Organic farming A contribution to sustainable poverty alleviation in developing countries?
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Umschlag_Öko.Land.engl. 27.09.2005 10:50 Uhr Seite 2
Globale Gerechtigkeit ökologisch gestalten
Organic farming
A contribution to sustainable poverty
alleviation in developing countries?
Contact: German NGO Forum Environment & Developement
Am Michaelshof 8-10 · 53177 Bonn
Phone: +49-(0)2 28 - 35 97 04 · Fax: +49-(0)2 28 - 92 39 93 56
E-Mail: info@forumue.de · www.forumue.de
Organic farming A contribution to sustainable poverty alleviation in developing countries?
Imprint
Publishers:
German NGO Forum Environment & Development
Am Michaelshof 8-10
53177 Bonn
Phone: +49-(0)228-35 97 04
Fax: +49-(0)228-92399356
E-Mail: info@forumue.de
Internet: www.forumue.de
The German NGO Forum Environment & Development is the network of German
non-governmental organisations for the Rio follow-up process. Its executing
agencies are Deutscher Naturschutzring e.V. (DNR) and Verband
Entwicklungspolitik Deutscher Nichtregierungsorganisationen e.V. (VENRO).
In co-operation with:
Evangelischer Entwicklungsdienst (EED), Bonn, www.eed.de
Misereor, Aachen, www.misereor.de
Naturland, Gräfelfing, www.naturland.de
Naturschutzbund Deutschland (NABU), Bonn/Berlin, www.nabu.de
WWF Deutschland, Frankfurt, www.wwf.de
Responsible:
Jürgen Maier
Authors:
Julia Johannsen in co-operation with Anja Mertineit (Misereor),
Birgit Wilhelm (Naturland), Rudolf Buntzel-Cano (EED),
Florian Schöne (NABU), Martina Fleckenstein (WWF).
Editor:
Susi Boxberg
This publication has been supported by the BMZ/GTZ „Aktionsprogramm
Welternährung“. Views presented here do not always correspond to those
of BMZ and GTZ.
Layout:
Bettina Oehmen
Production:
Knotenpunkt GmbH, Buch
Bonn, January 2005
2Contents
Contents
Abbreviations and explanation of terminology ............................. 4
Introduction ..................................................................................... 5
1. Which sustainable development approaches
are predominant in global agriculture? ................................... 7
2. What do we mean by „organic farming“? ............................... 10
3. Who are the poor, and what role does farming
play for them? ........................................................................... 12
4. What prospects does organic farming hold
for the poor? ............................................................................. 15
5. What problems occur in introducing organic
farming systems? ...................................................................... 18
6. What sort of agricultural extension services
benefit the poor? ...................................................................... 20
7. Can improved cultivation methods reduce poverty? ................ 22
8. Do organic methods mean accepting lower yields? ................ 25
9. When does certification and standardisation
make sense?.............................................................................. 27
10. How can local organic movements benefit from the
development of international organic markets?.................... 30
11. Are farmers incapacitated by the development of
standards and by complying with them? ............................... 32
12. How much does organic farming in the South rely
on exports? ............................................................................... 34
13. Is the development of local organic markets an
alternative to exporting? ......................................................... 37
14. Is export-oriented organic production in developing
countries environmentally and socially sound? ..................... 39
15. Are organic products traded under fair conditions? ............. 41
16. What does organic farming in the South contribute
to the protection of the environment and
agro-biodiversity? ................................................................... 44
Promoting co-operation between environmental,
development and organic farming organisations for
sustainable and environmentally sound agriculture ................... 47
Further reading ............................................................................. 50
3Abbreviations and explanation of terminology
Abbreviations and
explanation of terminology
Agro-biodiversity Biological diversity in agriculture (related to plants, animals and habitats)
Income-elastic good A good the demand of which rises as consumer income increases (e.g.
expensive ready-to-serve meals as opposed to raw potatoes)
Codex Alimentarius Developed as a common instrument of FAO und WHO in 1962 with the
aim of protecting consumer health and ensuring honest practices in food
international trading by working out international food standards
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation (UNO)
GLASOD Global Assessment of Soil Degradation
Group certification (Organic) certification of a group of producers as a unit based on inspecting
samples and on internal self-control
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
IFOAM International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement
ILO International Labour Organisation
Comparative advan- A producer's cost advantage when producing a certain good (owing to lower
tage relative production costs)
ODA Official Development Assistence
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Opportunity costs Costs arising through forfeited income if a scarce good has been allocated
to an alternative use (e.g. the opportunity costs of studying correspond to the
income one would be able to earn on the labour market as a school-leaver
in the same period)
Protectionism Economic protection of a domestic market against foreign markets via cus-
toms duties, subsidies for domestic production, etc.
Standards Controllable, binding minimum norms
Subsistence economy An economy based mainly on self-supply (but not excluding the exchange of
goods and services)
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNDP United Nations Development Program
UNEP United Nations Environmental Program
4Introduction
Introduction
T
he World Summit on Sustainable Organic farming is above all defined
Development in September 2002 by production method principles aimed
prompted Naturland, an organic at a sustainable cultivation of farmland
farming association operating at interna- and food production. At the forefront of
tional level, to compile a policy paper considerations is a holistic, eco-system-
on the issue of “Sustainability and Or- atic approach and the preservation and
ganic Farming”. When these “Gräfelfin- enhancement of soil fertility. This is the
ger Thesen” (the Gräfelfingen proposi- fundamental difference between organic
tions) were submitted to the environmen- farming and “integrated plant protection”
tal associations and development organi- or other agricultural production methods.
sations for joint signing, there were criti-
cal remarks among the associations. One However, hunger and poverty are not
was not willing to grant organic farming only caused by poor agricultural produc-
its claim to being the most sustainable tion standards. Unfair land distribution,
form of land cultivation without any com- inequalities in access to resources and the
ment or criticism whatsoever. degradation of natural resources are just
a few of the major reasons for hunger.
