List of Case Law and Other Interpretative Materials on the Right to Education (Systematised) - Brill
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APPENDIX D
List of Case Law and Other Interpretative Materials
on the Right to Education (Systematised)
This is an essay of systematisation of around 120 judgements of international and
national Courts and Tribunals, as well as about 30 General Comments of the United
Nations Human Rights Committees (for the sake of the normative development),
organised following the various elements of the integrity of the right to education. A
judgement or document may appear more than once under different heads.
Considering the increasing intercommunication of the international and national
jurisprudence, in a so connected world, and also taking into account the temporal
factor in the evolution and interpretation of the legal norms, the list is presented in
descending chronological order, regardless of the hierarchy of its sources.
D.1 Value and Priority of the Right to Education as a Human Right and
Public Good
– European Court of Human Rights, 2016, Case Ozan Barış Sanlisoy v. Turkey (Applica-
tion 77023/12)1 concerning a child with autism (in French).
– South Africa, Supreme Court of Appeal, 2015, Case Minister of Basic Education v
Basic Education for All (20793/2014) [2015] ZASCA 198; [2016] 1 All SA 369 (SCA); 2016
(4) SA 63 (SCA) (2 December 2015)2 concerning free textbooks.
– USA, Supreme Court of Florida, 2006, Case Bush v. Holmes, Nº. SC04-2323 to SC-4-
23253 concerning a vouchers programme.
– European Court of Human Rights, 2005, Case Timichev v. Russia (Applications
55762/00 and 55974/00)4 concerning the refusal of school admission of two chil-
dren.
– India, Supreme Court, 1993, Case Unni Krishnan, J.P. And Ors. Etc. … vs State Of
Andhra Pradesh And Ors. … on 4 February, 1993 (1993 AIR 2178, 1993 SCR (1) 594)5 con-
cerning the human and political value of education.
– Human Rights Committee, 1990, Communications 298/1988 and 299/19886 concern-
ing funding private education.
– India, Supreme Court, 1984, Case Bandhua Mukti Morcha vs Union of India & Others
[1984] 2 S.C.R. 677 concerning serious breaches of the right to education of some
workers.
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– USA, Supreme Court, 1982, Case Plyler v. Doe (No. 80-1538)(1982)8 concerning the
right to education of immigrant children in Texas.
– USA, Supreme Court, 1954, Case Brown v. Board of Education9 concerning racial seg-
regation in schools.
– USA, Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia, 1979, Case Pauley v. Kelly, 255 S.E.2d
859 (W. Va. 1979)10 concerning insufficient funding of public schools.
D.2 Right of Every Human Being
D.2.1 Basic Education – Accessible, Free, Obligation, Quality
D.2.1.1 Access
– European Court of Human Rights, 2015, Case Memlika v. Greece (Application
37991/12)11 concerning two children excluded from school for having been wrongly
diagnosed with leprosy (in French).
– South Africa, Constitutional Court, 2011, Case Governing Body of the Juma Musjid
Primary School & Others v Essay N.O. and Others (CCT 29/10) [2011] ZACC 13; 2011 (8)
BCLR 761 (CC)12 concerning an order to evict a school located on private land.
– Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 2005, Case Niñas Yean y Bosico vs República
Dominicana13 concerning the refusal to issue birth certificates to two girls, required
to access primary education, due to their parents’ status (in Spanish).
– Constitutional Court of Colombia, 2003, Case T-170/0314 concerning the right to
attend a school near a child’s home (in Spanish).
– United Kingdom, Queen’s Bench Division, 1990, Case R v Inner London Education
Authority, Ex parte Ali and Another15 relating to lack of school places.
D.2.1.2 Free
– USA, Kansas Supreme Court, 2016, Case Gannon v. State, 304 Kan. 490 (Kan. 2016)
(Gannon III)16 concerning equity funding of poor school districts required by Kan-
sas Constitution.
– South Africa, Supreme Court of Appeal, 2015, Case Minister of Basic Education v
Basic Education for All (20793/2014) [2015] ZASCA 198; [2016] 1 All SA 369 (SCA); 2016
(4) SA 63 (SCA) (2 December 2015)17 concerning free textbooks.
– South Africa, Eastern Cape High Court, Grahamstown, 2015, Case Tripartite Steering
Committee and Another v Minister of Basic Education and Others (1830/2015) [2015]
ZAECGHC 67; 2015 (5) SA 107 (ECG); [2015] 3 All SA 718 (ECG) (25 June 2015)18 concern-
ing free transport to and from school for those children who live a distance from
their schools.
– Bangladesh, Supreme Court, High Court Division, 2014, Case Campaign for Popular
Education (CAPE) and another v Secretary of the Ministry of Education and Others19
concerning fees charged by various private educational institutions.
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– Community Court of Justice of the Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS), 2012, Case SERAP [Socio-Economic Rights and Accountability Project] v
Federal Republic of Nigeria and Universal Basic Education Commission (ECW/CCJ/
APP/12/07; Judgement Nº ECW/CCJ/JUD/07/10)20 concerning violations of several
human rights by Nigeria.
– USA, Washington Supreme Court, 2012, Case McCleary v State 269 P.3d 227 (Wash.
2012)21 concerning the constitutional obligation to fund education.
– Colombia, Constitutional Court, 2010, Case C-376-1022 concerning the right to free
compulsory school (in Spanish).
– USA, Court of Appeals of New York, 2003, Case Campaign for Fiscal Equity et al. v
State of New York et al. (2003)23 concerning the constitutional obligation to finance
public schools.
– USA, Supreme Court of Texas, 1989, Case Edgewood Independent School District v
Kirby (777 S.W.2d 391 (1989))24 concerning the constitutional obligation to fund
public schools.
– USA, Supreme Court, 1973, Case San Antonio Independent School District et al. v.
Demetrio P. Rodriguez et al, 411 U.S. 1 (1973)25 relating to the financing of public ele-
mentary and secondary schools in Texas.
