Literature Review in Games and Learning - REPORT 8: FUTURELAB SERIES
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FUTURELAB SERIES
REPORT 8:
Literature Review in
Games and Learning
John Kirriemuir, Ceangal
Angela McFarlane, Graduate School of Education, University of BristolFUTURELAB SERIES
REPORT 8: CONTENTS:
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 2
Literature Review in SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION 5
Games and Learning SECTION 2
GAMES CULTURES
AND PLAY 7
John Kirriemuir, Ceangal
SECTION 3
Angela McFarlane, Graduate School of Education, University of Bristol GAMES AND LEARNING 13
SECTION 4
KEY ISSUES IN DEVELOPING
GAMES FOR LEARNING 19
FOREWORD SECTION 5
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Computer games are today an important research in the field, in particular the IN GAMES AND LEARNING 24
part of most children’s leisure lives and increasing interest in pleasurable
increasingly an important part of our learning, learning through doing and BIBLIOGRAPHY 29
culture as a whole. We often, as adults, learning through collaboration, that
END NOTES 34
watch in amazement as children dedicate games seem to offer. At the same time,
hours to acting as football coaches, the review takes a measured tone in
designers of empires, controllers of acknowledging some of the obstacles and
robots, wizards and emperors. In the challenges to using games within our
past, computer games have been current education system and within our
dismissed as a distraction from more current models of learning. It goes on to
‘worthy’ activities, such as homework or propose some ways in which designers,
playing outside. Today, however, researchers and educational policy
researchers, teachers and designers of makers might draw on the growing body
learning resources are beginning to ask of research in the field to create learning
how this powerful new medium might be resources and environments that go
used to support children’s learning. beyond a sugar-coating of ‘fun’ to the full
Rather than shutting the door of the engagement that computer games seem
school against the computer game, there to offer so many children today.
is now increasing interest in asking
whether computer games might be We are keen to receive feedback on
offering a powerful new resource to the Futurelab reports and welcome
support learning in the information age. comments at research@futurelab.org.uk
This review is intended as a timely Keri Facer
introduction to current thinking about the Director of Learning Research
role of computer games in supporting Futurelab
children’s learning inside and out of
school. It highlights the key areas of
1EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY games, or game players, cannot be
mapped onto one research discipline.
Relevant areas of study include, but
AIMS
are not limited to computer science,
education, psychology, youth and media
This review provides: and cultural studies. As a result, aspects
of investigation into games and game
• a summary of the contemporary state of players can ‘straddle’ several different
the computer and video gaming academic disciplines.
industry, market and culture
• an overview of the main developments in As games have become more complex in
research into gaming and the terms of graphics, complexity, interaction
educational relevance of video games, and narrative, so a variety of genres have
and a summary of the literature come to dominate the market. There is,
resulting from this research however, no standard categorisation
• a basis for communication between the of such games; different stakeholders
educational research community and in the games industry eg game outlets,
the commercial sector on the subject of developers, academics, web review sites,
the use of games technologies in the use a taxonomy appropriate to their own
design of learning resources audience. Nonetheless the differences
between genres, and even between games
• a basis for discussion within educational within one genre, differentiate the way
communities on the use of digital they are played, and their potential to
games within educational settings. support learning. Thus attempts to
generalise the effect of games or
gaming may be unhelpful.
attempts to CONTEXT
generalise the Perhaps as a result of the diversity and
Computer games are a growing part of our complexity of games themselves, and
effect of games culture; the global market is worth billions the range of perspectives taken by
of dollars, related activities range from researchers, there are few hard and fast
or gaming may published magazines to spontaneous findings in the literature. In order to better
be unhelpful internet communities, and the impact of understand games and game play, and
games play on young people has attracted how they contribute to learning, it may
significant interest from the popular be necessary to distinguish more clearly
media. Three quarters of children play the nature of gaming and the nature of
regularly – is this harmful or beneficial, learning and the learner.
are they learning as they play, and if so
what? This review considers the findings of
research into the relationship between GAMES AND GAMERS
games and players, and the theoretical
and actual implications for learning. Researchers and commentators have
attempted to understand the lure of
The research evidence is complex, and computer games. This has been
thinly spread. The study of computer characterised as a combination of fantasy,
2REPORT 8
LITERATURE REVIEW IN GAMES AND LEARNING
JOHN KIRRIEMUIR, CEANGAL & ANGELA MCFARLANE, GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL
challenge and curiosity, and a level of integrated into the curriculum. Reasons the experience
engagement described as ‘flow’ where for this include:
players become oblivious to distractions. of game play
Concern has been expressed that this • it is difficult for teachers to identify seems to
leads to a neglect of other activities, often quickly how a particular game is
assumed to be automatically more worthy. relevant to some component of the be affecting
Other authors see games play as statutory curriculum, as well as the learners’
inherently valuable, leading to a accuracy and appropriateness of the
development of a range of skills and content within the game expectations
competences that may transfer to other • the difficulty in persuading other school of learning
social and work-related uses of digital stakeholders as to the potential/actual
technologies. activities
educational benefits of computer games
The debate around violence and gaming • the lack of time available to teachers to
is as yet unresolved. There are two familiarise themselves with the game,
perspectives; that games increase and methods of producing the best
aggression or that games provide a release results from its use
for pent-up aggression. In all likelihood • the amount of irrelevant content or
both are legitimate conclusions, and the functionality in a game which could not
outcomes varies with game and player. be removed or ignored, thus wasting
valuable lesson time.
