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Landfills Trashing the Earth Center for Health, Environment & Justice P.O. Box 6806, Falls Church, VA 22040-6806
Landfills
Trashing the Earth
Center for Health, Environment & Justice
April 2016
Copyright 2016 by Center for Health,
Environment & Justice. All rights
reserved. For Permission to reprint,
please contact CHEJ. Printed in the U.S.A.
P.O. Box 6806 Falls Church, VA 22040-6806 703-237-2249 chej@chej.org www.chej.org
Center for Health, Environment & Justice
P.O. Box 6806 Falls Church, VA 22040 Phone: 703.237.2249 Fax: 703.237.8389 www.chej.org
l l l l
Mentoring a Movement
Empowering People
Preventing Harm
About the Center for Health, Environment & Justice
CHEJ mentors the movement to build healthier
communities by empowering people to prevent
the harm caused by chemical and toxic threats.
We accomplish our work by connecting local
community groups to national initiatives
and corporate campaigns. CHEJ works with
communities to empower groups by providing
the tools, strategic vision, and encouragement
they need to advocate for human health and the
prevention of harm.
Following her successful effort to prevent further
harm for families living in contaminated Love Canal,
Lois Gibbs founded CHEJ in 1981 to continue the
journey. To date, CHEJ has assisted over 15,000
groups nationwide. Details on CHEJ’s efforts to
help families and communities prevent harm can
be found on www.chej.org.
Table of Contents
Chapter Page
1 Introduction 1
2 Different Types of Landfills 3
3 How Landfills Work 8
4 Problems with Landfills 11
5 The Flow of Waste 25
6 Communities Fighting Back 28
7 Taking Action 33
8 Regulations and the Permitting Process 38
9 Troublesome Alternatives 42
10 Real Solutions: Zero Waste 45
11 Myths and Counter Arguments 50
Appendix: Annotated Bibliography 53
References 61Chapter 1
Introduction
Today, every American will generate 4.4 pounds the ultimate objective of the zero waste concept.
of trash. Of your junk mail, orange peels, paper We must strive for the impossible to reach the
towels, plastic wrappers, take-out containers, edge of possibility. By aiming for zero waste,
band-aids, newspapers and water bottles, almost we will achieve substantial garbage reduction
55% goes to a landfill. In 1960, only two-thirds of and realize we don’t have to settle for a lesser
that amount – 2.68 pounds – went to the dump. “solution” like burning trash. If in the end, when
Landfills contaminate the water and poison the every imaginable step has been taken and all
air, yet the “need” for them continues to expand. possibilities extinguished, some garbage remains,
Landfills have grown unabated for the past fifty then landfilling may be used. But we need to see
years as capacity has soared to accommodate such unsavory action as an absolute last resort
ever-increasing amounts of trash. In order to rather than an easy fix; otherwise, we’ll never truly
bring a halt to this garbage explosion, we must deal with our trash load, and landfills will remain
believe that zero waste is achievable – no landfills, the common response.
no incinerators, just a holistic approach to the
lifecycle of every item. Stopping a proposed landfill or landfill expansion
in your community is a critical first step toward
Zero waste is an idea that encompasses many redefining the management of our waste. We
environmental tenets (recycling, reusing, do not need more landfills. All landfills will
composting, reducing, conserving, etc) in order eventually fail, polluting the environment and
to fulfill its goal of eliminating the waste stream. placing people at risk. If your community is
But for this seemingly impossible concept, it’s not willing to fight for your right to clean air and
the end result that matters as much as the reach water, history has shown that you can succeed in
for it. Stretching to achieve zero waste – doing opposing a proposed landfill. It will not be quick
all that we can to reduce garbage at its source – is or easy, and it requires a great deal of planning
www.chej.org 1 chej@chej.orgLandfills Trashing the Earth
Landfills as a Means for Disposing of Solid and Hazardous Waste
and organization, but we believe in your ability There are four basic steps to achieving your goals:
to win and protect your health, the health of your
family, and your neighbors. 1. Organize a community group
2. Decide what you want
The best way to win is to organize your 3. Find out who can give you what you want
community. By organizing, we mean bringing 4. Develop strategies that target the decision-
people together for a common purpose and makers so that they give you what you want
for mutual support to get the power needed to
influence the outcome of a local issue. Power is Once you’ve organized into a group, defined your
obtained in two ways, either by engaging and goals, and identified who can give you what you
organizing people or by spending money. Most want, you’ll need to develop strategies that target
community groups have little money and are the decision makers so that they have no choice
often battling huge corporations, who can always but to do what you want. This does not come
outspend citizen groups. That’s why we encourage about easily. Government and political officials
activists to stress the “people power” side when are influenced by many factors and forces and you
organizing. will quickly realize that to be successful, you have
to create more pressure on the politicians and
The first step, however, is deciding to get involved government officials than anyone else.