This was the starting point of an inten- Against this background, is it possible for
sive discussion among the associations organic farming to make any contribu-
in Germany. Early in December 2003, tion to poverty reduction at all?
Naturland, Evangelischer Entwicklungs-
dienst (EED), Forum Umwelt und Entwick- This publication takes a look at the
lung, Misereor, Naturschutzbund (NABU), above issue from various angles. The as-
Brot für die Welt and WWF-Deutschland pect of declining yields in connection with
organised a congress on the topic of “or- a conversion to organic farming is given
ganic farming - a contribution to the sus- just as much attention as the problems of
tainable alleviation of hunger in devel- certification, the development of stan-
oping countries?”, which was followed by dards, and exports. The impact that or-
a panel debate in the context of the Nu- ganic farming has on the protection of
remberg Biofach specialist trade fair in the environment and biodiversity in the
February 2004. Both events were aimed countries of the South represents a further
at bringing the representatives of various issue.
interest groups together to have joint dis- The potentials that organic farming
cussions on bears in the developing countries include
• what role organic farming can per- the areas of awareness raising, dissemi-
form in attaining food security in the nation of knowledge and political mobi-
countries of the South, lisation of the population. Knowledge of
how ecological aspects relate to one an-
• what the prospects of smallholders are other enables peasants to rely more on
to participate in the organic farming their own analytical abilities again after
system, and the latter having been taken away from
• how the system of certification can be them by the Green Revolution methods.
adapted to the needs of smallholders Traditional knowledge and a better con-
in the South. trol over means of production like soil and
5Introduction
seed are held in greater esteem thanks The environmental, development and
to the implementation of organic produc- farming organisations agree that, in poor
tion systems. A definition of organic farm- countries too, there is no alternative to
ing as stipulated in EC Regulation 2092/ the ecologisation of agriculture. Only an
91 via control and certification does not agriculture that depends less on external
do justice to the diversity of potentials that means of production and makes sustain-
organic farming offers, and in certain cir- able use of resources can combat hun-
cumstances, it can have a negative im- ger and protect the environment.
pact on poverty reduction:
Via co-operation, the environmental,
• if it does not address the locational, development and organic farming orga-
socio-economic or ecological pecu- nisations can benefit from each other and
liarities or demands in the countries develop synergies. Already, there are
of the South; many promising approaches to collabo-
ration. What counts now is to extend and
• if it is restricted to producing high- multiply them.
price luxury goods for niche markets;
The organisations involved will make
• if “environmental compatibility” is too an effort to see to it that policy papers
strongly determined by the western are not the final word but that the results
concept of being “free of chemicals”. are translated into action at local level.
6Sustainable development approaches
1. Which sustainable development
approaches are predominant
in global agriculture?
I
n addition to certified organic farm- organic farming methods can be viewed
ing, there are numerous other con- as a search process from two sides: an
cepts for agricultural production in the increasingly lower use of chemical inputs
tropics. They range from the intensive use in modern agriculture on the one hand
of “modern” technologies such as agro- and an integration of modern ecologi-
genetic engineering to the various sus- cal insights into the traditional range of
tainable agriculture approaches. In a methods on the other, as illustrated in the
simplified manner, the development of following diagram (see Fig. 1)1.
Fig. 1: Simplified classification of different types of farming regarding environmental
compatibility
INDUSTRIAL SMALLHOLDER
AGRICULTURE AGRICULTURE
Environmental
Umwelt- bzw.orSozialverträglichkeit
social compatibility
Input-intensive
Certified organic LEISA
agriculture using „Organic by
farming in accordance Organic farming Low-external-input-
Green Revolution with EU guidelines sustainable default“
Integrated Plant developed by
methods and, agriculture (free of
or Nutrient smallholders?
possibly, agro- chemicals),
genetic engineering Management degradation
(IPM, INM), Ecofarming, locationally
applied, e.g., in adapted agriculture,
Conservation (integration of traditional
Agriculture knowledge!)
Increasingly environmentally Increasingly environmentally
friendly extensification intensification incorporating traditional
knowledge
1
Note that this is a highly simplified attempt to classify concepts and that it cannot do sufficient justice to the fluid transitions
between the different types of farming applied in practice.
7Sustainable development approaches
The various types of Sustainable Farming in the South. “Low-external-input-
Agriculture have emerged as a counter- and-sustainable-agriculture” (LEISA) is an-
movement to the technologies of the other variation, albeit one that does not
Green Revolution. Here, the methods of entirely rule out the use of pesticides and
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and synthetic fertiliser. It is intermittent between
Integrated Nutrient Management (INM), “only” sustainable and “still” organic.
which are, for example, used in Conser-
vation Agriculture, ought to be men- The input-intensive cultivation types of
tioned. Conservation Agriculture is re- the Green Revolution, which was initi-
ferred to by the FAO as a method incor- ated in the sixties by the international ag-
porating an integrated management of ricultural research centres, are on the
soil, water and agricultural inputs. Its outer opposite side of the diagram. Here,
three most important principles are per- the emphasis was on introducing so-
manent soil cover, minimum interference called high-yielding maize, wheat or rice
with soil flora and fauna thanks to zero varieties in the countries of the South, and
tillage and crop rotation2. But usually, it the aim was to increase agricultural out-
involves increased herbicide input. So a put. The yield of these varieties will only
number of environmental advantages be higher in comparison to traditional
are offset by greater use of chemicals. land races if intensive use is simulta-
neously made of artificial irrigation, fer-
In a nutshell, the concepts of Integrated tiliser and pesticides - and this costs a lot
Farming incorporate “as much chemis- of money, which is why the Green Revo-
try as necessary and as little as possible”, lution coincided with accelerated struc-
but they differ from Sustainable Agricul- tural readjustment in agriculture. Initially,
ture in the narrower sense (which, in the there were enormous increases in yield
following, is referred to with capitalised in the good farming locations, especially
initials). In the eighties, Sustainable Farm- in Asia. But by and by, the high-yield
ing emerged as an alternative in the strains had to be crossed with more suit-
South to the one-sided technology trans- ably adapted local varieties in order to
fer of high-yield seed and external input maintain yield levels in the long run. In
in a North-South direction3. retrospect, with its massive interventions
in sensitive agro-ecological systems, the
Sustainable Agriculture is a generic Green Revolution has caused many en-
tem that also encompasses Organic vironmental and social problems.