Gender is a common subject of games
related research, focusing mainly on the Nonetheless, teachers and parents
image of females within games, or the role recognised that games play can support
of gender in influencing games play. There valuable skill development, such as:
are few clear outcomes, but the proportion
of gamers who are female seems to be • strategic thinking
growing and this may be related to the
• planning
increase in social gaming through on
and offline multiplayer options. • communication
• application of numbers
• negotiating skills
GAMES AND EDUCATION
• group decision-making
Research into the use of mainstream • data-handling.
games in education is relatively novel, but
growing rapidly. Research is mainly Significantly the experience of game
concerned with the development of related play seems to be affecting learners’
competences and literacies during game expectations of learning activities.
play, or the role of games in the formation Preferred tasks are fast, active and
of learning communities either while exploratory, with information supplied
gaming or related to game play. in multiple forms in parallel. Traditional
school-based learning may not meet
Use of mainstream games in schools these demands.
remains rare, and is unlikely to be
3EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
DEVELOPING GAMES FOR EDUCATION learning. Yet much research evidence
contradicts this, arguing that children do
There are two key themes common to the enjoy learning when they have a sense of
development of games for education, their own progression and where the
namely: learning is relevant and appropriate. This
focus on ‘fun’ and on ‘concealing the
1 The desire to harness the motivational learning’ within educational games may, in
power of games in order to ‘making fact, be a red herring. Instead, it might be
learning fun’. worth returning to some early analyses
that describes the pleasures of games play
2 A belief that ‘learning through doing’ in
as a ‘flow’.
games such as simulations offers a
powerful learning tool.
concealing the The conditions likely to induce the flow
state are characterised by Malone (1980)
learning within Software designed to support young
as:
people’s learning often borrows from game
educational design in an attempt to replicate the levels
• the activity should be structured so that
games may be of engagement and harness this to
the player can increase or decrease the
facilitate more traditional learning. These
a red herring level of challenges faced, in order to
attempts are not always successful and
match exactly personal skills with the
the results do not always convince a
requirements for action
discerning gamer.
• it should be easy to isolate the activity,
Most edutainment has failed to realise at least at the perceptual level, from
expectations, either because: other stimuli, external or internal, which
might interfere with involvement in it
• the games have been too simplistic in • there should be clear criteria for
comparison to competing video games performance; a player should be able to
• the tasks are repetitive ie continually evaluate how well or how poorly (s)he is
doing sums, and thus quickly become doing at any time
boring and ‘work’ • the activity should provide concrete
• the tasks are poorly designed and do feedback to the player, so that (s)he can
not support progressive understanding tell how well (s)he is meeting the
criteria of performance
• related to this last point, the range of
activities is severely limited within the • the activity ought to have a broad range
game, usually concentrating on one of challenges, and possibly several
skill, or accumulation of homogenous qualitatively different ranges of
content challenge, so that the player may obtain
increasingly complex information about
• the target audience becomes aware that
different aspects of her/himself.
it is being coerced into ‘learning’, in
possibly a patronising manner.
Another commentator, reflecting on how
to design engaging learning experiences,
The debate on ‘making learning fun’ often
draws on these definitions to propose eight
assumes that children do not enjoy
characteristics as essential:
4SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
• task that we can complete 1 INTRODUCTION
• ability to concentrate on task
As is widely reported across many media,
• task has clear goals computer and video games are
• task provides immediate feedback increasingly popular. In 2002, the world
• deep but effortless involvement (losing market for ‘games and edutainment/
awareness of worry and frustration of reference software’ realised 16.9 billion
everyday activity) US dollars, with 3.3 million games
consoles being sold in the UK alone
• exercising a sense of control over (ELSPA 2003). People of all ages, but most
our actions visibly children, play these games, often
• concern for self disappears during dedicating long periods of time in total
flow, but sense of self is stronger concentration to the amazement and
after flow activity sometimes concern of watching adults.
• sense of duration of time is altered.
Games were still a relatively new
Rather than aiming for an experience phenomenon when a wide range of people,
that superficially resembles leisure-based including parents, teachers, educational
‘fun’ activities, or one which attempts to specialists and media commentators
conceal the educational purpose, it might began to ask one of two related questions:
be argued that we should understand
the deep structures of the games play 1 Games take up large periods of time,
experience that contribute to ‘flow’ and which could be spent on more worthy
build these into environments designed activities, such as education and
to support learning. learning. Therefore, how do we ‘wean’
children off games and into these
activities?
2 Games promote levels of attention and
concentration that teachers, parents
and policy makers wished children
applied to learning. Therefore, what can
the education sector learn and use from
these games in order to ‘enhance’ the in 2002, the
learning process? world market
This report examines the research for ‘games and
associated with these two stances on edutainment/
games and learning. Particularly, it
examines three research questions: reference
software’
1 What is happening during the
game-playing process, and what can realised
the educational sector learn or use 16.9 billion
from this?
dollars
5SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
2 Can conventional computer games be • hardware, known as video game
used as a vehicle for formal learning, eg consoles (examples being the Sony
classroom-based curriculum related Playstation series, Microsoft Xbox and
content delivery? Nintendo GameCube), which are
3 What components or features of operated through a television
conventional computer games can be • personal computers
taken and used in learning software or • mobile devices, eg phones and
practice? dedicated gaming machines such as
the Nintendo GameBoy Advance.
The key focus of this report is primarily on
school age children, and the design of Digital games will include those that are
games (both for learning and for leisure) mass-market products developed for the
for children of these ages. leisure or education market, including
those with cross-over potential.
