no longer checked the new growth of reverberate throughout the entire
these trees, and they began moving into ecosystem, dramatically affecting wildlife,
without treatment,
shrub communities. The trees robbed the and eventually, the other inhabitants of
native grasses and plants surrounding native shrubs and plants of the area — humans.
will continue to decrease. vital water, and many of the plants
perished. This has led to increased soil
Cheatgrass and other exotic
erosion and weed invasion and overall
species will continue to spread, degraded habitat. watersheds and soils
triggering a wildland fire cycle In the Great Basin, watersheds and soils
Fire, either too much or too little of it, are highly variable in their nature and in
that will only perpetuate
affects many of the other Great Basin how they work or function. Topography,
the degraded condition plant communities. Aspen stands, though climate, soils and vegetation all affect
of Great Basin rangelands. not considered a major plant community how a watershed functions. Watersheds
in the Great Basin, are essential habitat that retain a large proportion of native
for many wildlife species, including most vegetation, especially grasses, generally
big game animals. Experts say that aspen function well. When precipitation falls,
stands today amount to only 40 percent healthy watersheds handle the basic
of what existed 150 years ago. One functions of infiltration, percolation,
reason is that aspen need fire to regener- and storage, while helping to reduce
ate but fire often has been excluded from major problems such as flooding,
their habitat. In some areas, they are scouring, channelization and sedimen-
being crowded out by advancing tation. Perennial grasses provide a
pinyon-juniper woodlands. variety of benefits: cover; above-ground
structure; material from dead plants,
Increased fire frequency and cheatgrass which protect the soil surface and enrich
invasion in sagebrush and salt desert it as they decompose; and roots, which
shrub communities, and spread of aid in holding soils in place. All of these
pinyon-juniper woodlands prevents benefits work to shield the soil from
native shrubs from reestablishing, and wind and water erosion.
gradually reduces any surviving native
bunchgrass plants. “What this means is When native plants are replaced by
that plant communities have virtually no exotic annual grasses or noxious weeds,
potential to be restored to their native watersheds are jeopardized. Watersheds
condition without aggressive restora- dominated by annual grasses offer far less
Page 8protection than native plants. It all begins in the Great Basin but is difficult to the great basin
when a single raindrop strikes the correct once it begins. All three kinds of restoration initiative
ground. The reduced cover provided by erosion are more likely to occur in areas
annual grasses allows more raindrops to dominated by exotic annual grasses or
more often directly strike the soil surface, noxious weeds.
rather than be deflected by vegetation.
As raindrops hit the soil, they loosen Most areas dominated by undesirable
particles and, in effect, form a seal over annual species are more susceptible to
the “pores” at the soil surface. large and frequent wildland fires, which
With the pores sealed, infiltration strip watersheds of their protective
decreases, which leads to more run off vegetation. That leads to a loss of soil and
and loss of available moisture in the high run-off events. While riparian areas
ecosystem. Eventually the loosened soil are usually resilient and vegetation in Wildland fire can be
enters streams or rivers, increasing them resprouts, wildland fire can be the
the start of a chain
sedimentation. With decreased catalyst for erosion that begins unravel-
infiltration, the possibility of ing the entire watershed. Even riparian of events
flooding increases. areas are at risk when major erosion that is devastating
occurs. In short, wildland fire can be
to watersheds.
Another important factor in the health the start of a chain of events that is
of a watershed is its ability to store devastating to watersheds.
precipitation. A properly functioning
watershed acts like a sponge, As watersheds dominated by native
holding on to moisture, and later plants are transformed to watersheds
releasing it through prolonged flows in dominated by undesirable plant species
streams, springs and other water bodies. the outcome is predictable: loss of soil,
A healthy watershed also recharges more sediment in streams and rivers,
ground water sources. By contrast, a and an increase in the frequency and
dysfunctional watershed tends to repel severity of flooding in the Great Basin.
water and does not provide as much
moisture to streams and springs. If the trend is not reversed, the long-term
stability and productivity of ecosystems
Soil erosion varies in the Great Basin. may be lost. Agriculture, livestock
The most common form is sheet erosion, production, water quality and recreation
which is what takes place when soil would suffer. The damage to property
particles are displaced during rainfalls. and threat to human life also likely
Another, more serious, kind of erosion is would increase.