Farming. By Organic Farming, we
mean all approaches based on local The same actors who promoted the
technology development that supple- Green Revolution are now calling for the
ment existing know-how among farmers “New Green Revolution”. The agricultural
regarding local environmental factors research centres, the private corporations
with scientific insights. Here, the applica- and the intellectual mentors are the same
tion of local resources and traditional ones. The new hopes are those that have
knowledge is given special consideration. arisen from new types of gene transfer
The “Ecofarming” concept suggested by engineering. Environmental and devel-
Kurt Egger (1979) and “locally adapted opment campaigners fear that a further
land use” in the sense of Kotschi/ Bread spread of this agro-genetic engineer-
for the World/ Misereor are important ing could result in negative impacts simi-
contributions to the development of a lar to those of the first Green Revolution
concept of Organic (and Sustainable) as well as creating new problems. Agro-
genetic engineering is the application of
2 genetic engineering methods in plant
For a brief description, see http://www.fao.org/wssd/
SARD/sard_gap/DOCs/CA_leaflet.pdf. breeding and the use of genetically modi-
3
See Kotschi (1998). fied plants in agriculture. Fears of cross-
8Sustainable development approaches
breeding, uncontrolled transfer and un- engineering of organisms clashes with the
intentional side-effects of the genes intro- concept of organic farming, in which the
duced into organisms make this method ecosystem with its diversity of interactions
particularly controversial. Currently, its is to be regarded as a whole. In order to
application is above all restricted to the fully exploit the potentials and limit their
modification of individual genes in order risks, the distributors of seed and the gov-
to develop resistance to herbicides, in- ernment impose conditions on the users
sects, fungi, bacteria, viruses or a modifi- that no longer give any consideration to
cation in the composition of contents in the existing traditional knowledge among
useful plants. Thus in its essence, genetic the peasants.
Fig. 2: Share of genetically modified plants among the world produce of some culti-
vated plants (Source: modified, taken from James, 2003)
100%
80% 45%
60%
79% 84% 89%
40% Share of genetically
55% modified plants in
20% world produce
21% 16% 11%
0%
Soy Cotton Rapeseed Maize
The most important genetically modi- ture focus on 1. giving greater consider-
fied cultures include soy, cotton, rapeseed ation to the environment in agriculture, 2.
and maize (see Fig. 2). Among these reducing external input (but not generally
crops, the share of genetically modified rejecting chemicals in all cases), and 3.
plants is between eleven and 55 percent. usually, an integration of local elements6.
Examples of the application of agro-ge- The search processes originating from
netic engineering are the herbicide-resis- modern or traditional agriculture only re-
tant “Roundup Ready” soy bean, fungus- sult in a single strand towards a conver-
resistant rapeseed, insect-resistant “Bt- gence heading for scientific organic farm-
maize” and a modified fatty-acid com- ing. The chief strand of “modernisation ef-
position of soy oil4. From 1996 to 2004, forts” tends to be heading for a New Green
area cultivated world-wide for genetically Revolution, both among the smallholders
modified plants rose forty-seven-fold to in the South and the highly rationalised
a current level of over 81 million hectares5. farms in the North. Their high-tech environ-
mental approach is competing with the
CONCLUSION low-tech approach of organic farming for
the attainment of the goal of feeding the
Agricultural development can no
world in a more sustainable manner.
longer do without sustainability. The dif-
ferent approaches to Sustainable Agricul-
4
For further information, see http://www.gruenegen
technik.de
6
5
See James (2005). See Misereor (1995)
9What do we mean by “organic farmng”?
2. What do we mean by
„organic farming“?
O
rganic farming is related to the at the following goals9:
concepts of Sustainable Agricul-
ture, especially with regard to the Î a sufficiently high level of productivity,
reduction of external inputs, as an at-
tempt to achieve more environmental jus- Î compatibility of cultivation with the
tice. Historically, it did not originate from natural cycles of the production system
the universities but was developed by as a whole,
farmers and organisations supporting this Î maintaining and increasing the long-
type of agriculture in the industrialised term fertility and biological activity of
countries as an explicit counter-movement the soil,
to input-intensive, high-tech agriculture.
Organic farming relies on natural cycles. Î maintaining and increasing natural di-
At the centre of this agricultural system is versity and agro-biodiversity,
the maintenance and enhancement of soil
fertility and the general rejection of syn- Î maximum possible use of renewable
thetic fertiliser and pesticides. The UN De- resources,
velopment Programme regards it as the Î creation of a harmonic balance be-
ecologically most consistent develop- tween crops and animal husbandry,
ment of all those approaches seeking
sufficient agricultural production while si- Î creation of conditions in which animals
multaneously conserving natural re- are kept that correspond to their natu-
sources7. ral behaviour,
But what exactly is behind this concept? Î protection of, and learning from, in-
The Codex Alimentarius of the FAO and digenous knowledge and traditional
the WHO describes organic farming on management systems.
the basis of an environmental manage-
ment system achieving sustainable pro- The concept of organic farming stres-
ductivity by promoting the ecosystem. ses the integration of crop farming and
Pest and weed control is maintained via animal husbandry in ensuring an opti-
various individual methods and through mum nutrient cycle.
the mutual interdependence of the habi-
tats of soil organisms and nutrients, Organic farming is organised world-
plants, animals and human beings8. Thus wide in IFOAM, the International Federa-
they represent a package of individual tion of Organic Agriculture Movements.
measures the entirety of which is aimed In accordance with the IFOAM standards,
it not only pursues agricultural and eco-
logical principles but also aims at food
7
See UNDP (1992). 9
The complete list is contained in the “Principle Aims of
8
See FAO/ WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission Organic Production and Processing” of the IFOAM “Basic
(2001), www.codexalimentarius.net. Standards for Organic Agriculture and Processing” of (2002).