1.1 DEFINITIONS AND RESEARCH Niche digital gaming media, such as watch
BASE FOR THE REPORT or LCD panel-based games, are outwith
the scope of this report since at present
There is a wide variety of definitions of they are somewhat ephemeral and
digital games across the range of simplistic.
academic, internet and media writing. The
terminology also varies between authors
and over time, and is often interchangable. 1.2 RESEARCH ISSUES
For example, the terms ‘computer game’ AND CREDIBILITY
and ‘video game’ used to refer to PC-
based games and console-based games There are three key issues surrounding
respectively but are now used research into games and learning that
interchangeably. require acknowledgement.
For the purposes of this report, we will • Games and publication cycles
define a digital game as one that:
The time taken for peer reviewed articles
• provides some visual digital information to reach publication often means that
or substance to one or more players games described as ‘current’ may be
somewhat out of date compared with
• takes some input from the players current market practices. This is not to
• processes the input according to a set say that this research has no lessons to
of programmed game rules offer developers and teachers, simply
• alters the digital information provided that it is important to supplement
to the players. conventional academic research with
research from other sources, while at
We will also define games as programmes the same time recognising that these
that operate on the following platforms: alternative sources are not subject to
the same degree of peer-reviewed
scrutiny as academic publications .
6SECTION 2
GAMES CULTURES AND PLAY
• Games as an interdisciplinary subject 2 GAMES CULTURES AND PLAY
Games have been a subject for research
in a wide range of different fields, 2.1 CATEGORISING GAMES
including computer science, media and
cultural studies, psychology, education, As games have become more complex in
physics and youth studies. For anyone terms of graphics, complexity, interaction
interested in games and learning, then, and narrative, so a variety of genres have
there are two challenges: first, to locate increasingly come to dominate the market.
all the research across all these areas There is, however, no standard
and second, to overcome the sometimes categorisation of such games; different
confusing overlap and difference in stakeholders in the games industry, eg
terminology used in respect of games game outlets, developers, academics, web
across these different research fields. review sites, use a taxonomy appropriate to
their own audience. Such categorisations
are discussed in Orwant (2000), who also
• Games researchers as ‘defenders’ illustrates the system employed by Herz
of games (1997) which closely resembles that used
Given the many social concerns around by many in the contemporary games
computer games, many researchers in industry.
this field find it necessary to defend
computer games against attacks. Those The Herz system presents these
reading the research need to adopt a major categories:
balanced perspective towards accounts
that can sometimes be read as a • action games - these can be
‘celebration’ of games in the face of subcategorised into shooting games,
sustained social criticism. Additionally, ‘platform’ games (so called because the
readers need to beware of a tendency players’ characters move between on-
for some researchers to generalise from screen platforms) and other types of
personal experience and to be cautious games that are reaction-based
of accounts that attempt to describe • adventure games - in most adventure
‘typical games players’. games, the player solves a number of
logic puzzles (with no time constraints)
in order to progress through some
described virtual world
• fighting games - these involve fighting
computer-controlled characters, or
those controlled by other players
• puzzle games - such as Tetris
• role-playing games - where the human
players assume the characteristics of
some person or creature type, eg elf or
wizard
• simulations - where the player has
to succeed within some simplified
7SECTION 2
GAMES CULTURES AND PLAY
recreation of a place or situation eg (A Bug’s Life). However, such simplistic
mayor of a city, controlling financial comparisons are increasingly questioned;
outlay and building works for example, the aforementioned
• sports games comparison does not take into account the
cost of the game ($50) against that of the
• strategy games - such as commanding cinema ticket ($6), the demographics,
armies within recreations of historical release dates, or the life of the product,
battles and wars. since it is common for up to 90% of film
revenue to be generated from DVD and
Even with this taxonomy, there are video rather than cinema release.
exclusions; a small number of games will
be released every year that defy The recent transfer of characters between
categorisation. In addition, some games computer game and cinema screen is
fall into more than one category; for evidence that computer games, once seen
example, football manager games (where as a minority interest, are increasingly an
you buy, sell, select and position players) established and powerful aspect of our
arguably fall into the categories of cultural landscape. Such transfer does not
simulation, strategy and sports games. always work; many of the game ‘brands’
This classification also leaves out the that have been turned into movies, such
individual or multiplayer contrast, which is as Resident Evil, Mario Brothers and Tomb
making a real difference to how games can Raider, have been poorly received by both
be played. critics and audiences. Similarly, most
attempts to produce ‘spin-off’ video
games based typically on summer
2.2 THE PREVALENCE blockbuster movies have been poorly
OF GAMES PLAY received by critics and have failed
ultimately to sell in the volume that
Statistics for game hardware and software successful games titles now do.
revenue and the volume of players indicate
a major social and entertainment culture That said, digital games are clearly an
(though the actual ‘size’ of the mainstream important part of most young people’s
video game industry at present is open to lives today. Recent figures suggest that
interpretation). Industry commentators and nearly 70% of children play computer
digital game researchers often quote game games every week, and mobile games
statistics in relation to other media. For play is increasingly common, with 68%
example, Sony’s Playstation2 console of children playing games on their phone
launched in Japan in February 2000, every week (Facer 2001). A growing body
selling 980,000 units in its first weekend of research points to games currently
and thus becoming the biggest launch of being the most frequently used ‘interactive
any electronic consumer device in history media’ amongst children. Beentjes (2001)
(Poole 2000). There is also the oft-quoted and Feierabend & Klingler (2001) showed
observation that over the Christmas 1998 that playing games was the most
period in the US, one videogame (Zelda: prominent PC-related activity of children
Ocarina of Time) grossed $160 million, far between 6 and 13.
