Leisure time, sport and gender equality - Consuelo Diodati
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South Florida Journal of Development, Miami, v.3, n.3. p.3438-3445, may./jun., 2022. ISSN 2675-5459
Leisure time, sport and gender equality – Consuelo Diodati
DOI: 10.46932/sfjdv3n3-032
Received in: March 22nd, 2022
Accepted in: April 21st, 2022
Consuelo Diodati
PhD Assistant Professor in Sociology
Institution: Università degli Studi di Teramo
Address: Via Renato Balzarini 1, 64100 Teramo, Italy
E-mail: cdiodati@unite.it
ABSTRACT
Female role still has many difficulties in establishing itself on the social scene - in some countries more
than elsewhere, for example in Italy - in these cases sport can represent a metaphor for society and re-
propose discrimination. On the other hand, sport is for many people an important channel of social
mobility. The American sociological studies on the vast presence of black athletes in sport, remain
illuminating in this perspective. It highlights how sport has been from the beginning, one of the few areas
in which there have been more carrier opportunities, competition was lower and whites people preferred
to pursue careers considered of greater prestige. Sport has therefore represented an important
emancipation channel for all people who are in some way marginal, coming from poor families and from
the third world. A similar dynamic can be applied in approaching female universe, which can find in sport
a channel of affirmation on the social scene.
Keywords: leisure time, sport, gender equality.
1 FOR A DEFINITION
Leisure time is strictly linked to the possibility of having an amount of free time - a concept that
derives from the French term: loisir as a pleasant activity, under given conditions and times -, which arises
within the industrialization processes as a function of work in social organizations. The meaning of free
time is, in fact, connected to the working context and to the types of work that follow the advent of
industrial society and capitalist competition, in which free time is configured as opposed to that of work.
In this context, with the advent of artificial lighting, the working hours were full and could continue until
the worker was completely worn down. Only later, with the workers and trade union struggles for the
reduction of working hours to sustainable parameters for a human being, as well as with the dizzying
increase in productivity, there was a reduction in working hours, generating an increase in free time, that
no one had experienced before, as time equivalent to time released from work.
Many of the changes in the condition of women are, also linked to the active role exercised by the
working class in the liberation from poverty, towards better living conditions, implying the need to work
on the part of women and often, of children, with sustainable and safe rules.
3438South Florida Journal of Development, Miami, v.3, n.3. p.3438-3445, may./jun., 2022. ISSN 2675-5459
These conquests facilitated the process of education and culture in mass societies. Thanks to
increased free time, large sections of the population turned into consumers / customers and even, in some
cases, into creators of culture themselves, giving rise to a revolutionary innovation. However, before this
free time could be enjoyed by women, a lot of time still had to pass. There were also divisions (still
present) between mass and elite entertainment. The nobles had always had a vast set of "entertainments",
but when these extend to social groups considered inferior, the division between elite and popular
entertainment increases. In the theory of the conspicuous waste of the sociologist Thorstein Veblen,
practical, manual labor in industry and the procurement of livelihoods are typical of the 'lower' classes,
while the 'upper' classes were devoted to government, military art, to religious practices and sport.
In this perspective of analysis, class dichotomy is based on arrogance, even on things and on
women - of which one becomes an owner, starting the concept of private property, as a struggle between
men for the possession of goods, also to be wasted because wealth to be such, needs to be seen by others,
to be exposed, hence consumerism as an end in itself. It is interesting to observe how, therefore, the
possibility of retaining women who do not work, falls within the theory of the wealthy class. Indeed, in
polygamous societies the possibility of having multiple wives highlights 'value' - or rather the wealth of
the man, who can afford to support more than one wife, even better if unproductive.
2 WOMEN DIFFICULTIES IN AFFIRMING THEMSELF ON THE SOCIAL SCENE
It is thus preferable that the woman, the wife, does not work, precisely to confirm the wealth of
her master / husband - the women who embroider at home, as well as in many novels and narratives from
Penelope in the Odyssey, up to the different fairy tales, forthe example there is a loom to spin even in
Sleeping Beauty, are all metaphors of the passivity to which a woman was relegated to. Women were
confined at home, in a waiting and passive attitude, while the men were dedicated themselves to action
and adventures, with education reinforcement.
In the contemporary world, we find in fashion the recurrence and the exaltation of very thin female
models, precisely to highlight their being unproductive; a sturdy woman represents someone who can well
carry out tasks inside and outside the home: the housewife, the washerwoman; but a thin woman is the
preferential representation of unproductive, even more so if she gets bored and if doing nothing is
associated with having a certain number of servants, so much the better (Simmel, 1924). These elements
highlight how we are still far from having achieved true equality between men and women, despite the
fact that over time, women have made significant progress countering their struggles, which are different
in different countries.