10What do we mean by “organic farmng”?
security and social justice, high demands “organic” for lack of any alternative. Or-
on food quality and health as well as the ganic means an agro-ecological knowl-
integration of local knowledge. These ba- edge approach in its own right that re-
sic principles apply equally to the tropics quires conscious, specialist action.
and to the temperate zones, although con-
crete farming methods may vary consid- However, the term “Organic Farming”
erably depending on climate zones and is not restricted to certified organic farm-
agricultural structures10. Certification was ing. At the BioFach Congress 2004 in
introduced to make organic farming dis- Nuremberg, Gunnar Rundgren, IFOAM,
tinguishable from other types of sustain- stated that “a farmer is an organic farmer
able farming. It is particularly important because he cultivates his fields organically
when premium prices can be scored thanks and not because he has been certified”.
to consumers holding this type of agricul- (Certification as a system is dealt with in a
tural produce in especially high esteem. separate chapter independently of the
mode of production; see Chapter 9.)
“Quasi-organic” or just “without
chemistry”? CONCLUSION
In non-certified systems, the boundary Organic Farming is a type of sustain-
gets all too easily blurred between or- able land use that works entirely without
ganic approaches, systematic concepts of synthetic fertiliser and chemical pesticides
Sustainable Agriculture and slash-and- and systematically enhances the agro-
burn farming that does not use chemicals ecological system. Via standardisation
but can nevertheless be extremely hostile and quality seals, certified organic farm-
to the environment because of soil deg- ing can be clearly distinguished from
radation. The term “organic by default” other sustainable types of farming. How-
refers small-scale producers without ac- ever, it is a special type among all types
cess to modern farming input who are of Organic Farming.
10
See Stolze et al. (2000).
11Who are the poor and the role of farming
3. Who are the poor, and what
role does farming play for them?
I
n the UN Millennium Development clothes, health, education, etc.) are only
Goals and via the declarations of the inadequately met and that people are re-
FAO's second World Food Summit, the stricted regarding their social development
international community of states has and social participation. Usually, hunger
committed itself to halving the number of and poverty are closely related and go
hungry and extremely poor people be- hand in hand. People earn the means to
tween 1990 and 2015. Hunger means in- cover their basic needs either via their own
sufficient food. Poverty means that the production or by wage labour. In order to
basic needs (food, clean drinking water, produce food themselves, people require
access to the productive resources, above
Fig. 3: Distribution of “dollar poor” (above) and un- all land and water, but also input, credit
dernourished people (below) world-wide (Source: IFAD, and information. This is why people's par-
2001 and UNDP, 2003) ticipation in social decision-making pro-
cesses and the control over natural re-
sources and the production process form
the basis of poverty reduction.
The majority of the world's hungry live
in rural areas. However, the number of
hungry people in the cities is increasing
rapidly as well, especially in Latin Ameri-
ca. In African and Asian countries, it is
mainly smallholder families and landless
people who are affected by hunger. This
also roughly corresponds to the distribu-
tion of the “dollar poor” (with less than 1
US$ income a day): 75 percent of the 1.2
billion poor world-wide live in rural ar-
eas, and two thirds of these are in South
and East Asia, while a quarter are in Sub-
Saharan Africa (see Fig. 3 below). Ac-
cordingly, one important political mea-
sure contained in the Millennium Devel-
opment Goal Action plan is to increase
the productivity of smallholders in mar-
ginal locations11.
11
See UNDP (2003).
12Who are the poor and the role of farming
Among the rural population affected What role does agriculture play
by poverty, a simplified distinction can be for the rural poor?
made between the following groups re-
garding their specific problems: Accounting for about 60 to 75 percent
of overall employment, agriculture is the
landless poor (farm labourers), chief employer in rural regions. It is not
only the landless who earn their living in
poor people with access to land in
agriculture, with wage labour in produc-
marginal areas,
tion, distribution or manufacture. Small-
poor people with access to land in me- holders are also forced to secure their
dium and high-yielding locations, income with additional wage labour. In
Africa, Asia and the Arab states, employ-
professional groups living on natural ment outside one's own agricultural un-
resources (e.g. fishers, pastoralists, dertaking provides the lion's share of fam-
gatherers). ily income nowadays13. In Latin America,
In Latin America, the group of land- too, an average of 40 percent of income
less people and day labourers constitute is still earned in supplementary and sec-
the largest group of rural poor, whereas ondary occupation14. In order to secure
in Africa, the group of smallholders is their survival, as a rule, the poor have to
predominant among the rural poor with combine several sources of income and
secure rights of land use. However, an activities, with wage labour usually be-
IFAD survey on rural poverty demon- ing very poorly paid and often being
strates that more than two thirds of the characterised by exploitative working
900 million rural poor live in marginal conditions.
locations, i.e. in disadvantaged agricul- Combining different branches of busi-
tural regions. For them, hunger and pov- ness within agriculture or sideline activi-
erty are crucially linked to the poor qual- ties help people to protect themselves
ity of their productive resources, i.e. a lack against failed harvests and income fluc-
of fertile soil and irrigation facilities, as tuations. Thus agriculture simultaneously
well as to these regions being neglected serves the poor as an economic cushion
regarding the provision of infrastructure against risks and to secure their food ba-
and (social) services. Such regions re- sis. The share of staple food per area of
quire investments so that their existing po- farmland that primary serves self-supplies
tential can be tapped step by step, in for the families is 62 percent on average
many cases as well as measures to inte- and may even account for up to 90 per-
grate them into the national economies. cent in poor countries such as Mozam-
At the same time, almost a third of the bique. Many rural households are far from
rural poor live in regions with a medium able to cover their subsistence, so that half
to high agricultural potential12. Their pov- of money income is spent on food.
erty is the result of restricted access to
land and water, but also of obstacles to How does agriculture influence
accessing markets, credit, knowledge and the ecosystem?
technology without which they are unable
to make use of the potential of land re- The conservation of natural resources
sources. Many of them have lost their land in agricultural and forestry ecosystems
and earn their living as day labourers; directly interacts with the long-term pov-
usually, their employment options are erty and food state of the group of small-
restricted to a certain agricultural season. holders in marginalised areas.