rill erosion. Rill erosion is characterized
by rivulets carved into the soil a few
inches deep and running vertically to the
slope. The most severe form of erosion is
gully erosion, which is typified by deeper,
more carved surfaces than those created
by rill erosion. Gully erosion is isolated
Page 9the great basin wildlife Mule deer provide a perfect example of
restoration initiative One of the best indicators of healthy the effect of degraded rangelands on
or unhealthy wildlands is the presence or wildlife. “Mule deer populations have
absence of wild animals. Lands enhanced decreased within the Great Basin. We
with a mix of shrubs, grasses and plants believe this is because of the huge loss of
attract wildlife and fill their needs. Lands sagebrush habitat,” said one Nevada
devoid of this mix do not provide food wildlife biologist. He added that during
for deer and elk, or cover for jackrabbits the past 30 years, more than 60 percent
and ground squirrels, which are the main of the sagebrush that deer use as winter
food for birds of prey. range within the Great Basin has burned.
That means for cheatgrass-infested ranges
“Not unlike humans, wild birds, mam- in northeast California and northwest
Native shrublands that mals and reptiles will find land that and north-central Nevada, deer popula-
supports their needs, or they will disap- tions have dwindled from about 60,000
appeared endless to deer to 21,000. And biologists say that if
pear,” said a wildlife biologist assigned
early settlers have become to the Snake River Birds of Prey National the current weed invasion/fire cycle
vast expanses of annual Conservation Area. continues, the remaining sagebrush
winter ranges for deer will be almost
grasslands that provide little gone within 20 years.
The Great Basin, an area of many subtly
or no cover and food diverse ecosystems, supports a wide
for wild animals. array of plants. Of these, sagebrush is Yet another example of the devastating
one of the most important for wildlife. effect these habitat changes have on
Sagebrush and native plants and grasses wildlife is found in the Snake River Birds
in the Great Basin provide food and cover of Prey National Conservation Area
for about 100 bird, 70 mammal, and (NCA) in southwest Idaho. This area was
23 amphibian and reptile species. established by Congress to conserve,
Some of these include sage grouse, enhance, and protect raptors and their
pronghorn, black-tailed jackrabbit habitats, yet fires in the NCA have
and mule deer. destroyed more than half of its shrub
communities since 1979. Cheatgrass
However, the balance of healthy land and moved into the burned area and the
wildlife in the Great Basin is tipping expected annual grass/wildland fire cycle
dramatically. One reason is that annual began. The effects of this habitat change
grasses such as cheatgrass are gaining are shown clearly in the declining
ground across the rangeland. Because populations of golden eagles and their
cheatgrass is highly flammable, carries prey, black-tailed jackrabbits. Prairie
fire quickly, and even increases following falcons have also decreased since
fire, wildland fire in cheatgrass-infested the 1970s.
areas is becoming more and more
frequent, adding yet another dimension Sage grouse populations, decreasing more
to the problem. Native shrublands that than 33 percent in just the last 15 years,
appeared endless to early settlers have also indicate to land managers the
become vast expanses of annual grass- seriously degraded state of the Great
lands that provide little or no cover Basin’s rangelands. Sage grouse cannot
and food for wild animals. survive outside of healthy sagebrush
habitat. Because of a loss of habitat in the
past combined with 1999’s Great Basin
Page 10fires, sage grouse is being considered for region’s economies. Big game such as the great basin
listing as a threatened and endangered mule deer, elk, and bighorn sheep, and restoration initiative
species. “If the annual grass/wildland fire upland game birds are sought by thou-
cycle continues to devour sagebrush sands of hunters each year. For example,
habitat, the sage grouse populations may more than 165,000 hunters each year
not recover,” said one wildlife biologist. pursue mule deer within the Great Basin.