yourself. Maybe it’s because of your children, or
because of the way you were treated at a public For advice on how to form a successful
meeting, or maybe you decided that you’re just community-based group, see CHEJ’s Organizing
not going to take it anymore. The next step is to Handbook available for free from CHEJ or
get more people involved. The best way to do this from our website at http://chej.org/wp-content/
is with face-to-face contact and communication. uploads/Organizing%20Handbook%20-%20
Talk to your friends and family and have them PUB%20059.pdf.
talk with their friends and family. Go door-
to-door in your neighborhood, host your own The purpose of this guidebook is to serve as
community meeting or speak at churches, clubs, a resource for people opposing a new landfill
schools, etc. or landfill expansion. It provides an overview
of landfill design, regulations, and the reasons
As you engage your neighbors, you’ll want that landfills are inherently flawed. We have
to work together to define what you, as a included information to assist you in organizing
community, want to accomplish. This will lead your community to fight the landfill, and some
to forming an organization that has its primary alternatives to our current waste management
focus to address the issue that brought you and system.
your neighbors together. Together you’ll want to
define your goals, both short term and long term. We hope that this guidebook makes your own
Be realistic in setting your goals. Pick goals that struggle a little easier. As you fight for justice,
you can win. One or two are enough; don’t choose remember that many people have won these
more than three or four. struggles. Until we move away from a society
where waste is ‘out of sight, out of mind,’ these
fights will continue.
www.chej.org 2 chej@chej.orgIntroduction
Introduction
Chapter 2
Different Types of
Landfills
A landfill is a depression in the ground for the disposal biphenyl (PCBs) which can pollute surface water
of unwanted materal considered “waste.” Landfills that (USEPA 2010b). Hazardous Waste landfills also pose
do not contain covers are called open dumps. If the health risks: in 2014 there were 3,779 hazardous waste
trash is covered to keep rodents, people and wind from facilities which needed to take “corrective action” –
dispersing the material, then the site is called a sanitary requiring action to clean up contamination (USEPA
or municipal landfill. 2014). Across the board, landfills are harmful additions
to a community.
A site that still operates and accepts waste is considered
an active landfill. Conversely, a landfill that is filled to Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is what
capacity and no longer accepts waste is referred to as a we generally call garbage. It consists of:
closed landfill. • Durable items (appliances, tires,
batteries)
Even though only one type of landfill is denoted as • Nondurable items (newspapers,
“hazardous waste,” in truth, all of the landfills listed in books, magazines)
Table 1 can contain toxic chemicals that threaten the air, • Containers and packaging
water, and the public’s health. Municipal Solid Waste • Food waste
(MSW) landfills hold electronics which, especially when • Yard trimmings
crushed, leak out their poisonous components of lead, • Various organic waste from non-
mercury, and cadmium. Construction and Demolition production sources (homes,
(C&D) landfills emit hydrogen sulfide (a compound businesses, institutions)
which smells like rotten eggs), and store paint, lacquers, (USEPA 2006)
and wood preservatives which contain harmful Recycling, composting, zero waste – all are
chemicals like arsenic (SLee 2006, USEPA 1995a, Turley environmentally-friendly alternatives to landfills. See
2006). Industrial landfills are home to heavy metals and Chapter 10 for more information on these realistic
organic compounds like pesticides and polychlorinated solutions.
P.O. Box 6806 | Fallswww.chej.org
Church, VA 22040
3 | chej@chej.org
Phone: 703.237.2249 | Fax: 703.237.8389 | www.chej.org 3Landfills
Landfills Trashing thefor
as a Means Earth
Disposing of Solid and Hazardous Waste
Table 1: Types of Landfills
Municipal Solid Primarily accepts items categorized as MSW (see box on page 3). Additionally, these
Waste landfills accept a limited amount of household hazardous waste, such as batteries, paint,
florescent light bulbs and drain cleaners. These landfills also take “special” waste such
as municipal wastewater sludge, coal ash waste, and incinerator ash.
Industrial Industrial landfills deal with hazardous and non-hazardous waste from commercial
production sources. These can include the waste generated by factories, mills,
agricultural operations, logging and mining.