D.2.1.3 Obligation
– Switzerland, Federal Court, 2020, Case 2C_1005/2018 (22.08.2019)26 concerning
home-schooling (in German).
– Spain, Constitutional Court, 2010, Case 133/201027 concerning home-schooling (in
Spanish).
– USA, Court of Appeal, Second District, Division 3, California, 2008, Case Rachel L.
et al., Persons Coming Under the Juvenile Court Law. Jonathan L. and Mary Grace L.,
Petitioners, v. Superior Court of the State of California for the County of Los Angeles,
No. B19287828 concerning home-schooling.
– European Court of Human Rights, 2006, Case Konrad v. Germany (Application
35504/03)29 concerning home-schooling.
– Canada, Supreme Court, 1986, Case La Reine c. Jones, [1986] 2 R.C.S. 28430 concerning
a refusal to send schools to school.
D.2.1.4 Quality
– India, Supreme Court, 2012, Case Environmental & Consumer Protection Foundation
v Delhi Administration & Others [2012] INSC 58431 concerning schools’ quality.
– UN, Committee on the Rights of the Child, 2001, General Comment 1 (CRC/
GC/2001/1),32 “Article 29(1): The aims of education”.
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D.2.2 Secondary Education
– European Court of Human Rights, 2011, Case Ponomaryovi v. Bulgary (Application
5335/05)33 concerning access to secondary education for non-nationals.
D.2.3 Higher Education
– European Court of Human Rights, 2013, Case Tarantino and Others v. Italy (Applica-
tions 25851/09, 29284/09 and 64090/09)34 concerning the legality of an obligatory
entrance exam and numerus clausus.
– European Court of Human Rights, 2013, Case Leyla Şahin v. Turkey (Application
44774/98)35 concerning the wearing of Islamic headscarves in higher education
institutions.
– African Commission on Human and People’s Rights, 1995, Case Free Legal Assis-
tance Group and Others v. Zaire (Communication 25/89-47/90-56/91-100/93)36 con-
cerning, among other things, the violation of the right to education because of the
closure of universities and secondary schools.
– Portugal, Constitutional Court, 1994, Case 148/9437 concerning the constitutionality
of increasing public higher education fees (in Portuguese).
D.2.4 Teachers
– Canada, Supreme Court, 2016, Case British Columbia Teachers’ Federation v British
Columbia38 concerning the right to collective bargaining for teachers’ union.
– UN, Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, 2015, Communication
56/201439 concerning the discrimination of a Roma teacher.
– UN, Human Rights Committee, 2000, Communication 736/199740 concerning the
sanction imposed on a teacher motivated by the frequent public expression of
beliefs of religious intolerance.
– Canada, Supreme Court, 1996, Case Ross v. New Brunschwig School District Nº 15
[1996] 1 SCR 82541 concerning a teacher of Alberta charged for promoting hatred
against Jews.
– Canada, Supreme Court, 1990, Case R.V. v. Keegstra [1990] 3 S.C.R. 69742 concerning a
teacher charged for promoting hatred against Jews.
D.3 Without Discrimination
D.3.1 General Principle
– UN, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 2009, General Comment
20, “Non-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights (Art. 2, para. 2, of the
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights) (E/C.12/GC/20)43.
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– UN, Human Rights Committee, 1989, General Comment 18,44“Non-discrimination”.
D.3.2 Girls
– UN, Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, 2017, Gen-
eral Recommendation 36 “on the right of girls and women to education” (CEDAW/C/
GC/36).45
– UN, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 2005, General Comment
16, “The equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all economic, social
and cultural rights (Art. 3 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights)” (E/C.12/2005/4).46
– UN, Human Rights Committee, 2000, General Comment 28, “Article 3 (The Equality
of Rights Between Men and Women)” (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.10).47
D.3.3 Persons with Disabilities
– European Court of Human Rights, 2016, Case Çam v. Turkey (Application 51500/08)48
concerning the refusal of a blind person to attend a music conservatory.
– UN, Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2016, General Comment 4,
(CRPD/C/GC/4) “on the right to inclusive education”.49
– European Committee of Social Rights, 2013, Case European Action of the Disabled
(AEH) v. France (Complaint 81/2012)50 concerning the right to education of children
and adolescents with autism.
– European Committee of Social Rights, 2008, Case Mental Disability Advocacy Center
(MDAC) v. Bulgaria (Complaint 41/2007)51 concerning the right to education of chil-
dren living in homes for intellectually disabled children.
– UN, Committee on the Rights of the Child, 2006, General Comment 9, “The rights of
children with disabilities” (CRC/C/GC/9).52
– Australia, Federal Court, 2003, Case Clarke v Catholic Education Office & Anor [2003]
FCA 108553 relating to indirect discrimination of a boy with congenital profound
deafness.
– European Committee of Social Rights, 2003, International Association Autism-
Europe v. France (Complaint No. 13/2002)54 concerning the right to education of
children with disabilities.
– UN, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1995, General Comment 5,
“Persons with disabilities” (E/1995/22).55
D.3.4 Persons Living with HIV/AIDS
– Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 2015, Case Gonzales Lluy y Otros vs Ecuador,
Sentencia de 1 de septiembre de 2015 (Excepciones Preliminares, Fondo, Reparaciones
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y Costas)56 concerning a little girl expelled from a public school because of HIV/
AIDS (in Spanish).
– UN, Commission on the Rights of the Child, 2003, General Comment 3, “HIV/AIDS
and the rights of the child” (CRC/GC/2003/3).57
D.3.5 Persons with Different Sexual Orientation
– Colombia, Constitutional Court, 2015, Case T-478/1558 concerning the suicide of an
adolescent because of the discrimination suffered at school because of his sexual
orientation (in Spanish).
– European Committee of Social Rights, 2009, Case International Centre for the Legal
Protection of Human Rights (INTERIGHTS) v. Croatia (Complaint 45/2007)59 con-
cerning sexual and reproductive health school education.