“If the downward spiral of sage grouse This means $145 million every year is
cannot be reversed in the near future, returned to local economies through
then drastic and extremely expensive retail sales and the 3,500 jobs needed to
measures will have to be implemented support hunting. In short, loss of habitat
to bring back the sage grouse and through the annual grass/wildland fire
restore its habitat.” cycle and increase in noxious weeds
means loss of wildlife. And loss of “Not unlike humans,
One final, and important, consideration wildlife means loss of income to the
wild birds, mammals
regarding the future of wildlife in the people who call the Great Basin home.
Great Basin—much of the wildlife found and reptiles
in this area is critically important to the will find land
that supports their needs,
wildlife of economic concern
in the great basin or they will disappear.”
Species Heavily
Dependent on Current Projected
Species
Sagebrush/Grassland Status Status
Habitats.
Big Game
Mule deer ✔ Declining Declining
Prognhorn antelope ✔ Declining Declining
Rocky Mountain Elk Stable Stable
Rocky Mountain
Bighorn Sheep ✔ Stable Declining
California Bighorn
Sheep ✔ Stable Declining
Upland Game Birds
Mourning dove Declining Declining
Columbian sharp-
tailed grouse ✔ Declining Declining
Sage grouse ✔ Declining Declining
Gray partridge ✔ Stable Declining
Wild turkey Stable Stable
California quail ✔ Stable Declining
Mountain quail ✔ Declining Declining
Chukar partridge ✔ Stable Declining
Blue grouse Stable Stable
Ring-necked
Declining Declining
pheasant
Page 11the great basin wild horses
restoration initiative The Great Basin is home to about It generally takes two or three years for
60 percent of the estimated 46,000 a burned area to be rehabilitated.
wild horses on BLM land. Roughly half “Our only option is to gather every one
of all wild horses in the West are in of them, adopt those we can, and then
Nevada. Stated simply, the Great Basin house the remainder in corrals or
is wild horse country. pastures until the rangeland comes
back,” the wild horse specialist said.
Wild horses feed predominantly on
grasses and forbs. During late fall and Wild horse specialists must move quickly
winter, their diet shifts to a mixture of to gather the animals displaced by the
shrubs and grasses. When wild horse fires. While restoration of the Great Basin
If restoration of burned areas populations exceed “appropriate ecosystems has little bearing on the
management levels,” or AMLs, damage short-term needs of the wild horses, it
does not take place,
to vegetation often occurs and BLM certainly figures in the bigger picture. In
cheatgrass will replace conducts a gathering operation. three years, if restoration is well under-
much of the native vegetation way in burned areas, the displaced
The BLM manages and monitors wild animals not adopted this year could be
lost in wildland fires.
horse populations in specific geographic turned back to their native ranges if the
Drops in wild horse locations called “Herd Management animals can be cared for in a near natural
populations almost certainly Areas” (HMAs). setting (i.e., no supplemental feeding, no
medical intervention, etc.)
will follow, as higher quality
Wildland fire hit hard some HMAs in
forage is replaced 1999. In a few cases, the entire HMA If restoration of burned areas does not
by cheatgrass. burned. In BLM’s Battle Mountain and take place, cheatgrass will replace
Elko districts alone, all or part of four much of the native vegetation lost in
HMAs were burned, affecting almost wildland fires. Drops in wild horse
1,000 wild horses. populations almost certainly will follow,
as higher quality forage is replaced
“Wild horses won’t wait until someone by cheatgrass. Further, increased
comes and feeds them. They’ll move,” competition for forage among wild
said a BLM wild horse specialist from horses, wildlife and domestic livestock
northern Nevada. “Legally, we can’t allow is also likely.
them to move outside of the HMAs.
And we can’t allow them to leave and But the goal is still to return wild
then come back to a rehabilitated area. horses to rangelands after they have
They’ll head right for the green, recovered. That only will be possible if
succulent vegetation. The rehabilitated the restoration effort is successful.
area could be trashed.”