exceeding the most popular cinema film
82.3 WHY DO PEOPLE PLAY GAMES? • 87% of most frequent computer and for children to
video game players said the number
Research on the motivations for games one reason they play games is because enjoy playing,
playing have been carried out by it’s fun the game must
researchers across a number of • games are challenging (72%)
disciplines. One of the earliest, and most be neither too
• games are an interactive social
cited, research works is by Thomas Malone
experience that can be shared with
difficult nor
(Malone 1981) who identified three main
ways in which games were able to motivate friends and family (42%) too hard
players: fantasy, challenge and curiosity. • games provide a lot of entertainment
Other research confirms these findings; value for the money (36%).
for example, in research using educational
software, Amory et al (1988) identified Therefore, no clear consensus emerges on
curiosity (“what happens if I do this”) the reasons why people play digital games.
as a common motive in playing a game. This is unsurprising since the games
Presumably the fact that something does themselves vary enormously and, as some
happen encourages players to proceed, researchers point out, the individuality of
and the quality of what happens in terms the player provides a sometimes complex
of user engagement is the factor that set of reasons for game play. Poole (2000)
keeps them playing. The TEEM data notes that:
suggests that degree of difficulty is
important here; for children to enjoy “Videogames are powerful, but they are
playing, the game must be neither too nothing without humans to play them. So
difficult nor too hard (McFarlane et the inner life of videogames - how they
al 2002). work - is bound up with the inner life of
the player.”
A key concept that frequently emerges in
the literature is that of ‘flow’, first
discussed by Csikszentmihalyi (1990). This 2.4 CONCERNS AROUND
is summarised by several researchers as COMPUTER GAMES PLAY
“the state in which we are so involved in
something that nothing else matters”,
which has clear relevance to research into 2.4.1 Games displacing
games and play. Debate on the issue of other activities
‘flow’ centres around how the ‘state’ can
be created in an individual, and measuring The impression of much of the mass-
how it might make a person more media, and some research, is often of a
receptive to receiving, comprehending and population of children playing video games
using educational-based content and skills to the exclusion of all other activities. The
(we will go on to discuss in more detail implication often being that time
how ‘flow’ might apply to the design of traditionally dedicated to ‘better activities’
learning games in Section 4). such as social play and physical
recreation, is spent on anti-social,
A 2001 survey (ESA) produced four main physically unhealthy and mentally numbing
reasons for gameplay, namely: game playing, possibly leading to addictive
9SECTION 2
GAMES CULTURES AND PLAY
longitudinal patterns of use. Though research is often Gender differences in game players and
oriented towards ‘snapshot’ results as the games they play have been
research does opposed to tracking game-players over increasingly discussed across a range of
not show a long- longer periods of time, longitudinal research and media during the last
research does not show a long-term decade, but clear conclusions remain
term significant significant commitment to games over elusive. Circumstantial/informal evidence
commitment to other activities. points to a substantial proportion of
players of video games being female. It is
games over Creasey’s study (1986) of American 9 to 16 difficult to identify any historical trends in
other activities year-olds shows an initial rise in game gendered use of digital games, or how the
playing time at the expense of other attitude of boys or girls towards games
leisure activities when such a medium is change as children grow older. While
introduced, but this soon decreased. Some games are no longer exclusively the
research evidence suggests younger preserve of teenage boys, it is still the case
children (at primary or lower secondary that the intense games players are more
levels) are more likely to play games likely to be boys than girls, with figures
regularly than children in the upper years varying between research reports
of secondary school (Facer 2001, according to the criteria used. Girls may
McFarlane et al 2002). Durkin (1995) play the same games as boys, but they
concludes that what appears to be may play them differently (McFarlane et al
game-playing addictions are: 2002). From an analysis of surveys
Fromme (2003) hypothesises that girls
“…actually transient phases of excessive generally lose interest in games as they
involvement rather than enduring age and use PCs for other uses, while boys
dependencies from which the victim will still use PCs primarily as games machines.
find it very difficult to escape.” McFarlane (2002) surveyed English
schoolchildren and discovered that:
(Marsh 2001) analysed the activities of a
sample of English families and discovered “There is a tendency among girls to play
that 3 to 4 year-olds watched television for games when they are bored or have
time periods far greater than involvement nothing more interesting to do, whereas
in any other ‘leisure pursuit’, including the boys are more likely to play games as a
playing of video games. Other studies first choice activity.”
support this, such as a European
comparative study in 1997/1998 which
showed that people aged between 6 and 16 2.4.2 The effects of violence
spent on average 32 minutes per day on game players
playing electronic games, but 136 minutes
watching television. Recent informal The issue of violence within games is an
comment indicates an increasing important one, as it crucially affects the
awareness amongst the general public acceptability of digital games in general
that games offer various forms of mental and especially in the educational sector.
stimulation (BBC 2003), often in Views on violence and game players are
comparison to a perceived ‘dumbing down’ often polarised and entrenched, even
in the content of television programmes. amongst academic researchers.
10However, the reporting on this issue often reviews, including a brief filed by 33
fails to distinguish between separate, scholars with the US Court of Appeals
though related, issues: (Heins 2002).
1 Are games ‘violent’ (and what is defined The longevity of the effects of violent video
as ‘violent’), and different to violence games on people, and especially children,
demonstrated in other media such as is questioned by several reviewers of the
TV, cinema, comic books and literature? literature in this area, eg Bensley (2000). It
2 Do ‘violent’ video games attract players is pointed out that the nature of research
who already possess violent behavioural of this type is that results are collected
attributes, or does the playing of during or shortly after the experiment,
‘violent’ games make the games player therefore not providing any data that can
more aggressive, or facilitate the indicate the long-term effects of violent
transfer of violent acts from the game content or conduct within games.
into their own lives?