D.3.6 Blacks and Ethnic Groups
– European Court of Human Rights, 2013, Case Horváth and Kiss v. Hungary (Applica-
tion 11146/11)60 concerning the placement of Roma children in “special schools” for
disabled children.
– African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, 2011, Case
Institute for Human Rights and Development in Africa (IHRDA) and Open Society Jus-
tice Initiative on behalf of Children of Nubian Descent in Kenya v. the Government of
Kenya (Com/002/2009)61 concerning the statelessness of children of Nubian origin
in Kenya, affecting the enjoyment of their rights, including the right to education.
– European Court of Human Rights, 2010, Case Oršuš and Others v. Croatia (Applica-
tion 15766/03)62 concerning the placement of Roma children in “special schools”
for disabled children.
– European Court of Human Rights, 2009, Case Sejdić and Finci v. Bosnia and Herze-
govina (Applications 27996/06 and 34836/06)63 concerning ethnic discrimination.
– European Court of Human Rights, 2008, Case Sampanis and Others v. Greece (Appli-
cation Nº 32526/05)64 relating to the education of Roma/Gypsies children.
– European Court of Human Rights, 2007, Case D.H. and Others v. The Czech Republic
(Application 57325/00)65 concerning the placement of Roma children in “special
schools” for disabled children.
– UN, Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, 2007, Complaint
Murat Er v. Denmark (Communication 40/20072007)66 concerning school’s dis-
criminatory practice, based on ethnicity.
– European Court of Human Rights, 2004, Case Gorzeliket and Others v. Poland (Appli-
cation 44158/98)67 concerning the right to ethnic identity.
– USA, Supreme Court, 1954, Case Brown v. Board of Education68 concerning racial
segregation in schools.
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D.3.7 Linguistic and Other Minorities
– European Court of Human Rights, 2012, Case Catan and Others v. Moldova and
Russia (Applications 43370/04, 8252/05 and 18454/06)69 concerning the closure of
three Moldovan language schools in Transdniestria.
– UN, Human Rights Committee, 1994, General Comment 23, on the rights of ethnic,
religious or linguistic minorities (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.5).70
– Canada, Supreme Court, 1990, Case Mahe v. Alberta [1990] 1 S.C.R. 34271 relating to
management and control over minority language instruction and facilities.
– European Court of Human Rights, 1968, Case “relating to certain aspects of the laws
on the use of languages in education in Belgium v. Belgium” (Applications 1474/62;
1677/62; 1691/62; 1769/63; 1994/63; 2126/64)72 concerning the impossibility of hun-
dreds of children to receive education in French because of their territory of resi-
dence.
D.3.8 Indigenous Peoples
– Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 2010, Case Comunidad Indígena Xákmok
Kásek vs Paraguay (Fondo, Reparaciones y Costas)73 concerning the lack of guar-
antee of the right to ancestral ownership of the Indigenous Community Xákmok
Kosek, with implications for the right to education (in Spanish).
– UN, Committee on the Rights of the Child, 2009, General Comment 11, “Indigenous
children and their rights under the Convention” (CRC/C/GC/11).74
– Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 2005, Case Yakye Axa Indigenous Commu-
nity v. Paraguay (Merits, Reparations and Costs) (2005)75 concerning the right to
education of indigenous peoples.
D.3.9 Migrants
– UN, Committee on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Mem-
bers of Their Families and Committee on the Rights of the Child, 2017, Joint Gen-
eral Comment 3 and General Comment 22, respectively, “on the general principles
regarding the human rights of children in the context of international migration”
(CMW/C/GC/3-CRC/C/GC/22).76
– Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 2014, Advisory Opinion OC-21/14, “Rights and
Guarantees of Children in the Context of Migration and/or in Need of International
Protection”.77
– CoHR, 2014, “Views” on a Communication (348/2014) by Nell Toussaint v. Canada
(CCPR/C/123/D/2348/2014)78 alleging violation of human rights because of his
irregular migrant situation.
– European Court of Human Rights, 2005, Case Timichev v. Russia (Applications
55762/00 and 55974/00)79 concerning the refusal of school admission of two children.
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D.3.10 Refugees/Displaced Persons
– UN, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 2016, Communication
003/2014 (E/C.12/58/D/3/2014)80 concerning discrimination of a refugee child.
– UN, Committee on the Rights of the Child, 2005, General Comment 6, “Treatment
of unaccompanied and separated children outside their country of origin” (CRC/
GC/2005/6).81
D.3.11 Detainees
– European Court of Human Rights, 2014, Case Velyo Velev v. Bulgaria (Application
16032/07)82 concerning an inmate’s right to attend the prison school.
– Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 2004, Case of the “Juvenile Reeducation
Institute” v. Paraguay (Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations and Costs)83
concerning the rights of detained children, including their right to education.
– UN, Human Rights Committee, 1992, General Comment 21, “Article 10 (Humane
treatment of persons deprived of their liberty)”.84
D.4 Different Treatment for Other Reasons
– India, Supreme Court, 2012, Case Society for Un-Aided P. School Of … vs U.O.I & Anr
on 12 April85 concerning the constitutionality of the imposition on schools, both
public and private, of a quota for disadvantaged groups.
– UN, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 2009, General Comment
20, “Non-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights (Art. 2, para. 2, of the
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights) (E/C.12/GC/20).86
– UN, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 2005, General Comment
16, “The equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all economic, social
and cultural rights (Art. 3 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights)” (E/C.12/2005/4).87
– Supreme Court of Mauritius, 2002, Case S. Tengur v. The Minister of Education &
Scientific Research and the State of Mauritius (2002 SCJ 48)88 concerning discrimi-
nation related to education on religious grounds.
D.5 General Obligations of the State
D.5.1 Public Education System
– South Africa, Eastern Cape High Court, Grahamstown, 2015, Case Linkside v Minister
of Basic Education and Others (3844/2013) [2015] ZAECGHC 36 (26 January 2015)89
concerning the appointment and funding of teachers.