3439South Florida Journal of Development, Miami, v.3, n.3. p.3438-3445, may./jun., 2022. ISSN 2675-5459
3 SOCIAL MOBILITY AND SPORT
The sport universe is a kind of micro representation of the social system, in fact it can re-propose
discrimination exactly people who are already discriminated in the society as a all. Emblematic of this
situation are the studies on ethnic and racial minority. In particular in the U.S.A. there is a great number
of black athletes, and generally people argue that is done on the basis of the prejudice that they are more
inclined for physical activities. A more detailed analysis of the phenomenon shows how, instead, sport,
as well as music and show business, is one of the few sectors in which it is allowed for them, to make a
carrier.
Contrary to what is widely supported by the theories according to which black athletes are
anatomically more predisposed to sporting activities, it is certainly more likely that the preponderance of
black athletes is due to the strong marginality and segregation to which they are subject, which would
compensate for the lack of social and economic opportunities, focusing on sectors - such as sport or
entertainment - in which social mobility is higher, competition was lower and whites people preferred to
pursue careers considered of greater prestige. Sport is, in fact, an important channel of social mobility,
and it is no coincidence that many athletes come from difficult and deprived socio-economic situations.
Research in the sector also shows that the roles that black athletes play in sport are often not very
central (Castine, Roberts, 1974), since there would be dynamics in the primary socialization of young
black people that orient them towards positions of little importance since childhood, not only in sport
(even if in recent years it is being overcome), repeating a model of racial and social segregation that does
not belong to them.
We can see the same dynamics concerning gender equality, sport has in fact, represented an
important emancipation and affirmation channel on the social scene, for all people who are in some way
marginal or, instead re-proposition of discrimination.
The specific case of women in sport, is linked with the desire to highlight the real conditions that
women experience every day, since there is a tendency to underestimate the real situation and generally,
to think that "now" women can do everything they want and certain situations are overcome, in reality, it
is not so and the silence can be very dangerous.
A first step is the reflection on the temporal sequences, which represented the dominant and labor
societies and their opposed qualitative dimensions of time: natural time, women's time, care-giving time,
urban times of cities and rural times. Contemporaneity is increasingly denoted as fast and fragmented,
made up of instants that are not real time, of emotions that are not feelings, without even the luxury of
memory and the whole time of identity stability; on the other hand, the feminine time is connoted as a
time of inclusion, listening, narration and breathing towards more human rhythms.
3440South Florida Journal of Development, Miami, v.3, n.3. p.3438-3445, may./jun., 2022. ISSN 2675-5459
As evidence of this trend, it is enough to see the assiduity and also simply the number of women
present, in a series of activities outside the home or work activity. If we take into consideration the
practitioners of sports between men and women, in fact, it emerges that it is clearly higher for the former.
The scarce presence of women in sports is a sign not only of their scarcity of time but of their more general
social marginality, which still sees them relegated to the tasks of educators of children and caretakers of
homes. Similarly in the working context, for example the Italian case, this marginality sees women still
confined to minor or marginal work tasks, in a conformation and crystallization of roles that limits free
time and its use for women.
In the evolution of sports, women have been heavily penalized and relegated to minority positions,
developing a particularly evident lack of visibility and recognition. There is also a high disproportionate
space that mass-media gives to women compared to men in sport, as well as the ways in which they
present themselves - focused on their enterprises as heroes, the others - focused on their physical
appearance.
The history of women in sport is in fact, also the history of the gender discrimination process. In
1896, women were not allowed to participate in the Athens Olympic Games, due to the decision made by
the French Baron Pierre de Coubertin, president of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) arguing
that a women's Olympics would not have been functional or interesting but rather unsightly and incorrect.
Similarly, the then president of the IOC in the early 20th century associated sport with manhood and
women were not included in the Games until 1928 (Chemerois and Gillon, 2001). Only later did pressure
from the relevant international federations and feminist movements, finally succeed in getting women
officially accepted in the Olympic Games.
The presence of female athletes in the first modern Olympic Games, was purely symbolic and
information on their exact admission and participation is scarce. As Miragaya pointed out:South Florida Journal of Development, Miami, v.3, n.3. p.3438-3445, may./jun., 2022. ISSN 2675-5459
An important step in promoting the female figure is linked to the presentation of the FEMM report
in 2001 - nine years after 1994, the year of the first International Conference focused on Women and
Sport, held in Brighton, U.K. The event organized by the British Sport Council and supported by the IOC,
wanted to focus on these issues in order to identify support measures and overcome the many prejudices.
The European Union, on the other hand, establishes as primary objectives for 2020, precisely the fact that
all the governing bodies of sport adopt an inclusive gender equality policy and a consequent action plan,
involving administration and balanced presence of men and women, defined around at least 40.0% in
national organizations and 30.0% in international sports organizations based in Europe. In the
management of government sports organizations, the minimum number of women and men must therefore
be at least 40.0% (European Commission, 2014), but the verification of how many and which countries
have actually applied these parameters is still underway.