Several researchers, such as Anderson
and Dill (2000), note the increasing
it is highly
A large number of studies and
investigations have been carried out on the ‘realism’ within video games and state unlikely that the
this as a reason for ongoing research
second issue (considerably less on the
into any linkage between such media
issue of games
first) since the early 1980s. Much of this
work comes from psychology and and violent or aggressive behaviour. and violence will
A widely discussed example is in the
sociology, and focuses on the effects of
game Grand Theft Auto III, where the
be ‘resolved’
games on younger schoolchildren in
particular. The classical stance on this player is able to engage in sexual practices
issue takes one of two positions: with a prostitute, then (in a separate act)
kill her to retrieve the fee. Even with
1 The General Aggression Model, where this example, there are proposals
“violent media increase aggression by that this might be used as a resource
teaching observers how to aggress” to stimulate classroom debate on
(Anderson and Bushman 2001). morality within contemporary culture
(Gillespie 2002).
2 The Catharsis Theory, where “video
game playing may be a useful means of In summary, it is highly unlikely that the
coping with (or releasing) pent-up issue of games and violence will be
aggression” (Emes 1997). ‘resolved’ (it should also be noted that
parallel debates surrounding other media
Reviews of the research and resulting have existed for much longer). As well as
literature produces an unclear picture with having vocal proponents on both sides, the
often contraditory conclusions on the large amount of research (of varying
effects of violent games on people (Dill and quality, and often fragmented or out of
Dill 1998; Griffiths 1999). The underlying context) has failed to reach a consensus.
methods, results and conclusions of some This is arguably because more reliable
studies which produced positive research would require researchers to
correlations between violent games and study significantly more players, to explore
behaviour have been questioned in several other factors in violent behaviour and to
11SECTION 2
GAMES CULTURES AND PLAY
examine cause-and-effect relationships example of Tomb Raider, to assume a
over long periods of time (years, instead female persona or on the implications
of days or even hours). for young male players of the dominant
models of male personality and
appearance represented in games
2.4.3 Gender images such as Grand Theft Auto.
In Bryce and Rutter’s (2002) key review of Research into role-playing games,
gender and gaming research it is noted however, suggests that the question of
that much of the discussion to date has gender and character identification may
focused around the content of the games, not be quite so straightforward as earlier
as opposed to deeper analysis of gender- commentators suggested. In role-playing
specific motivation to play games. In other games where avatars are created by
words, there is a focus on analysing the players, for example, there seems to be a
representations within a game, rather than pattern that the first creations do indeed
on the experience of playing. Predominant mimic the player’s gender and age identity,
in both mass-media coverage and but that later characters play with gender,
research, for example, is the character of age, ethnicity and sexual orientation. This
Lara Croft from the Tomb Raider series of play with identity is widely believed to be so
games. The focal point of debate is common that experienced players do not
whether Lara presents a positive role assume an avatar reflects the player. In
model or an unhelpful vision of the ‘perfect recent research with 16 to 28 year-old
woman’ (Kennedy 2002). Research in the boys, they expressed no interest in young
field that has looked across a number of female avatars in the MMORPG (Massively
different games, however, emphasises that Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game)
there is “a general lack of female game they were playing, assuming they would be
characters, and the sexualised and middle-aged men in reality (Burn et al
stereotypical representations of those 2003). Bryce and Rutter conclude by
included female characters” (Bryce and arguing that:
Rutter 2002a; Dietz 1998; Greenfield 1994;
Kafai 1996; Kinder 1996). “It is apparent that gaming practices are
undergoing rapid social and technical
In considering the appeal of characters, changes and, at the same time, it is
there are concerns that females are noticeable that gendered perceptions of
alienated if they do not have identities in gaming are changing… this is not a
the game they can relate to. This has led to phenomenon unique to gaming and is
crude attempts by the gaming industry to consistent with the increased participation
attract female game players, by producing of females in other leisure activities.”
both hardware and software that reinforces
classical gender stereotypes, eg pink Their conclusion is that gender relevance
games consoles, or games based around to games and gaming is a complex and
dolls (Cassell and Jenkins 1998). rapidly evolving issue, and effectively
needs to be researched within a wider
In contrast, however, there is little debate social context than that of the gaming
on why males seem happy, as with the experience alone.
12SECTION 3
GAMES AND LEARNING
3 GAMES AND LEARNING or development of capacity to operate
within particular communities. Today,
3.1 LEARNING THEORIES however, many researchers would argue
that these processes are not mutually
In order to understand the potential role of exclusive, indeed, one particularly
mainstream games in supporting learning, pragmatic researcher in the field of games
we need first to ask what we mean by and learning argues that the model we
‘learning’. This is harder than it looks as apply to learning should depend on what it
there are multiple and evolving definitions is that we are trying to ensure people learn
of learning, with significant areas of at any given time (Prensky 2001):
disagreement both as to what it means
to learn, and what forms of learning are “It seems to me… that there is another way
valuable. The table below is adapted of looking at all of this… and that is: ‘How
from Smith (1999) and defines key do they learn what?’… We must fit the ‘how
‘battle lines’ in this debate. do people learn?’ question to ‘what it is
they are learning?’ “ (p80/82)
These models view learning, as
alternatively a process which leads to Given the state of the debate is seems
change in behaviour, change in ways of clear that the potential roles and value of
thinking, achievement of personal potential games in education will vary depending on
Aspect Behaviourist Cognitivist Humanist Social and
situational
View of the Changes Process entirely A development Interaction/
learning behaviour in the head of of personal observation in
process the learner (inc- potential a group context,
luding insight, akin to an
information apprenticeship
processing,
memory,
perception)
Site of External Making connec- Emotion, Learning needs
learning resources and tions in learner’s attitude and a relationship
tasks are what head is what thinking are between people
matters really matters important and environment
Purpose Produce Develop capacity Become Full participation
in education behavioural and skills to self-reliant, in communities
change in learn better autonomous of practice, ie
desired you graduate
direction from apprentice
to craftsman
13SECTION 3
GAMES AND LEARNING
who is learning what, where, and why. from the structure of computer games and
With that caveat in mind, we now attempt psychological theory rather than direct and
to summarise how researchers in this field sustained empirical evidence. Recent
have described the role of mainstream studies at Futurelab have raised some
games in supporting learning both in questions as to whether children are in fact
school settings and as part of children’s able to move from intuitive problem solving