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– South Africa, Eastern Cape High Court, Mthatha, 2014, Case Madzodzo and Others v
Minister of Basic Education and Others (2144/2012) [2014] ZAECMHC 5; [2014] 2 All
SA 339 (ECM); 2014 (3) SA 441 (ECM) (20 February 2014)90 concerning the provision
of essential school furniture to public schools.
– UN, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1999, General Comment 13,
“The right to education (Article 13 of the Covenant)” (E/C.12/1999/10).91
– UN, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1999, General Comment 11,
“Plans of action for primary education (Article 14 of the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights)” (E/C.12/1999/4).92
– African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 1995, Communications 25/89-
47/90-56/91-100/93: Free Legal Assistance Group, Lawyers’ Committee for Human
Rights, Union Interafricaine des Droits de l’Homme, Les Témoins de Jehovah/DRC93
concerning violations of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
D.5.2 Regulation and Supervision of Public and Private Education
– Colombia, Constitutional Court, 1997, Case C-560/9794 concerning the constitution-
ality of a provision of the General Education Act relating to the tuition fees in pri-
vate institutions (in Spanish).
– Former European Commission of Human Rights, 1982, X, Y and Z v. the Federal
Republic of Germany (Application 9411/81)95 concerning a parents’ complaint that
school curricula direct children towards an ideology based on the pre-eminence of
science, which they do not share.
D.5.3 Controversial Learnings
D.5.3.1 Sexual and Reproductive Health Education
– European Court of Human Rights, 2017, Case R. and L. R. v. Switzerland (Applica-
tion 22338/15)96 concerning an elementary school’s rejection of an application to
exempt a 7-year-old child from sex education lessons.
– UN, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 2016, General Comment 22
“on the right to sexual and reproductive health (Article 12 of the International Cov-
enant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights)” (E/C.12/GC/22).97
– USA, Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit., 2005, Case James FIELDS; Tammany
Fields; Stuart Haberman; Robert Hoaglin; Kathie Hoaglin; Vanessa Shetler, Plaintiffs-
Appellants, v. PALMDALE SCHOOL DISTRICT (PSD); Michael Geisser; Arland Atwood,
Defendants-Appellees (No. 03-56499)98 concerning an enquiry about sexuality in a
public school.
– UN, Committee on the Rights of the Child, 2003, General Comment 4, “Adolescent
health and development in the context of the Convention on the Rights of the
Child” (CRC/GC/2003/4).99
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– UN, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 2000, General Comment
14, “The right to the highest attainable standard of health (Article 12 of the Inter-
national Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights)” (E/C.12/2000/4).100
– European Court of Human Rights, 2000, Case Alejandro Jimenez Alonso and Pilar
Jimenez Merino v. Spain (Application 51188/99)101 concerning a sexual education
course in a public college.
– USA, Court of Appeals, Third Circuit, 1998, Case Parents United for Better Sch., Inc. v.
Sch. Dist. of Pa. Bd. of Educ., 148 F.3d 260, 270 (3d Cir. 1998)102 concerning a voluntary
programme to distribute condoms in Philadelphia schools.
– USA, Court of Appeals, First Circuit, 1995, Case Brown v. Hot, Sexy and Safer Produc-
tions INC. (No. 95-1275)103 concerning the obligation to participate in a sexual and
reproductive education programme in a public school.
– European Court of Human Rights, 1976, Case Kjeldsen, Busk Madsen and Pedersen v.
Denmark (Applications 5095/71; 5920/72; 5926/72)104 concerning the legitimacy of
sexual education in Danish public schools.
D.5.3.2 Moral Education and Instruction on Religions
– European Court of Human Rights, 2009, Case Johanna Appel-Irrgang and Others v.
Germany (Application 45216/07)105 concerning the legitimacy of an amendment to
the School Act of January 26, 2004 (Erstes Gesetz zur Änderung des Schulgesetzes).
– Romania, Constitutional Court, 1997, Case 72/1995106 concerning the obligation of
education about religions in elementary school (in French).
– UN, Human Rights Committee, 1993, General Comment 21 on ICCPR Article 18
(CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.4).107
– Former European Commission of Human Rights, 1993, Case Bernard and Others v.
Luxembourg (Application 17187/90)108 concerning the obligation to attend “reli-
gious and moral education lessons” or “moral and social education lessons” in sec-
ondary education.
– Former European Commission of Human Rights, 1986, Case Lena and Anna-Nina
Angeleni v. Sweden (Application 10491/83)109 concerning religious education in
schools.
– UN, Human Rights Committee, 1981, Case Erkki Juhani Hartikainen v. Finland (Com-
munication 40/1978)110 concerning the obligation to take religious history and mor-
als courses in schools in Finland.
D.5.3.3 Creationism
– USA, Supreme Court, 1987, Case Edwards v. Aguillard, 482 U.S. 578; 107 (1987)111 con-
cerning the constitutionality of the Balanced Treatment of Creation-Science and
Evolution-Science in Public Schools Instruction Act (Creationism Act) of Louisiana,
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prohibiting the teaching of the theory of evolution unaccompanied by the narra-
tive of creation.
In this regard, see:
– Science, Evolution, and Creationism (National Academy of Sciences and Institute
of Medicine of the National Academies, USA, 2008).112
– Guidance on the Place of Creationism and Intelligent Design in Science Lessons
(Department for Children, Schools and Families, UK, 2007).113
D.6 Liberties of Education
D.6.1 Liberty/Primacy of the Child
– UN, Committee on the Rights of the Child, 2013, General Comment 14 “on the right
of the child to have his or her best interests taken as a primary consideration (Art.
3, para. 1)” (CRC/C/GC/14).114
– Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 2002, Advisory Opinion OC-17/2002, “Juridi-
cal Condition and Human Rights of the Child”.115
– Former European Commission of Human Rights, 1993, Case Bernard and Others
v. Luxembourg (Application 17187/90)116 concerning the obligation to attend “reli-
gious and moral education lessons” or “moral and social education lessons” in sec-
ondary education.