Page 12noxious weeds
and exotic annual grasses “Cheatgrass,” the Idaho Statesman the great basin
restoration initiative
Explosive, devastating, disastrous. newspaper noted in May 1928, “grows in
These words are the ones used most a day, ripens in a day, and blows away in a
often today to describe the current day.”
spread and infestation of noxious
weeds and exotic annual grasses. Annual grasses also help accelerate
Millions of acres of invasive weeds wildland fire cycles, and in many cases,
and grasses already infest BLM lands their populations increase dramatically
within the Great Basin, and their where wildland fire has swept through a
populations are multiplying at habitat and left bare ground. When
tremendous rates. Sadly, these compared with native perennials,
invasions are wreaking severe and cheatgrass becomes flammable four to six
weeks earlier. “Cheatgrass not only Invasive weeds and grasses
often permanent impacts on native
plant communities, wildlife and, extends wildland fire seasons, but carries thrive in the climate and soils
though indirectly, on people. fire quickly,” said a BLM Utah state office found in the Great Basin.
wildland fire specialist.
Unfortunately,
Invasive weeds and grasses thrive in
the climate and soils found in the Current research indicates noxious weed they also corrupt
Great Basin. Unfortunately, they also infestations are increasing by at least 14 the region’s critical
corrupt the region’s critical ecological percent annually. For example, rush
skeletonweed spread from a few plants in ecological processes.
processes. They rob the soil — and
native plants — of vital nutrients and Idaho in 1964 across four million acres
water, changing the structure and today. Squarrose knapweed, first discov-
dynamics of plants and wildlife. ered near Tintic Junction in Utah, has
Annual grasses such as cheatgrass, spread from a few hundred acres in 1954
and to a lesser degree medusahead to more than 150,000 acres today.
wildrye, often dominate native plants
by their sheer numbers alone. For Annual grass invasions are equally, if not
example, they can produce millions more, serious. A 1994 survey of public
of seeds per acre, and their seeds lands in the Great Basin found 17 million
can stay viable in the soil for up to acres either dominated by or heavily
five years.
Cheatgrass gradually moves into shrublands.
Page 13the great basin infested with cheatgrass and medusahead • In Oregon, a ranch heavily
restoration initiative wildrye. An additional 20 million acres is infested with leafy spurge
estimated to be vulnerable to cheatgrass/ recently sold at 85 percent below
medusahead wildrye invasion. market value.
Treating the massive areas currently • Throughout the West where
infested with noxious weeds or exotic weed infestations are occurring,
annual grasses is no small task. This livestock and wildlife grazing
undertaking will take determination, capacity is commonly reduced
persistence, and — yes — money. Weed between 35 to 90 percent.
control costs currently range from $25
per acre for large aerial treatments to Invasive species will continue moving
Nothing less than more than $250 per acre for small into susceptible wildlands. Their aggres-
isolated sites. The average cost for sive and prolific nature will persist in
long-term restoration
treating noxious weeds is typically about dominating native plants. Their spread
will slow this spread $70 per acre, but treatments are generally will increase weed management costs,
and allow native plants required annually for several years. and continue to damage land and
resources.
to return and thrive.
The ecological impacts of invasive weeds
and grasses illustrate a harsh reality. “Short-term and site-specific treatments
Yet another more tangible effect is how represent a band-aid on a life-threatening
these invasions impact land uses and wound,” said a weed specialist from Vale,
economies. Although the economic Oregon. “Noxious weeds and exotic
impact of noxious weeds is not well annual grasses have affected millions of
documented in the Great Basin, studies acres thus far, but the potential for them
done in other states show: to affect millions more exists.” Nothing
• Leafy spurge has affected less than long-term restoration will slow
grazing and wildlands in this spread and allow native plants to
Montana, North Dakota, and return and thrive.
Wyoming resulting in an
estimated annual cost of
$129.5 million and potential
loss of 1,433 jobs.
• Knapweed infestations on
grazing land and wildlands in
Montana cost $42 million
annually, which represents 518
full-time jobs. If knapweed
infested all highly susceptible
lands in Montana, the economic
loss potentially could be
$155 million.
Page 14livestock grazing
the great basin
Many communities throughout the Great comparable public rangeland forage. restoration initiative
Basin traditionally depend on public land Transportation costs also must be factored
grazing. Small communities in each of the in. If ranchers are forced to buy hay, not
Great Basin states – Nevada, southern only the cost of the hay but the labor to
Idaho, southeastern Oregon and western feed livestock must be considered.