Specifically in the Italian case, the studies on female participation in the decision-making bodies
of sport are very few and very recent (Cinquepalmi, 2016; Canali et al., 2019) and the overall data on
female participation in the power chambers of Italian sport, lead our country to occupy the lowest positions
in international rankings. The study "The Sidney Scoreboard: A Global Index for Women in Sport
Leadership" compares the presence of women at the top of sports organizations in 21 European countries,
with reference to three indicators: the number of women in the boards directors, the number of female
presidents, the number of female general managers. According to the data of this study referring to the
period 2013-2014, Italy is in the penultimate place for women presidents and in twelfth place for women
general managers (Adriaanse, 2016). CONI in collaboration with the FSN decides which sports disciplines
are professional or not (after Law 91/81); they have recognized six sport disciplines as 'professional',
which to date are only four: football, golf, basketball (only in the A19 category) and cycling, all disciplines
present exclusively in the men's sector (motorcycling closed the sector in 2011 and boxing in 2013). It is
an extremely penalizing law for both men and women but it is even more so for women, since it cannot
be overlooked, that the sports in question are all male. In several places, this state of affairs is justified by
arguing that women's sports, does not ensure a sufficient amount of income, to be considered as a
professional sport. The consequences are extremely vexatious, since all Italian athletes see denied the role
or qualification of professional athlete and, consequently, are denied access to the state law, that regulates
relations with sports clubs, social security, health care, pension treatment.
These elements create a serious discriminatory condition and a blatant disregard of rights. For
amateur athletes, that is the majority of male athletes and for all women, the contracts do not provide for
a monthly salary but a reimbursement of expenses. Often there is no health insurance or if provided it has
nothing to do with the insurance provided for professional athletes, if not by the will of the athlete who
takes out personal insurance. In the event of an injury, the costs of treatment and rehabilitation are fully
3442South Florida Journal of Development, Miami, v.3, n.3. p.3438-3445, may./jun., 2022. ISSN 2675-5459
borne by the athlete. The payment of pension contributions is not envisaged and there is no protection in
the event of maternity or invalidity. Furthermore, the Vincolo Sportivo gives the sports club control over
the competitive performances of amateur athletes and the ability to implement or deny the transfers,
without the need for the athlete's consent. Add to this the existence of the "anti-pregnancy clauses”, which
are inserted into the contracts signed by the athletes and which provide for the termination of said contract,
in the event of maternity. Many great and well-known Italian champions / athletes, even if fully inserted
into the history of national and international sports, are legally considered non-professional sports, even
if their athletic activity has achieved considerable economic gains and titles and have given them prestige
as well as to our country, with medals and awards / triumphs.
The Italian athletes must, therefore, find a "job" to support themselves. The lucky ones manage to
join a military body which, in exchange for prestige and visibility, guarantees them training facilities and
a certain salary when they retire. The military corps, in fact, ensure athletes a salary of 1,300 / 1,400 euros
per month, maternity, severance pay, thirteenth and fourteenth. Esila Di Francisca, one of the most
decorated Italian fencers, belongs to the Guardia di Finanza, her former captain Valentina Vezzali is in
the police. Swimming champion Federica Pellegrini is officially a prison guard. Most of the female skiers
belong to the Alpine or Forestry Corps (Tiziana Di Cimbrini, 2019).
In the end, one can argue that in some cases as the italian one, the fact of being part of the United
Europe and of International Organization is a kind of guarantee for arriving at better conditions not just
for women but for all athletes even face to the great progress that women have done in sport and in
introducing vulnerability as a field of consideration for every body – as the case of Noemy Osaka
underlines.
This athlete was in fact retiring from Roland Garros 2021 (French Open Tennis Competition) due
to difficulties related to her mental health linked to competition pressure - which among other things
caused her not to attend the press conferences, accepting the fees for non-participation. Certain distortions
have a root linked to economic speculations and the need to keep the show going on, despite everything
and even at the cost of bringing the protagonists of this show (without which nothing would be possible)
to extreme decisions in order to escape certain mechanisms. There are few or no game a day in the evening
at Roland Garros, as in many other sports, because the television rights (bought by Amazon for tennis
games), in return demand that a certain number of prestige games be played in prime time. The round of
32 match that saw Roger Federer's victory ended at 00.43, on the pitch there were nine degrees. Federer
then retired the next day: at almost 40 years old and after such an effort, he preferred to give up the
tournament and focus on approaching Wimbled. In another case the players were forced to stop and leave
the pitch for around 20 minutes at the stages, while also paying spectators were forced to leave the stadium
(with quite high cost for the ticket) due to Covid-19 curfew, and after making the athletes go on playing
3443South Florida Journal of Development, Miami, v.3, n.3. p.3438-3445, may./jun., 2022. ISSN 2675-5459
without audience and in very different environmental conditions. None of this would have happened if
they hadn't been forced to play at that hour.
In the end it is a picture of a contemporary world denoted as fast, liquid and fragmented, made up
of instants that are not real time, emotions that are not feelings, without the luxury of memory and of
identity stability. On the other hand, the feminine time can represent an innovation for re-creating a time
of inclusion, listening, narration and breathing towards more human rhythms in sport and in societies.
3444South Florida Journal of Development, Miami, v.3, n.3. p.3438-3445, may./jun., 2022. ISSN 2675-5459
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