– UN, Human Rights Committee, 1989, General Comment 17, “Article 24 (Rights of the
child)”.117
– European Court of Human Rights, 1976, Case Kjeldsen, Busk Madsen and Pedersen v.
Denmark (Applications 5095/71; 5920/72; 5926/72)118 concerning the legitimacy of
sexual education in Danish public schools.
– USA, 1972, Case Wisconsin v. Yoder, 406 U.S. 205 (1972)119 dissenting opinion of Judge
Douglas concerning the refusal of the religious community to allow their children
to attend compulsory school beyond grade eight, invoking the freedom of religion
(Free Exercise Clause) of the First Amendment to the Constitution.
D.6.2 Parental Liberty
– European Court of Human Rights, 2010, Case Grzelak v. Poland (Application
7710/02)120 concerning a child left alone during religious classes he did not attend,
in accordance with the wishes of his parents.
– European Court of Human Rights, 2007, Case Hasan and Eylem Zengin v. Turkey
(Application 1448/04)121 concerning the refusal to exempt a student from compul-
sory classes on religious culture and moral knowledge in a public school.
– European Court of Human Rights, 1996, Case Valsamis v. Greece (Application
21787/93)122 concerning a suspension of school attendance for Jehovah’s Witness
students who refused to participate in a parade.
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– Former European Commission of Human Rights, 1984, Case W. and D. M., M. and H.
I. v. The United Kingdom (Applications 10228/82 and 10229/82)123 concerning two
couples who claimed to register, one their daughter and the other their son, in a
high school only for girls and for boys, respectively.
– Former European Commission of Human Rights, 1977, Case 40 Mothers v. Sweden
(Application 6853/74)124 concerning respect for the religious and philosophical beliefs
of mothers of 53 children in public kindergartens and the funding of private schools.
D.6.3 Liberty of Creation and Direction of Private Schools
– Former European Commission of Human Rights, 1987, Ingrid Jordebo Foundation of
Christian Schools and Ingrid Jordebo v. Sweden (Application 11533/85)125 concerning
the denial of permission to set up a private school.
D.6.4 Academic Freedom
– European Court of Human Rights, 2014, Case Mustafa Erdoğan and Others v. Turkey
(Applications 346/04, 39779/04, Judgement of 27 May 2014)126 concerning freedom
of expression.
– European Court of Human Rights, 2010, Case Sapan v. Turkey (Application
44102/04)127 concerning the seizure of a book based on a doctoral thesis, because it
was infringing on the image and personality of a singer.
– African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, 2010, Case Kenneth Good v.
Botswana (Communication 313/05)128 concerning the deportation of a university
professor.
– European Court of Human Rights, 2009, Case Sorguς v. Turkey (Application
17089/03)129 concerning a university professor’s freedom of expression.
D.6.5 Public Funding of Private Education
– USA, Washington Supreme Court, 2015, Case League of Women Voters of Wash. v
State 355 P.3d 1131 (Wash. 2015)130 concerning the constitutionality of funding charter
schools.
– USA, Supreme Court, 2002, Case Zelman v. Simmons-Harris, 536 U.S. 639 (2002 131
concerning the constitutionality of a school vouchers programme in Ohio.
– Colombia, Constitutional Court, 1997, Case C-560/97132 concerning the constitu-
tionality of a provision of the General Education Act relating to the fees in private
institutions (in Spanish).
– Former European Commission of Human Rights, 1992, Case Rudolf Bachmann,
Michael Hofreiter and Beatrix Gulyn against Austria (Application 19315/92)133 con-
cerning the denial of public funding of private education.
– Former European Commission of Human Rights, 1989, Case André Simpson v. The
United Kingdom (Application 14688/89)134 concerning the right to education of a
dyslexic child.
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– UN, Human Rights Committee, 1985, Case Carl Henrik Blom c. Sweden (Communica-
tion 191/1985)135 concerning the denial of a grant to attend a private school.
D.6.6 Commercialisation of Education
– Colombia, Constitutional Court, 1997, Case C-560/97136 concerning the constitu-
tionality of a provision of the General Education Act relating to the fees in private
institutions (in Spanish).
– India, Supreme Court, 1993, Case Unni Krishnan, J.P. And Ors. Etc. … vs State Of
Andhra Pradesh And Ors. … on 4 February, 1993 (1993 AIR 2178, 1993 SCR (1) 594)137
concerning State’s obligations towards the right to education.
D.7 Public School and Religion
D.7.1 Principle of Non-Indoctrination
– Colombia, Constitutional Court, 2011, Case T-832/11138 concerning a clothing rule in
a higher education institution (in Spanish).
– European Court of Human Rights, 2004, Case Ciftçi v. Turkey (Application
71860/01)139 concerning the legality of imposing a minimum age for attending a
religious course.
– European Court of Human Rights, 1976, Case Kjeldsen, Busk Madsen and Pedersen v.
Denmark (Applications 5095/71; 5920/72; 5926/72)140 concerning the legitimacy of
sexual education in Danish public schools.
D.7.2 State or Majority Religion
– UN, Human Rights Committee, 1993, General Comment 22, “Article 18” (CCPR/C/21/
Rev.1/Add.4).141
D.7.3 Interdiction of Compulsory Religious Education
– European Court of Human Rights, 2007, Case Folgerø and Others v. Norway (Appli-
cation 15472/02)142 concerning the respect for the convictions of three Norwegian
couples relating to their children’ education.
D.7.4 Acts or Events of a Religious Nature
– USA, Supreme Court, 1963, Case School District of Abington Tp. v. Schempp 374 US 203
(1963)143 concerning the constitutionality of Bible reading or praying at the begin-
ning of the school day.
– USA, Supreme Court, 1962, Case Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421, 1962144 concerning the
constitutionality of prayer at the beginning of the school day.