leisure time. in the game to an understanding of
effective processes for identifying problems
and generating hypotheses and solutions in
3.2 LEARNING WITH GAMES other contexts.
OUTSIDE SCHOOL
Other research has identified that
In line with developments in learning children’s use of computer games may play
theory, research that has examined a significant role in developing effective use
children’s self-motivated computer games of computer-mediated information
play sees their learning as a process of resources. Mackereth (1998) for example,
participation in practice rather than a argues that “there is evidence to suggest
process of acquisition of facts or that familiarity with, and interest in, video
disconnected ‘pieces’ of information, ie games can influence children’s confidence
‘doing’ rather than ‘knowing’. This takes a when using computers for more
variety of different forms. professional applications” and goes
on to argue that children unfamiliar
with video games:
3.2.1 Learning ‘competencies’
“…may not develop the skills necessary
to relate with electronic media, such as
Certain researchers have focused on
dealing with dynamic visual change,
children’s interactions with individual
parallel processing of multiple streams of
games can games in order to attempt to identify ‘what
information and the ability to experiment in
children have learnt’ from playing. Since
support the games are often characterised by a trial-
free-form, ill-defined problem domains.”
development of and-error approach to overcoming
Two studies of children’s use of computers
challenges or obstacles, commentators
logical thinking have suggested that these games can
in the home argue that children’s early
interactions with computer games
and problem support the development of logical thinking
encourage them to develop a playful
and problem solving skills (Inkpen et
solving skills al1995; Higgins 2000; Whitebread 1997).
approach to computers (Downes 1998),
which develops the expectation that ‘trial
Much of this research has focused on
and error works’, and that linear
‘strategy or adventure games’, which
progressive models for using computers
encourage students in exploratory
(such as those characterised by
quest-like scenarios with a high degree
worksheets or computer manuals) are
of control over their progress (Malone
often the least effective way of engaging
1983; Russell 1990).
with computer-based technologies (Facer
et al 2003). This could have implications for
To date, however, it could be argued that
the way that children approach computer-
much of this research relies on inference
14based learning tasks, making it difficult to number being developed and marketed as games are often
integrate these with other resources or a ‘social experience’ or ‘party game’.
activities. Massanari (1998) also records Communication within games is becoming a facilitator
teachers’ concern that gaming in schools more complex; one prime example of this to social, com-
may make it harder to engage children with is Moto GP (Moto GP), an online (Xbox)
the computer as a tool in more motorbike racing game where, through a munication and
conventional learning tasks. microphone, the players can communicate peer activities
with those bikers who are close by on the
track. The emergence of role-playing and
3.2.2 Learning to learn – new online gaming as predominant genres adds
approaches to collaboration to this culture of playing, if not always
physically together, then in communication
Research into the wider context of games with others.
play indicates that, contrary to populist
media opinion, games are often a facilitator Until recently, there were few attempts to
to social, communication and peer understand how mainstream games
activities. This has always been the case; generate motivation, engagement and,
in the early years of computer gaming, arguably, learning experiences through the
a ‘playground culture’ of discussing, discussions and collaborations generated
swapping, buying and selling games between players. One specific game,
emerged. A Tale in the Desert (ATITD) is attracting
particular interest amongst the research
An early study (Greenfield 1984), for community. Described as a ‘social
example, argued that half of all young experiment’, it is an online game with no
people who spent time in video games combat, only art, architecture and thought.
arcades weren’t actually playing games at There is also no end point to the game; the
all - rather they were using the arcade as a main underlying motivation to continue
social gathering space. Fromme (2003) playing seems to be the social interaction.
describes several surveys indicating that
playing games with others is popular with Perhaps surprisingly, this replacement of a
German children, while Tobin (1998) argued defined end goal with social interaction is
that boys’ gaming was not simply a process becoming an increasingly common theme
of ‘playing the game’ but embedded in in games. The acclaimed Nintendo title
social interactions. Animal Crossing (AC) (named Animal
Forest in the US) is set in a series of virtual
Examination of the culture, and marketing, towns, where players earn money in order
of video games reveals a wealth of material to pay off their mortgage and accumulate
available to support games cultures and possessions. However, the game opens up
conversations. News and opinion on games when the various communication systems
comes from a number of sources, including are used, through which players can send
games magazines, websites and online ‘post’ to each other (in the game), as well
forums, encouraging reading and as mail items, swap access codes, and visit
discussion amongst game players. The play each other’s towns and houses.
itself may also be social; many games have
a multiplayer option, with an increasing Interactive communities often develop
around mainstream games with or without
15SECTION 3
GAMES AND LEARNING
developers’ encouragement, as enthusiasts which images and words, sounds, music,
create websites, discussion boards and movement and bodily sensations are
other communication environments to factors, and their recognition and
exchange information, experiences and production evidence of the learning of
even resources related to a game. these emerging literacies. For Gee, video
games are a family of semiotic domains
What these studies suggest is that one of defined by the characteristics of specific
the more interesting relationships between genres such as first-person shooters,
computer games and learning is not simply fantasy role-playing games, real-time
the interaction between the player and the strategy games and so on, although these
game; rather, through processes of generic domains overlap just as they might
discussion, collaboration and reflection on in certain branches of science. Such
games embedded in peer group cultures, domains are also, Gee points out, far from
children are learning how to play, and static objects defined only by their content,
perhaps learn, in collaboration with others but rather they are predicated on lived,
(Williamson and Facer 2003). historically changing sets of distinctive
social practices in which content is
continually renegotiated and transformed.”