13
See IFAD (2001).
14
12
S ee IFAD (2001). See Reardon et al. (2001).
13Who are the poor and the role of farming
According to the 1990 GLASOD sur- many environmental and poverty prob-
vey15, two thirds of productive land in Sub- lems, but it also provides the key to solve
Saharan Africa is classified as degraded, them. In this context, there is a conflict of
38 percent in Asia and as much as 74 aims between the designation of agricul-
percent in Central America. Here, crops turally poorly suited areas as protected
also spread to marginal locations such areas and the continuation or introduction
as slopes at the expense of forests and of their agricultural use, for example by
pastureland. It is especially in these frag- applying environmentally friendly land use
ile agro-ecological systems that, as a re- forms (such as agro-forestry systems) that
sult of deforestation, soil degradation is conserve natural resources. In each case,
held to be one of the most urgent envi- poverty-oriented rural development on
ronmental problems. Soil degradation the basis of long-term conservation of
appears as erosion, compaction and natural resources is indispensable in such
salination of soil and, in the long term, conditions. Measures have to be adapted
as a loss of organic substances and mi- to the special living conditions, interests
cro-organisms. Poverty will often result in and knowledge of the local farmers.
overcropping and overgrazing, which in
turn lead to lower yields and further pov-
erty. The consequences for people and CONCLUSION
the natural habitats are severe. As early
The majority of the world's poor live di-
as 1994, the UN Environment Pro-
rectly or indirectly on agriculture, so that
gramme registered a total of 25 million
strategies aimed at sustainable support for
of so-called “environmental refugees”
rural areas have to make a crucial contri-
who had lost their livelihoods owing to
bution to combating hunger. Moreover,
degradation of the natural resources
hunger and absolute poverty are, in the
caused by nature and humans - half of
main, a phenomenon of marginal areas
them in Africa16.
that are subject to a severe environmen-
The degraded areas cannot simply be tal threat. Here, raising productivity and
evacuated for the purpose of environmen- environmental protection or the rehabili-
tal regeneration. The people living there tation of habitats have to go hand in hand.
continue to depend on land use. The ag- There is hardly an alternative to attempt-
ricultural sector is not only the cause of ing to achieve this with organic farming.
15
The Global Assessment of Soil Degradation (GLASOD)
study was commissioned by the United Nations Environ-
ment Programme (UNEP) and carried out by the Interna-
tional Soil Reference and Information Centre (ISRIC) in
Wageningen (The Netherlands).
16
See UNEP (2003).
14Organic farming for the poor?
4. What prospects does
organic farming hold for
the poor?
T
o answer this question, it is very im- development goals and to implement the
portant to distinguish groups of ru- latter17.
ral poor according to land owner-
ship and agro-ecological framework con- However, a number of requirements
ditions. At least organic farming offers have to be fulfilled for certified farming.
those peasants using traditional methods Converting production methods while si-
and employing hardly any external inputs multaneously organising marketing and
an opportunity to directly raise yield and meeting the conditions for certification
thus improve income. Often, the small- put very high demands on what have so
holders' increasing control over their own far been unorganised farmers in disad-
resources (land, water, labour power, pro- vantaged regions far off from any mar-
duction system) that goes hand in hand kets who have often only had insufficient
with this development results in greater or even no school education.
self-awareness, which is also reflected in Organic farming offers smallholders
a general strengthening of the role these advantages thanks to the lower demands
people play in the social system. Such em- on external input. The precondition here
powerment is a prerequisite for collective is effective soil and water management
self-help and the overcoming of margin- that the farming system is based on.
alisation. In interest groups, they thus Given the more than 840 million people
obtain the possibility to shape the frame- suffering from hunger, the FAO survey on
work conditions for smallholder agricul- organic farming, environment and food
ture to their advantage. security stresses the need to increase na-
Once marketing opportunities can be tional food production with low-cost, lo-
reckoned with, a development towards cally available technologies and re-
(certified) organic farming may offer ad- sources while avoiding harm to the envi-
ditional income effects. Demands on ronment18. The use of local, renewable re-
group organisation, internal mutual con- sources in organic farming in particular
trol and the necessary development of comes very close to this goal, for it goes
appropriate production systems can en- hand in hand with control over one's own
hance personal responsibility, creativity input, which in turn protects peasants from
and self-initiative in the community. The dependence on and indebtedness to
autonomous use and co-determination of merchants and agro-corporations. In Af-
resources, rules and institutions which are,
for example, related to group-certified 17
Also see Rosset (1999) on the positive effects of general
smallholder agricultural structures on empowerment and
products and marketing pose a chal- self-responsibility.
lenge to formulate one's own needs and 18
See FAO (2002).