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D.7.5 Presence of Religious Symbols
– European Court of Human Rights, 2011, Case Lautsi and Others v. Italy (Application
30814/06)145 concerning the presence of crucifixes on the wall of every classroom.
– Germany, Federal Constitutional Court, 1995, Case BVerfGE 93 11146 concerning the
presence of crucifixes in the classrooms of the State of Bavaria.
– USA, Supreme Court, 1980, Case Stone v. Graham, 449 U.S. 39, 1980147 concerning the
constitutionality of a State of Kentucky law ordering the display of a copy of the Ten
Commandments on the wall of each public classroom.
D.7.6 Wearing Religious or Other Ideological Symbols
– Canada, Supreme Court, 2006, Case Singh Multani v. Commission Scolaire Margue-
rite-Bourgeoy ([2006] 1 S.C.R. 256, 2006 SCC 6)148 concerning the prohibition of
wearing the kirpan at school, which is a dagger-like religious object worn by Sikh
believers.
D.7.7 Garments with a Religious Connotation
D.7.7.1 Worn by Students
– UN, Human Rights Committee, 2012, Communication 1852/2008149 concerning the
expulsion of a student from a school motivated by wearing religious clothing.
D.7.7.2 The Case of the Islamic Veil
D.7.7.2.1 Worn by Students
– Belgium, Constitutional Court, 2020, Case 81/2020 (4 June 2020)150 concerning the
banning of wearing of clothes or other items with ideological or religious connota-
tions on the premises of a public higher education institution
– European Court of Human Rights, 2014, Case S.A.S. v. France (Application 43835/11)151
concerning the compliance with the ECHR of the French Loi n° 2010–1192 du 11 octo-
bre 2010 interdisant la dissimulation du visage dans l’espace public (1) (Act No. 2010-
1192 of October 11, 2010, prohibiting the concealment of the face in public space (1)).
– European Court of Human Rights, 2008, Case Dogru v. France (Application
27058/05)152 concerning the refusal of two girls to remove the Islamic headscarf in
physical and sports education classes.
– European Court of Human Rights, 2006, Case Şefika Köse and Other 93 v. Turkey
(Application 26625/02)153 concerning the prohibition of wearing the Islamic head-
scarf within the school.
– House of Lords, 2006, Case R(SB) v Governors of Denbigh High School 154 concerning
the use of religious symbols and dress instead of a school uniform.
– European Court of Human Rights, 2005, Case Leyla Şahin v. Turkey (Application
44774/98)155 concerning the prohibition of female students of the Faculty of Medi-
cine of the University of Istanbul from wearing the Islamic veil.
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– UN, Human Rights Committee, 2004, Communication 931/2000156 concerning the
exclusion of a university student because of her refusal to stop wearing an Islamic
headscarf.
D.7.7.2.2 Worn by Teachers
– European Court of Human Rights, 2006, Case Sevgi Kurtulmus v. Turkey (Applica-
tion 65500/01)157 concerning the prohibition from wearing the Islamic headscarf by
a professor at the University of Istanbul.
– Germany, Federal Constitutional Court, 2003, Case BvR 1436/028158 concerning the
wearing of the Islamic headscarf by a teacher (in German).
– European Court of Human Rights, 2001, Case Lucia Dahlab v. Switzerland (Applica-
tion 42393/98)159 concerning the prohibition of wearing an Islamic veil in class by a
Swiss teacher who converted to Islamism.
D.8 School Regulations and Student Rights
D.8.1 Liberty of Expression
D.8.1.1 Hair Length and Style
– Colombia, Constitutional Court, 1998, Case SU641/98160 concerning the prohibition
of attending classes by a student without cutting hair (in Spanish).
– Colombia, Constitutional Court, 1998, Case T-124/98161 concerning a school discipli-
nary sanction because of the hair length (in Spanish).
– Colombia, Constitutional Court, 1993, Case 065/93162 concerning school hair length
regulations (in Spanish).
– USA, Court of Appeals, Fourth Circuit, 1972, Case Massie v. Henry (455 F.2d 779, 4th
Cir. 1972)163 concerning the suspension of high school students in North Carolina for
refusing to obey a school rule on long hair and sideburns.
– USA, District Court for the Central District of California, 1970, Case King v. Saddle-
back Junior College District (318 F. Supp.89, 1970)164 concerning the refusal to high
school admission of several students because their hairstyle did not comply with
school regulations.
– USA, District Court for the Western District of Wisconsin, 1969, Case Breen v. Kahl
296 F. Supp. 702 1969)165 concerning the refusal to high school admission of several
students because their hairstyle did not comply with school regulations.
D.8.1.2 Clothing
– Colombia, Constitutional Court, 2011, Case T-832/11166 concerning a rule on clothing
in a higher education institution (in Spanish).
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– USA, District Court, E. D. Arkansas, W. D., 1972, Case Wallace v. Ford (Nº LR-71-c-242167
concerning the suspension of several students, boys and girls, from a secondary
school for failing to comply with school rules regarding clothing.
D.8.1.3 School Uniforms
– Former European Commission of Human Rights, 1986, Case Stevens v. The United
Kingdom (Application 11674/85)168 concerning rules on school clothing.
D.8.1.4 Opinions
– USA, Supreme Court, 1969, Case Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community
School District 393 U.S. 503, 1969169 concerning the suspension of three public school
students in Des Moines, Iowa, who wore armbands to protest against EU policy in
Vietnam.
D.8.1.5 Affectivity and Sexuality
– Colombia, Constitutional Court, 2004, Case T-853/04170 concerning a 17-year-old
student who, having married civilly and become pregnant, was prevented from
completing secondary school at the Catholic college she attended (in Spanish).
– Colombia, Constitutional Court, 1999, Case T-015/99171 concerning the expulsion of
a girl from an educational institution because she decided to live with her boyfriend
(in Spanish).
– Colombia, Constitutional Court, 1999, Case T-412/99172 concerning the requirement
by a college Director to present a medical certificate stating that she was not preg-
nant as a condition of college attendance (in Spanish).