Utah – rely partially or totally on public
rangelands. BLM manages about 75 million The cost of doing nothing or of a minimal
acres in the Great Basin, the vast majority restoration of the Great Basin would be
of them within grazing allotments. All told, tremendous. Annual weeds would invade,
BLM supplies almost 10 million animal changing the rangeland’s forage values.
unit months (AUMs) for livestock grazing “Catastrophic fire on a large scale com-
in the Great Basin. In many cases, the pletely removes the forage for cattle and
The cost of doing nothing
public land AUMs are the mainstay of a sheep,” said a rangeland manager. “As the
ranch, and by extension, a community. cycle continues, it is like a cancer that will or of a minimal restoration
The economic and social fabric of many turn the Great Basin into an expanse of of the Great Basin would be
communities in the Great Basin is often annual grasses that are palatable to live-
tremendous. Annual weeds
woven around the livestock industry and stock for only a short time in the spring.”
public land grazing. would invade, changing the
Many communities scattered throughout rangeland’s forage values.
A recent Nevada study found the gross the Great Basin are almost completely
market value of livestock to be $21 per dependent on the livestock industry and
AUM. The study also quoted the U.S. the income of ranchers. If the resources
Department of the Interior Incentive-Based sustaining these communities are lost, the
Grazing Fee study that estimated the toll would be high. It would far exceed just
market value of Nevada grazing permits as the loss of forage and the impacts to
$37 per AUM for BLM land and $42 for the livestock grazing. It would strike at the
U.S. Forest Service land. When an agricul- heart of many rural communities in the
tural economic multiplier is applied, it is Great Basin.
easy to see the value of public land AUMs
and permits. Without public land grazing, On the other hand, if restoration proceeds
many small communities would wither. and the Great Basin is ecologically
functional, the benefits would go far
Large wildland fires have the potential beyond ensuring forage for livestock.
to unbalance that equation. For example, It would help maintain communities,
early estimates are that 50 to 60 large livelihoods, lifestyles and help supply the
grazing allotments were burned in Nevada nation with important agricultural com-
during August 1999. Numerous others modities. Other resources, such as wildlife
were damaged in Utah, Idaho and Oregon. and watersheds, would also benefit.
Many of those allotments were being
grazed at the time the wildland fires broke The impacts of not restoring Great Basin
out, and others were scheduled for grazing ecosystems will quickly become apparent
this fall and winter after livestock were in the consequences for livestock grazing
moved from higher-elevation pastures. and people and communities who depend
on it.
Lost AUMs cannot be replaced easily.
AUMs on private land in the Great Basin
generally cost eight to 10 times more than
Page 15recreation wildland fire
the great basin
restoration initiative The open country and solitude that Wildland fire, though unpredictable,
pervades much of the Great Basin makes powerful and sometimes devastating,
it a natural for dispersed recreation. It’s is a natural part of the Great Basin
not a place to visit if you’re looking for landscape. It’s as vital to an ecosystem
manicured parks with all the facilities of as climate, land formations, plants and
home. Hunting, hiking, camping, fishing animals. Fire was a part of the land
and dispersed off-highway vehicle (OHV) hundreds and thousands of years ago,
use are the main recreational activities of and it’s a part of the land today. And yet
this high, dry land. its character, its very nature, on Great
Basin rangelands is changing.