3.2.3 Learning to participate
in practice Central to the argument about what video
games offer to learning is Gee’s assertion
James Paul Gee’s recent book (Gee 2003) that semiotic domains are shared by
‘What Video Games can Teach us About groups of people, described as ‘affinity
Learning and Literacy’, has excited debate groups’, sharing knowledge, skills, tools
within games and learning forums. His key and resources to form complex systems of
contention is that through informal games interrelated parts. Within an affinity group,
play, children learn to participate in what learners gain resources from fellow
he calls ‘semiotic domains’, which are members that equip them to solve
shaped by children’s interaction with problems within, and perhaps outside
games texts and with each other. Gee uses of, the specific domain - and this is
the term ‘semiotic domain’ to mean a set evidence of ‘active learning’. For Gee,
of things that can take on meaning, eg however the crucial aspect of this
words, gestures or pictures, used to practice is ‘critical learning’:
communicate distinctive types of meaning,
for example the specialist language used “The learner needs to learn not only how to
by doctors or the way graffiti artists use understand and produce meanings in a
through image. The following extract from a recent particular semiotic domain that are
informal games review of Gee’s book (Williamson 2003) recognisable to those affiliated with the
highlights the key arguments: domain, but, in addition, how to think
play, children about the domain at a ‘meta’ level…(and)
learn to “Gee begins by describing games as how to produce meanings that, while
‘multimodal texts’ (texts that mix words and recognisable, are seen as somehow
participate in pictures) belonging to distinct ‘semiotic novel or unpredictable.” (p23)
‘semiotic domains’ that employ a range of strategies
contributing to new forms of literacy in In other words, players must understand
domains’ what they are doing and develop their
16comprehension of both a game’s ‘internal • active vs passive
design grammar’, or the ways in which its • play vs work
content is presented, and its ‘external
design grammar’, or the ongoing social • payoff vs patience
practices that determine the principles and • fantasy vs reality
patterns through which members of the
• technology as friend vs technology
domain recognise all the activities and
as foe.
practices which comprise it. Such systemic
thinking, Gee argues, allows players to
These ten characteristics of new methods
think about and critique games as
of learning could be explained as young
systems and designed spaces rather than
people developing the ability to process
simply moment-by-moment playable
information very quickly, determining what
environments. Such critical thinking is not playing computer
is and is not of relevance to them; the
only absent in many schooling practices,
ability to process information in parallel at games is
but goes unnoticed in much appreciation of
the same time from a range of different
what games can offer in terms of learning encouraging
sources; the familiarity with exploring
(Williamson 2003).
information in a non-linear fashion – ie by young people to
‘jumping’ through a range of different
information resources, creating links rather learn in different
3.2.4 Games play and changing than following a ‘story’; the tendency to
expectations of learning
ways from those
access information in the first instance
through imagery and then use text to valued in the
What is key to most research into games clarify/expand and explore; familiarity with
and learning outside school, then, is a
school setting
non-geographically bounded networks of
sense that playing computer games is communication; a relaxed approach to
encouraging young people to learn in ‘play’, viewing this as a valid activity and
different ways from those often in evidence, conceptualising the computer as primarily
or explicitly valued, in the school setting a ‘play tool’; expecting intrinsic reward for
(although it should be noted that much of activities; and having a model of doing in
this research is often driven by a desire to order to learn, rather than learning in
transform schools and sometimes paints a order to do. Finally, these characteristics
pessimistic picture of current practices). also include a relaxed acceptance of
Marc Prensky, a leading advocate of games fantasy as a valid space of experience and a
for learning (or training) argues that young view of technology as a friend they have
people today expect different approaches to grown up with (Prensky 2001).
learning. The ‘new vs old’ tensions are
summarised as: While we would wish to raise some notes of
caution about any attempt to define an
• twitch speed vs conventional speed entire generation of young people as having
• parallel processing vs linear processing a shared set of expectations and practices,
this attempt to theorise new approaches to
• graphics first vs text first learning raises some interesting questions
• random access vs step by step about how we currently conduct formal
• connected vs standalone education in schools (Facer 2003a). In
particular, Prensky’s theories and the
17SECTION 3
GAMES AND LEARNING
research outlined in the preceding sections tips and models of learning to other
raises key questions around the role of play children. Perhaps more than any other
in learning, the ‘purpose’ of education, the aspect, this reconceptualisation of children
role of learning through activities perceived as bearers of expertise, as capable of
as intrinsically motivating to children, and acting in the role of expert, raises serious
the changing roles of children as learners. questions about how we currently structure
learning experiences in schools.