– Colombia, Constitutional Court, 1997, Case T-225/97173 concerning a rule sanction-
ing any amorous expression at school (in Spanish).
D.8.2 Disciplinary Sanctions
– European Court of Human Rights, 2009, Case Irfan Temel and Others v. Turkey
(Application 36458/02)174 concerning the claim for a Kurdish language course at
the University.
– European Court of Human Rights, 1982, Case Campbell and Cosans v. The United
Kingdom (Application 7511/76; 7743/76)175 concerning two mothers complaining
against corporal punishment as a disciplinary measure in public schools attended
by their children.
– USA, Supreme Court, 1975, Case Goss v. Lopez 419 U.S. 565, 1975)176 concerning the
suspension for 10 days of nine students from a public school in Ohio for bad behav-
iour, without being heard.
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D.8.3 Interdiction of Corporal Punishment
– UN, Committee on the Rights of the Child, 2011, General Comment 13, “The right of
the child to freedom from all forms of violence” (CRC/C/GC/13).177
– UN, Committee on the Rights of the Child, 2006, General Comment 8, “The right
of the child to protection from corporal punishment and other cruel or degrading
forms of punishment (Arts. 19; 28, para. 2; and 37, inter alia)” (CRC/C/GC/8).178
– UN, Committee on the Rights of the Child, 2001, General Comment 1, “Article 29 (1):
The aims of education” (CRC/GC/2001/1).179
– Fiji, Supreme Court, 2002, Case Naushad Ali v. State (Criminal Appeal Nº HAA 0083
of 2001 (C. P. Nº 0001 of 2001L, 21 March 2002)180 concerning a judicial condemnation
to corporal punishment.
– Israel, Supreme Court, 2000, Case Criminal Appeal 4596/98 Plonit v. A.G. 54(1) P.D.
[2000]181 concerning corporal punishment of two children by their mother.
– UN, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1999, General Comment 13,
“The right to education (Article 13 of the Covenant)” (E/C.12/1999/10).182
– European Court of Human Rights, 1998, Case A. v. The United Kingdom
(100/1997/884/1096)183 concerning corporal punishment of children in the family.
– UN, Human Rights Committee, 1992, General Comment 20, “Article 7 (Prohibition of
torture, or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment)”.184
– European Court of Human Rights, 1982, Case Campbell and Cosans v. The United
Kingdom (Application 7511/76; 7743/76)185 concerning two mothers complaining
against corporal punishment as a disciplinary measure in public schools attended
by their children.
– Former European Commission of Human Rights, 1982, Case Seven Individuals v. Swe-
den (Application 8811/79)186 concerning the prohibition of corporal punishment of
children.
– European Court of Human Rights, 1978, Case Tyrer v. The United Kingdom (Applica-
tion 5856/72)187 concerning the application of corporal punishment to a schoolboy.
D.8.4 Rights of Defence
– USA, Supreme Court, 1975, Case Wood v. Strickland, 420 U.S. 308, 1975188 concerning the
expulsion from an Arkansas school of two girls who had violated school rules prohib-
iting the consumption or carrying certain beverages to school, without being heard.
D.9 Protection of Children/Students against Sexual Abuse and Other
Ill-Treatment in Public and Private Schools
– European Court of Human Rights, 2014, Case O’Keeffe v. Ireland (Application
35810/09)189 concerning State responsibility for the protection of children/pupils
from sexual abuse and other ill-treatment in public and private schools.
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– African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, Decision Nº
003/Com/001/2012 on the Talibés Children Case190 which are children aged 4–12 years
(known as talibés) attending private Qur’anic schools (daaras) in Senegal but forced
by some teachers to beg in the streets to fund their education.
D.10 Examples of Remedies for Violations of the Right to Education
– Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 2015, Case Gonzales Lluy y Otros vs Ecuador,
Sentencia de 1 de septiembre de 2015 (Excepciones Preliminares, Fondo, Reparaciones
y Costas)191 concerning a little girl expelled from a public school because she was
HIV/AIDS positive (in Spanish).
– Colombia, Constitutional Court, 2015, Case T-478/15192 concerning a 17-year-old stu-
dent who committed suicide because of discrimination at school because of his or
her sexual orientation (in Spanish).
– European Court of Human Rights, 2014, Case O’Keeffe v. Ireland (Application
35810/09)193 concerning State responsibility for the protection of children/pupils
from sexual abuse and other ill-treatment in public and private schools.
– Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, 2015, Communication
56/2014194 regarding discrimination of a female teacher.
– Colombia, Constitutional Court, 2004, Case T-853/04195 concerning a 17-year-old
student who, having married civilly and become pregnant, was prevented from
completing secondary school at the Catholic college she attended (in Spanish).
– Fiji, Supreme Court, 2002, Case Naushad Ali v. State (Criminal Appeal Nº HAA 0083
of 2001 (C. P. Nº 0001 of 2001L, 21 March 2002)196 concerning a judicial condemnation
to corporal punishment.
– Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Case Mónica Carabantes Galleguil-
los, Petition 12, 046, Chile, March 12 2002 (Report No. 33/02 – Friendly Settlement)197
concerning a student expelled from a private school for being pregnant (in Span-
ish).