15Organic farming for the poor?
rica, secure and timely supply of procured to its better soil and water management,
input is a constant problem. The vicious organic agriculture shows significantly
circle of poverty and indebtedness is the lower fluctuations in yield from crop farm-
chief problem among the peasants lack- ing than conventional farming does. For
ing capital in Asia. This is why here, it is example, damage to harvests in the wake
the ability of people to improvise and of Hurricane Mitch (end of 1998) in Cen-
innovate that represents the most impor- tral America was much less severe among
tant resource. Sustainability can only be farmers with agro-forestry systems, inter-
secured in agricultural systems if the abil- cropping and soil-covering plants than it
ity is there to adapt them to permanently was among their conventional neigh-
changing environmental conditions (cli- bours21. Simultaneous growing of differ-
mate, market, availability of labour, etc.). ent crops, the choice of seed and diver-
sity of varieties minimise fluctuations in
In organic farming, the general labour yield and therefore represent an integral
requirement for erosion protection, weed element of many traditional farming sys-
control and nutrient supply is higher than tems, such as in quinoa-growing by the
in conventional farming and is regarded Quechua and Aymara farmers in the in-
as a crucial production factor. Thus the hospitable Andean highlands.
operating costs above all depend on the
prices and opportunity costs of labour19. Yield stability is particularly important
For example, in some African agrarian for the poor. This is why risks, such as high
societies characterised by a lack of labour, vulnerability towards environmental adver-
high labour demands are a limiting fac- sities (droughts and storms) and little cush-
tor. On account of HIV/AIDS, this state of ioning capacity in the event of socio-eco-
affairs is going to worsen. In contrast, in nomic shocks (illness, disablement, mar-
other regions, economic advantages may ket price fluctuations) should be minimised.
arise from employment opportunities Stability in agricultural production com-
being maximised, especially for poor bined with social networks in families and
households with several children and communities adds up to a life insurance
poor employment prospects outside ag- for poor smallholder families22.
riculture (going hand in hand with low
opportunity costs of labour). Which poor get the benefits?
This is the exact opposite of the situa- As a note of caution, it has to be
tion in the industrialised countries and stressed that the above-mentioned advan-
constitutes one of the chief advantages tages do not apply to the same degree
organic farming offers poor people in to farmers in favourable agricultural lo-
developing countries20. cations or regions with good market ac-
cess. Wherever employment opportuni-
Being successful in marginal lo- ties exist outside agriculture, in the con-
cations without expensive inputs struction sector or in small-scale indus-
- on a long-term basis tries, the value, and hence the price, of
labour will rise. Here, for poor families in
For poor households that cannot af- particular, survival will depend on how
ford any major production risks, maxi- much labour they are still investing in ag-
mum yields are not as important as se- riculture. This is especially important
cure yields in the long run in order to en- against the background that the organic
sure food security for the families. Thanks production methods usually develop their
yield-increasing effect more slowly than
19
What is meant here is the cost of revenue from an
alternative use of labour that has been forfeited (also see
21
Glossary at the beginning). See FAO (2002).
20 22
See Rosen & Larson (2000). See Ellis (1993).
16Organic farming for the poor?
those incorporating the use of chemicals. In a region with good access to infra-
But the poor depend on attaining surplus structure and institutions, (frequently still
production of food as quickly as possible subsidised) chemical inputs are often
or on other income sources23. In addition, more easy to obtain and cheaper than
in the South too, the young generation do agro-ecological knowledge and consul-
not like to spend the whole day toiling in tation. Here, one will all too quickly opt
the fields if there are attractive alternatives. for unecological, labour-saving but one-
Increasing leisure-time by using pesticides sided agriculture as a sideline activity, as
instead of weeding is very common is the case, for example, with the K'iche'
among many of the Maya maize farmers farmers in the highlands of Guatemala,
in southern Mexico. In Africa, the almost who also work as artisans.
magic reliance on pesticides in “plant
medicine” is very widespread. CONCLUSION
But as already mentioned above, most In the long run, organic farming offers
poor smallholders live in regions in which advantages compared to conventional
there are hardly any employment alterna- farming because it not only promises
tives and input supply is hardly ensured. higher yields but also ensures higher yield
These farmers run the risk of becoming in- security, reduces dependence on external
debted owing to dependence on agro- input and thus makes poor households
chemicals and vulnerable through market less crisis-prone. These are weighty argu-
failure. ments, especially in marginal locations.
23
See UNDP (1992).
17Introducing organic farming systems
5. What problems occur in
introducing organic farming
systems?
A
s already shown, organic farming to the true prospects an organic farming
does not have to rely on access to system can offer marginalised farmers.
external inputs such as fertiliser and
pesticides because the farmers make use The problems occurring in introducing
of their own resources. However, factors organic farming in the South are sum-
such as knowledge, consultation, organi- marised below (s. Box 1):
sation and political influence are crucial
Box 1: Problems in introducing organic farming
Knowledge and consultation
- Absence of scientific ecosystematic knowledge and its consistent application,
- Chemistry and other new technologies are often still regarded as “modern” and
progressive,
- A lack of culturally adapted contents in agricultural extension services and
institutions regarding organic production methods and marketing,
- Insufficient investment in ecological agricultural research (e.g. in the development
of locally adapted varieties for food cultures),
- Not enough experience in considering and passing on indigenous knowledge.
Major participatory research effort; political lobby
- Little political support by the governments and established science, both of which
are often closer to the interests of the urban consumers or agro-chemistry
companies,
- Political advantage of non-organic farming in government extension services.
Economic support
- Market economy structures opposed to organic farming methods (lack of
internalisation of external environmental costs that are caused by non-organic
production methods),
- Additional distortion of market prices by government subsidies being provided for
external inputs (sometimes chemical fertiliser is used as an election bribe by
governments).