The identification of any games as a site for
‘playful’ learning is repeatedly emphasised
through the research literature, sometimes 3.3 LEARNING WITH MAINSTREAM
as an extreme opposition to children’s GAMES IN SCHOOLS
experiences in school:
While the majority of research discussed so
“Games are… the most ancient and time- far has been concerned with what and how
honored (sic) vehicle for education. They children learn in their informal playing of
are the original educational technology, the computer games, in recent years there
natural one, having received the seal of have been a number of studies of the use
approval of natural selection. We don’t see of mainstream computer games in schools,
mother lions lecturing cubs at the intended to explore whether these games
chalkboard; we don’t see senior lions can have any role in supporting current
writing their memoirs for posterity. In light educational objectives. Given the research
of this, the question, ‘Can games have above on the potential of games to support
educational value?’ becomes absurd. It is learning of competencies, collaboration
not games but schools that are the and participation in practice, however,
newfangled notion, the untested fad, the there are some significant tensions in
violator of tradition. Game-playing is a vital evidence when introducing mainstream
educational function for any creature games into the school setting.
capable of learning.” (Crawford 1982)
Three recent studies in the UK attempted
The notion of playful learning emphasises to understand how mainstream games
experiences such as experimentation, could be used in school. Each included
exploration, trial and error, imagination, surveys of predominantly UK teachers
roleplay, and simulation of experience who had attempted, or wanted, to use
suggesting that it might be possible to mainstream games in the classroom
develop environments for learning based (Becta 2001; McFarlane et al 2002;
on these activities. Kirriemuir 2002). The most frequently
encountered perceived or actual
Finally, observing children’s play of obstacles were:
mainstream games in leisure time raises
questions about the role we ascribe to • it was difficult for teachers to identify
children as learners in schools. The review quickly how a particular game was
of literature around children’s social games relevant to some component of the
play, for example, repeatedly highlights the statutory curriculum, as well as the
ways in which children take on the role of accuracy and appropriateness of the
teachers, providing advice, support, hints, content within the game
18SECTION 4
KEY ISSUES IN DEVELOPING
GAMES FOR LEARNING
• the difficulty in persuading other school However, neither teachers nor parents
stakeholders as to the potential/actual were happy with the notion of playing
educational benefits of computer games games in lesson time since such skill
• the lack of time available to teachers to development did not match the criteria
familiarise themselves with the game, assessed in high stakes national tests.
and methods of producing the best
results from its use
4 KEY ISSUES IN DEVELOPING
• the amount of irrelevant content or
functionality in a game which could not GAMES FOR LEARNING
be removed or ignored, thus wasting
valuable lesson time. As far back as 1979, it was envisaged
that the motivational aspects of digital
The key disadvantage with mainstream games play might be used to support
games used ‘cold’ in the classroom was the acquisition of knowledge outside
the amount of time taken for both the the game itself. Some of the distinctions
student and teacher to orient themselves between the resulting ‘learning games’
within the game. Squire (2003) describes and ‘mainstream games’ are shown
several sessions where historical strategy in Fig 1.
simulation games are used in a classroom,
showing the considerable effort needed by There are two key themes common
the teaching staff to keep the students ‘on to the development of games for
track’ within the game. This extra-topic education, namely:
play may or may not be valuable to learning
generally but in either event the school • the desire to harness the motivational
curriculum has clear boundaries and power of games in order to ‘making
objectives related to high stakes assessment learning fun’
– wandering beyond these boundaries is • a belief that ‘learning through doing’ in
seen as wasting valuable time. games such as simulations, offers a
powerful learning tool.
It is not only extraneous content that takes
gaming outside the boundaries of the set This section of the report will examine
curriculum. In the TEEM report (McFarlane both these aspects of the design of games
et al 2002), teachers and parents for learning, and ask whether they are
recognised that games play can support well-founded objectives for design and children take
valuable skill development such as: development of digital game-based
learning resources. on the role
• strategic thinking of teachers,
• planning
4.1 ‘MAKING LEARNING FUN’ providing advice,
• communication
support, hints,
• application of numbers The central ethos of traditional
• negotiating skills ‘edutainment’ software has been to make tips and models
learning ‘fun’ although this is usually of learning to
• group decision-making shorthand for the encouragement of
• data-handling. engagement. One strategy is to introduce other children
19SECTION 4
KEY ISSUES IN DEVELOPING
GAMES FOR LEARNING
Mainstream digital games Learning-oriented games
• widely known as computer • historically known as ‘edutainment’,
and/or video games though negative associations with this
word mean it is largely avoided by
• developed solely for fun for contemporary games publishers
the user and to maximise profit
for the publisher • almost exclusively produced for the
PC; very few titles for the Mac or
• typically developed for PCs and video dedicated games consoles
games consoles. Contemporary titles
usually require the most powerful • games are more simplistic, are
hardware currently available produced in a range of formats, eg
the debate on Flash, Shockwave, Java, Visual Basic
• increasingly developed in relatively
‘making learning simplistic format for mobile • most titles are designed for sole-user,
fun’ also often telephones offline play.
assumes that • typically sophisticated in terms of • development costs are typically a fraction
children do not graphics, interface and complexity; of those of major pure digital games
production budgets similar to small
enjoy learning to medium sized film budgets • not typically marketed to users,
instead marketed mainly to parents
• marketed directly to games players and teachers
as being fun and exciting, graphically
superb, the best game of its • marketed as being accurate, relevant
particular genre to formal curriculum, developing
specific skills/knowledge
• uses high review scores in games
magazines and tie-ins with other • uses recommendations from teacher,
media as marketing aids parent and educational organisations
as marketing aids
Fig 1: comparison between mainstream and ‘learning’ games
content into a game-like scenario by and adventure. Children are attracted to
stealth. In theory this is an attractive such activity easily and will quite willingly
arrangement (Ahuja 1994): go through a session, indeed, sometimes
ask for it. A good example of this is the
“In conventional education, the learner game Where in the World is Carmen
is usually aware of the objectives of the San Diego, where the child learns history
activity he or she is engaged in. For and geography in the process of being
children, such learning objectives often a detective.”
have little meaning… In interactive
edutainment, on the other hand, the Where in the World is Carmen San Diego
objective can be hidden while the activity has indeed been a successful exemplar
appears driven by exploration, discovery of this concept, focusing on providing
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