Notes
1 http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre?i=001-169450
2 http://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZASCA/2015/198.html
3 http://caselaw.findlaw.com/fl-supreme-court/1102469.html
4 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre#{%22itemid%22:[%22001-71627%22]}
5 http://indiankanoon.org/doc/1775396
6 https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/SDecisionsVol4en.pdf
7 http://indiankanoon.org/doc/595099
8 www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0457_0202_ZO.html
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9 http://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/347/483.html
10 http://law.justia.com/cases/west-virginia/supreme-court/1979/14036-3.html
11 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{«fulltext»:[«\»MEMLIKA c. GRÈCE\»»],»ite
mid»:[«001-157529»]}
12 www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZACC/2011/13.html
13 http://www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/casos/articulos/seriec_130_esp.pdf
14 https://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/relatoria/2003/T-170-03.htm
15 http://www.hrcr.org/safrica/education/R_InnerLondonEducationAuthority.htm
16 http://www.kscourts.org/Cases-and-Opinions/opinions/SupCt/2016/20160527/113267.pdf
17 http://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZASCA/2015/198.html
18 http://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZAECGHC/2015/67.html
19 https://www.blast.org.bd/content/writ/Writ-312-2012-CAMPE-Judgment.pdf
20 http://www.worldcourts.com/ecowasccj/eng/decisions/2010.11.30_SERAP_v_Nigeria.htm
21 https://www.courtlistener.com/opinion/2351814/mccleary-v-state/
22 www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/relatoria/2010/c-376-10.htm
23 https://caselaw.findlaw.com/ny-court-of-appeals/1084567.html
24 https://nces.ed.gov/edfin/pdf/lawsuits/Edgewood_v_Kirby_TX.pdf
25 https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/411/1
26 https://www.bger.ch/ext/eurospider/live/de/php/aza/http/index.php?highlight_
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YES&type=show_document&
27 http://hj.tribunalconstitucional.es/HJ/docs/BOE/BOE-A-2011-275.pdf
28 http://caselaw.findlaw.com/ca-court-of-appeal/1086131.html
29 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{„languageisocode”:[„ENG”],”appno”:[„35504/03”],”docu
mentcollectionid2”:[„ADMISSIBILITY”],”itemid”:[„001-76925”]}
30 https://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/item/165/index.do
31 www.ielrc.org/content/e1213.pdf
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36 https://www.escr-net.org/caselaw/2008/free-legal-assistance-group-and-others-v-zaire-
comm-no-2589-4790-5691-10093
37 http://www.tribunalconstitucional.pt/tc/acordaos/19940148.html
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43 http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=
E%2fC.12%2fGC%2f20&Lang=en
44 http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=
INT%2fCCPR%2fGEC%2f6622&Lang=en
45 http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=
CEDAW/C/GC/36&Lang=en
46 http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=
E%2fC.12%2f2005%2f4&Lang=en
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47 https://www.refworld.org/docid/45139c9b4.html
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CRPD/C/GC/4&Lang=en
50 https://hudoc.esc.coe.int/eng/#{%22ESCDcIdentifier%22:[%22cc-81-2012-dmerits-
en%22]}
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CRC%2fC%2fGC%2f9&Lang=en
53 https://jade.io/article/107700
54 https://www.coe.int/en/web/european-social-charter/processed-complaints/-/
asset_publisher/5GEFkJmH2bYG/content/no-13-2002-international-association-autism-
europe-iaae-v-france?inheritRedirect=false
55 http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=
INT%2fCESCR%2fGEC%2f4760&Lang=en
56 www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/casos/articulos/seriec_298_esp.pdf
57 http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=
CRC%2fGC%2f2003%2f3&Lang=en
58 http://www.corteconstitucional.gov.co/relatoria/2015/t-478-15.htm
59 https://hudoc.esc.coe.int/eng/#{„fulltext”:[„45/2007”],”ESCDcType”:[„FOND”,”Conclusion
”,”Ob”],”ESCDcIdentifier”:[„cc-45-2007-dmerits-en”]}
60 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{„itemid”:[„001-116124”]}
61 http://www.ihrda.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/002-09-Nubian-children-v-Kenya-
Eng.pdf
62 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{„languageisocode”:[„ENG”],”appno”:[„15766/03”],”docum
entcollectionid2”:[„GRANDCHAMBER”],”itemid”:[„001-97689”]}
63 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{„languageisocode”:[„ENG”],”appno”:[„27996/06”,”34836/
06”],”documentcollectionid2”:[„GRANDCHAMBER”],”itemid”:[„001-96491”]}
64 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre#{%22itemid%22:[%22001-86798%22]}
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66 https://juris.ohchr.org/Search/Details/1734
67 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre#{„languageisocode”:[„ENG”],”appno”:[„44158/98”],”docum
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68 http://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-supreme-court/347/483.html
69 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{„languageisocode”:[„ENG”],”appno”:[„43370/04”,”18454/
06”,”8252/05”],”documentcollectionid2”:[„GRANDCHAMBER”],”itemid”:[„001-114082”]}
70 http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=
CCPR%2fC%2f21%2fRev.1%2fAdd.5&Lang=en
71 https://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/item/580/index.do
72 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{„itemid”:[„001-57525”]}
73 http://www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/casos/articulos/seriec_214_esp.pdf
74 http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=
CRC%2fC%2fGC%2f11&Lang=en
75 http://www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/casos/articulos/seriec_125_ing.pdf
76 http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=
CRC%2fC%2fGC%2f22&Lang=en
77 https://www.refworld.org/cases,IACRTHR,54129c854.html
78 https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=
CCPR%2FC%2F123%2FD%2F2348%2F2014&Lang=en
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79 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{%22itemid%22:[%22001-71627%22]}
80 http://juris.ohchr.org/Search/Details/2137
81 http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=
CRC%2fGC%2f2005%2f6&Lang=en
82 https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre#{„languageisocode”:[„ENG”],”appno”:[„16032/07”],”docum
entcollectionid2”:[„CHAMBER”],”itemid”:[„001-144131”]}
83 http://www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/casos/articulos/seriec_112_ing.pdf
84 http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=
INT%2fCCPR%2fGEC%2f4731&Lang=en
85 https://indiankanoon.org/doc/154958944
86 http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=E%
2fC.12%2fGC%2f20&Lang=en
87 http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=
E%2fC.12%2f2005%2f4&Lang=en
88 http://www.codices.coe.int/NXT/gateway.dll/CODICES/full/afr/mri/eng/mri-2002-a-
002?fn=document-frame.htm$f=templates$3.0
89 http://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZAECGHC/2015/36.html
90 http://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZAECMHC/2014/5.html
91 http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/treatybodyexternal/Download.aspx?symbolno=
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