When wildland fire swept through
The longer-term consequences northern Nevada and other parts of Today, wildland fire, how and where it
the Great Basin, many of these activities occurs, and its impact on plant and
of the fires on recreation may
came to a halt. wildlife habitat and humans is a major
be tied to water quality. cause of concern for land managers,
If rehabilitation and restoration Not only were traditional recreation wildland firefighters, and the public.
activities affected, but some special Reasons for the difference are several:
are not successful,
events were altered or canceled. invasion of noxious weeds and exotic
sediment loads will increase A wagon train crossing the West could annual grasses; agriculture practices at
and water, perhaps the most not continue, for example. Signs were the turn of the century; aggressive fire
destroyed, hiking and camping areas suppression as opposed to allowing fire
scarce resource of all
burned over, and scenery in the Great to remove vegetation that’s grown dense
in the Great Basin Basin marred. Hunting, probably the or unhealthy.
and one linked closely to most popular of all recreational activities
in the Great Basin, will change for many “In short, finer fuels, such as cheatgrass,
much of the recreation
outdoor enthusiasts. Wildlife habitat and the build-up of vegetation have
that occurs there, was damaged and game displaced. disrupted the natural cycle of fire,
will suffer a decline OHV use will be discontinued increasing its frequency and expanding
temporarily in some areas. its range, and beginning a vicious cycle of
in quality.
increased invasive plant species and
If restoration is not completed, wildland fire,” said one fire crew leader.
“Recreationists will continue to be “To wildland firefighters and managers
displaced from favorite hunting, this means fire behavior that’s more
camping and fishing sites,” said a unpredictable, more erratic, and increas-
federal recreation planner. The longer- ingly more dangerous to both firefighters
term consequences of the fires on and the public.”
recreation may be tied to water quality.
If rehabilitation and restoration are not
successful, sediment loads will increase
and water, perhaps the most scarce
resource of all in the Great Basin and
one linked closely to much of the
recreation that occurs there, will
suffer a decline in quality.
Page 16Three instances of potentially serious The solution is clear: rangeland fuels the great basin
firefighter injuries in the summer of 1999 must be changed to resemble their restoration initiative
illustrate well the crew leader’s point, as natural condition. And the only way they
does the loss of 14 wildland firefighters will change is through aggressive, long-
on Colorado’s South Canyon fire in 1994. term restoration. As finer fuels are
Where lives are not lost, examples of the removed and replaced with shrubs and
destructive behavior of Great Basin native grasses and plants, and fire is
wildland fire is demonstrated in the loss allowed to work naturally in areas where
of two homes, and destruction of 600 it’s needed to reduce dense vegetation,
miles of livestock management fence and fire intensities and frequencies will
several water developments in the 1999 lessen. This means the potential for
Nevada fires. Worse cases of property loss threatening the lives of firefighters and
occurred outside of the Great Basin in the public, and natural resources and “...this means fire behavior
1996, when the Millers Reach fire in public property, will also lessen. Over
that’s more unpredictable,
Alaska claimed 344 structures, and a fire time, it also means the cost of fighting
near San Diego, California, destroyed 98 wildland fires and rehabilitating burned more erratic, and increasingly
structures. land will decrease. more dangerous to both
firefighters and the public.”
One additional aspect of fighting wild- Changing the current character of
land fires may not be as obvious, but wildland fire in the Great Basin will take
affects every taxpayer in the country: time. It took more than 100 years to
more fires means more people and shape the nature it reveals today. But with
equipment are needed to fight the fires. determination, patience and persistence,
In southern Idaho, for example, BLM this change is possible.
manages 10 million acres. On these 10
million acres cheatgrass has increased by
50 percent in the last 30 years. Resources
for fighting wildland fires — people and
equipment — have doubled in this same
time period, and there’s no end in sight.
Page 17the great basin a proposal for restoration:
restoration initiative why restoration is needed
The case for restoration in the Great The nature of wildland fire will continue
Basin best comes into focus when one to change. More wildland fires could be
question is asked: What happens if expected, with more erratic fire behavior.
restoration does not occur? The wildland fires will be of greater
duration and intensity, putting
The general answer is that virtually all firefighters and the public at risk.
natural resources will suffer, with More homes and other structures
potentially acute consequences for some will be in jeopardy of burning.
local communities and economies. More personnel and equipment will
be required to fight wildland fires,
These are not the
If restoration doesn’t occur, noxious and the bill for suppressing
predictions of alarmists, weeds and annual exotic grasses will wildland fires will increase steadily.