18Introducing organic farming systems
The key problem: knowledge and Again and again, practitioners experi-
consultation enced in the introduction of organic farm-
ing in the South, above all, stress the lack
Here, the prime aspects are the intro- of adequately trained extensionists who
duction or reactivation of ecosystematic could promote concrete, locally adapted
philosophies of crop rotation and pest cultivation methods, and who could work,
control and consultation on organic through participatory approaches, against
farming and marketing. For example, the prejudices against organic and traditional
spread of organic farming in Central production methods. Since the govern-
America is complicated because soil fer- ment does not provide the infrastructure
tility there is considerably poorer than in for such extension services in most coun-
South or North America24. Fragile ecosys- tries, this is a special responsibility for the
tems put particularly high demands on non-governmental development organisa-
the traditional or modern abilities of farm- tions and organic farming associations.
ers. This is especially true for organic
farming, where organisational mistakes In poverty conditions, it has to be borne
cannot be rectified by merely resorting in mind that improvements in income that
to using more chemicals. Traditional in- will only materialise in the long term are
digenous knowledge, wherever it still ex- of little value to families suffering from
ists, is particularly valuable for effective poverty and hunger right now, and that they
soil and water management and appro- may represent a considerable obstacle to
priate diversification of cultivation sys- lasting success with conversion. Good and
tems, although in most cases it has to be honest consultation has to consider this.
developed further. It ought to gain a
higher status in society as the starting CONCLUSION
point for rural education, extension and
agricultural research institutions. For the The spread of organic farming depends
marginalised, subsistence-oriented re- strongly on the self-initiative of farmers
gions in particular, it is crucial for the because the political lobby and economic
projects introducing organic farming, to support are at a low level and access to
be capable of adapting practice-ori- consultation and information is insufficient.
ented knowledge of ecosystems to the In the developing countries, the general
culture of the farmers. trend is opposed to organic farming.
24
See Rosen & Larson (2000).
19Agricultural extension services and the poor
6. What sort of agricultural
extension services benefit the
poor?
F
or a long time, economic aspects and pesticides according to the respec-
were at the forefront of debates on tive instructions. Knowledge of complex
poverty reduction in rural areas. In interrelations and the ecological balance
spite of this, international organisations, disappear, the range of crops grown is
national development commissions and narrowed down, self-initiative and creativ-
agricultural research are still developing ity on the part of the farmers is less in de-
solutions in which poor smallholders are mand, and research has migrated from
not at the centre of considerations as ac- the farmer's field to the laboratory.
tors of rural development even though
they are the ones who have suffered most What opportunities do sustain-
from misguided policies.
able forms of agriculture offer?
Owing to marginalisation, poor peo-
In sustainable agricultural systems, the
ple seldom have the opportunity to ac-
role of the farmers may look entirely dif-
tively participate in shaping the situation
ferent. Thanks to interactive learning and
they are living in and influencing the po-
the recollection of traditional knowledge,
litical framework conditions. As a rule,
the farmers are enabled to develop and
they lack access to (good) school and fur-
advance their agricultural systems au-
ther education, as well as to political de-
tonomously. Their analytical abilities are
cision-making processes. Usually, poverty
strengthened, they learn how to design
and marginalisation result in a loss of self-
their own solutions, and they critically
esteem and confidence in one's own abili-
assess which innovations are useful in their
ties. Influence coming from a “modern”
conditions and which traditional practices
society systematically degrades tradi-
are worth retaining. Consumers of agri-
tional knowledge and specific cultural
cultural instructions thus turn into creative
features. Food production and cultivation
actors again.
methods change, and a paradigm de-
velops that everything that is modern is Women, who traditionally play an im-
better than tried and tested traditions. Ad- portant role in agriculture and are often
vertisements for agro-chemicals reach excluded from “modern”, export-oriented
even the most remote areas. Many farm- systems, can once again strengthen their
ers have lost their independence and role in the course of the development of
decision-making powers in agriculture. sustainable systems. With changes to the
management systems and the replace-
What impacts go hand in hand ment of external inputs, e.g. by the farms'
with the Green Revolution? own fertiliser or locally grown seed, the
farmers can regain control over resources
Conventional agriculture works in a and production processes - and they find
similar manner the world over. Farmers a way out of the debt trap25. Thus acquired
buy seed that they have procured else-
25
where for their crops and apply fertiliser Oram J.A. 2003
20Agricultural extension services and the poor
self-confidence and independence result in However, if the focus of agricultural ex-
changes to other areas of life as well. The tension is solely on economic and envi-
exchange of experience in the groups of ronmental aspects, without socio-cultural
farmers promotes their solidarity. The self- elements being given any consideration,
esteem of the women as well as that of the the potential of organic farming to boost
elderly generates more social justice. the self-help capacity of its clients is not
made use of. Therefore, active participa-
Groups of farmers forming networks tion in designing developments as well
and getting organised can also mobilise as creativity are of particular importance.
politically, stand up for their rights and cre-
ate a counter-balance. In some cases, by
developing alternative models and en- Box 2: The Seven Dimensions of Sustain-
gaging in strategic lobbying for their in- able Agriculture
terests, smallholders have already suc-
ceeded in changing the political frame- 1. Ecologically Sound
work conditions to their advantage. For 2. Economically Viable
example, the campaigns of Philippine or- 3. Socially Just and Equitable
ganic farmers have led to the government
appreciating the benefits of smallholder 4. Culturally Sensitive
agriculture and critically reviewing the in- 5. Appropriate Technology
troduction of genetically modified seed. 6. Holistic Science
7. Total Human Development
Does organic farming support Taken from: Sustainable Agriculture Centre, A De-
poor smallholders? cade of Challenges and Inspiration 1991-2001,
2002
A precondition for developing the self-
help potential of poor smallholders is that
they hold responsibility and are sup-
ported by a participatory extension ap- CONCLUSION
proach. Methods such as “farmer field
Sustainable forms of agriculture, and
schools” 26 or “participatory technology
here, organic farming, enable self-help
development” 27 promote the farmers'
capacities of poor groups of farmers to
scope for action.
be boosted at economic and socio-po-
Organic farming provides the precon- litical level. The precondition for this is
ditions for this development, for it requires that responsibility for the development
that the farmers constantly engage in processes lies with the farmers themselves
learning. Being organised in interest and participatory extension methods are
groups strengthens the political power of applied that mediate technology devel-
the smallholders. opment rather than merely passing it on.