nor are they the forecasts spread at the expense of native vegeta-
tion, launching a whole new set of These are not the predictions of alarm-
of people seeking more dollars
resource challenges. The wildland fire ists, nor are they the forecasts of people
to promote their own programs cycle not only will be perpetuated, seeking more dollars to promote their
and agendas. it will be accelerated. own programs and agendas. They are
the best judgments and projections of
They are the best judgments
Livestock grazing on public land will be experienced scientists and managers
and projections of curtailed in some areas. Rural communities and concerned citizens who understand
experienced scientists that depend on public land livestock the issues and hope to avert further
grazing will be hard hit, with some of them natural resource and economic decline
and managers and
perhaps disappearing over time. in the Great Basin.
concerned citizens
who understand Watersheds and soils will be degraded, What happens if restoration doesn’t occur?
increasing the possibility of soil loss,
the issues...
more sediment in streams, and boosting “We’re going to end up watching a lot
the chance of severe flooding. of our native range turn to cheatgrass,”
said a wildlife manager who works
Wildlife habitat will decline as unfavor- for the Nevada Division of Wildlife.
able changes take place. More animals “It would be a huge problem.”
and plants could be considered for listing
as threatened and endangered.
Forage for wild horses will be lost as
exotic annual grasses take over areas
previously dominated by preferred
grasses, shrubs and forbs.
Recreation opportunities will diminish,
especially as the wildland fire cycle
repeats itself at shorter intervals.
Page 18what must be done
in the great basin the great basin
restoration initiative
Up to this point, it’s been mostly talk. or maintaining existing fuel breaks,
greenstripping, and mowing or managing
Somewhere and sometime, the restora- fuel breaks through livestock grazing are
tion work — above and beyond what examples of how high-quality areas can
rehabilitation teams have already accom- be protected. No new funding is required
plished — must begin. If restoration for these activities. They are currently
is given the green light and funded, what supported by the Hazardous Fuels
must be done? What is the price tag? Reduction Operations Fund.
How will priorities be set? And how will
the work be measured? •Restore crucial areas degraded by
invasions of noxious weeds and exotic Somewhere and sometime,
Without a complete restoration plan, it’s annual grasses.
difficult to say exactly what should be
the restoration work —
Some areas that burned 10, 20 or 30
done. But some steps seem obvious. years ago received little or no rehabilita- above and beyond what
tion work. With weed control and rehabilitation teams have
•Begin restoration efforts, in conjunction seeding, they have the potential to
with emergency rehabilitation, immediately recover. Restoring such areas would
already accomplished —
following a wildland fire. require more planning and perhaps a needs to begin.
Rehabilitation is geared toward position to manage the program.
stabilizing soils; restoration reaches The treatment cost is estimated at
beyond that. The estimated cost of about $75 per acre.
additional treatments is $36 to $50 per Areas typical of this situation are
acre, depending on factors such as seed native shrublands converted to annual
availability and method of application. grasslands. Staged treatments would be
Treating exotic annual grass prior to required. An initial treatment may be
seeding, and reconstruction of burned necessary to reduce the cheatgrass,
structures are two examples of actions possibly through the use an herbicide.
not allowable with emergency fire
rehabilitation funds. •Restore degraded shrublands.
Restoration treatments following These areas may have a cheatgrass
wildland fire vary greatly and depend on understory, are areas with no perennial
the intensity of the fire. If a mosaic of grass understory, or sites where overly
shrubs is left following a burn, restora- dense shrub stands are forcing out peren-
tion may consist of aerially seeding nial grasses. They are prime candidates for
grasses to stabilize soils until the native takeover by annual weeds if they burn.
shrubs reestablish. If the burn was hot, it Degraded sites also could include pinyon-
may be necessary to seed shrubs through juniper encroachment into shrublands and
drill or aerial seeding. seeded areas that are missing a critical
vegetation component.
•Protect areas with high-resource values Several treatment options are available
from invasion of undesirable vegetation. including fuel breaks, prescribed burning,
Several steps can help protect un- mechanical treatments, brushland plowing,
burned areas with important resource herbicide application combined with seed
values from invasive species. Establishing drilling, roller chopping, hydromowing,
chaining, brushbeating, or prescribed fire
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