26
ILEIA, LEISA Magazine 2002
27
IIRR,ETC, CTA 2003
21Can improved cultivation methods reduce poverty?
7. Can improved cultivation
methods reduce poverty?
T
here are a wide range of strategies Table 1 shows that poverty-oriented
to reduce poverty. For example, the agricultural policy with the aim of sustain-
growth approach relies on every- able increases in yield can represent an
thing that helps economic growth in society effective measure to combat poverty, es-
as a whole “automatically” trickling down pecially in Southern Africa and in Asia.
to development in rural regions. Other ap- Every increase in crop yield by 10 per-
proaches focus more on the effects of mea- cent reduces the number of income-poor
sures tailored to specific sectors and target in Sub-Saharan Africa by an average 7.2
groups. Thus the insight is slowly spreading percent.
that development and growth in the agri-
cultural sector is particularly socially com-
patible, i.e. that these factors make a spe-
cial contribution to poverty reduction.
Table 1: Effect of a 10% increase in crop yield on the number of “dollar-poor”* (Source:
Thirtle et al. in Byerlee & Alex, 2003)
Reduction of the number of
Region Share of poor* (%) poor (%) by a 10% increase in
yield
East Asia 15 4,8
South Asia 40 4,8
Sub-Saharan Africa 46 7,2
Latin America 16 1,0
* Related to poor people with < 1 US$ income a day
However, fair land distribution is a pre- tural sector. This is why the poverty-reduc-
requisite for poverty reduction via the im- ing effect of yield increases is smallest here
provement of cultivation methods if and why it requires far-reaching develop-
progress in agricultural development is ment approaches that are tailored much
to benefit the majority of the rural popu- more to the requirements of individual
lation as well. In Latin American coun- groups than need be the case in, for ex-
tries, where the land is in the hands of a ample, Africa28.
handful of big landowners, only the rela-
tively small stratum of landowners them-
selves benefit from progress in the agricul- 28
See Byerlee & Alex (2003).
22Can improved cultivation methods reduce poverty?
Poverty reduction to the extent stipu- But irrespective of the one-sided Struc-
lated in the Millennium Development tural Adjustment Programs, poverty and
Goals can only be attained if several lev- inequality is going to increase in rural
els are addressed simultaneously. Here, regions because the governments them-
as far as the rural regions are concerned, selves are investing far too little into pov-
the strategies of land reform and im- erty-oriented agricultural research, exten-
proved socio-economic framework con- sion services and rural infrastructure. In-
ditions play an important role. Agricul- stead, the interests of urban consumers
tural policy is required to take action tend to be more at the forefront of poli-
particularly with regard to improvements tics. Artificially cheapened food imports
in infrastructure and market access and for the urban population are only one of
in eliminating artificial scarcity of land several examples of a political strategy
due to its unfair distribution. Every agri- that harms smallholder agriculture in
cultural technology - including organic particular instead of securing food for the
farming - can only be as good as the ex- farmers30. Table 2 summarises the most
ternal framework conditions allow for. important causes of rural poverty and
Without access to the necessary produc- shows up the limits of agriculture in com-
tive resources such as land and irrigation bating it.
as well as to the non-physical resources
of knowledge, institutions and self-orga- CONCLUSION
nisation of the farmers, long-term poverty
reduction for the rural population will re- Agricultural production methods
main an illusion. Framework conditions alone cannot eliminate the multitude of
are not going to change without their par- causes of rural poverty. This requires the
ticipating in decision-making processes external framework conditions of fair land
and an increase in their negotiating distribution and political support for ag-
power. ricultural research, extension services and
infrastructure. This also applies in the case
Who bears responsibility? of organic farming. It comes up against
limiting factors where economic, social
With regard to the political framework and political development measures are
conditions in particular, it has become ap- lacking. However, once the framework
parent that promoting rural development conditions are in place, organic produc-
in one's own country has been criminally tion methods will prove a very important
neglected by the governments of the de- instrument for agricultural growth, secur-
veloping countries over the last few years. ing the food base and creating employ-
This tendency has been strengthened by ment in the rural regions.
the policy of the Structural Adjustment Pro-
grams introduced by the World Bank and
the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in
the eighties. Forced liberalisation of ag-
ricultural markets and cutbacks in social
services have in particular failed to bless
the poorer farmers living further away from
the markets with development, as the
“Structural Adjustment Participatory Re-
view International Network” 29 (SAPRIN)
shows.
30
For a detailed description of discrimination against the
agricultural sector in developing countries, see Zeller &
29
See SAPRIN (2002). Johannsen (2004).
23Can improved cultivation methods reduce poverty?
Table 2: Causes of poverty and how the agricultural sector can combat them (Source: Modified,
taken from BMZ, 1995)
What are the causes of rural poverty...? How can they be eliminated?
... at national and local level
Unequal land distribution Agricultural policy: Land reform
Lack of employment in rural regions Agricultural and fiscal policy: Economic growth in the
agricultural sector creates employment but requires
infrastructural framework conditions
Dwindling of area and labour productivity Agricultural research and extension services: Securing
productivity with sustainable production methods
Unequal distribution of income Social and economic policy: structural adjustment has
to be socially compatible!
Population growth Social, education and health policy: “Quality instead of
quantity” in family planning
Exclusion of the poor from political co- Civil society initiative and political pressure towards
determination democratisation and decentralisation: Co-
determination (empowerment) of women and
disadvantaged (e.g. indigenous) groups
... at international level
Trade barriers, protectionism WTO negotiations: fair globalisation that does justice to
unequal partners
Debt crisis International comity of states, industrialised countries:
Debt relief, raising (ODA) funds for agriculture and
rural development
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