Construction & C&D landfills are exclusively for waste generated during the construction, renovation
Demolition and demolition of buildings, roads and bridges. C&D landfills contain bulky items
such as concrete, wood, asphalt, metals and bricks. These landfills also contain mixed
hazardous waste found in buildings such as asbestos, PVC, mercury switches, lead
paint, batteries, and electronics..
Hazardous Hazardous waste landfills contain non-liquid waste which is classified as hazardous
Waste under Subtitle C of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (USEPA 2008).
These landfills have more stringent regulations, monitoring systems and inspections
than municipal solid waste landfills.
Post-Disaster While disasters have always generated large amounts of waste, the amount of waste
generated by Hurricanes Katrina in Louisiana and Sandy in New York/New Jersey
highlighted the issues around landfills in disaster areas. Many types of debris,
including chemicals, oil, personal property, building rubble, soil, trees, ash, and
charred wood require quick disposal in large quantities. In times of crisis, it remains
crucial that citizens and municipalities work with state environmental agencies to
make sure that debris is disposed of in a safe manner.
Superfund Some landfills have been granted Superfund status, meaning that they are
contaminated with hazardous waste and considered a risk to human health and the
environment. Many Superfund sites are former landfills, including over ten percent of
the 411 Most Dangerous Superfund Sites listed by the Center for Public Integrity (CPI
2007). Superfund landfill sites are not limited to hazardous waste landfills, but include
MSW and other types of landfills that have significantly contaminated the soil, water
and air.
Brief History of Landfills in the United States Pre-1960s: Open Dumps
“Historically, the goal of municipal solid waste and Landfills are one of the oldest waste disposal
industrial ‘nonhazardous’ waste management has methods. Waste has long been deposited on
been to get the waste out of sight in the least costly low-value areas away from urban areas, such as
manner.” wetlands. Starting in the late nineteenth century,
- Dr. G. Fred Lee (2005) land began to be excavated prior to dumping
www.chej.org 4 chej@chej.orgIntroduction
Different Types
Introduction
of Landfills
CHAPTER 2
waste (Lee 2005). Most municipal solid waste from each other by 1-2 feet of sand or gravel. To
was then either burned or allowed to decompose boost popular appeal, they have also been called
in open dumps. Generally, these landfills worked “scientific” landfills. However, history continues
well because only biodegradable waste was to provide evidence that all landfills, even ‘secure’
disposed in them, allowing soil bacteria to break scientific ones, eventually fail.
the waste down in a relatively short period of
time. Creation of the USEPA
Starting in the 1950s, landfill operators began to After the creation of the Environmental
place a layer of soil over the waste at the end of Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970, the federal
the day. When landfills were closed, additional government continued to issue landfill
soil was placed as a cover, upon which buildings regulations. The Resource Conservation and
or parks were built. While this eliminated some Recovery Act (RCRA) (usually pronounced
public health concerns – odors, vermin, etc. - it “wreck-rah”) passed by Congress in 1976 as an
did little to address the increasing problems of soil amendment to the Solid Waste Disposal Act,
and water contamination (Lee 2002). created the framework for regulating waste
(USEPA 2006). RCRA also banned industrial and
The 1960s: The First Government Regulations commercial sources from putting large amounts
of industrial waste into MSW landfills, such as
With the advent of plastics, pesticides and 55-gallon drums of chemical solvents (Lee 2002).
petroleum products, landfills became more toxic
and difficult to maintain (Lee 2002). This waste Assorted amendments to RCRA continued to
decomposes at a much slower rate than biological increase landfill safety measures, siting rules and
matter. Moreover, the chemicals contained in government regulation of waste. The Hazardous
these types of waste (or the chemicals released and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984 signified a
when they break down) create air, soil and water move toward preventing future cleanup problems.
pollution when they are emitted with landfill The amendments prohibited the disposal of
gases or mix with rainwater and leach into the soil untreated hazardous waste, implemented stronger
(Montague 1989). leachate (liquid runoff from waste) collection
requirements, and set deadlines for the closure
The discovery of these contamination problems of facilities not meeting standards (Fletcher
around landfills in the 1960s brought about 2005). At the same time, mounting concerns
major changes in landfill design in concert with about air pollution spurred decreased rates of
the first federal law for solid waste, the 1965 MSW incineration. Fewer landfills, less burning
Solid Waste Disposal Act. The bill focused on and more trash helped to grow the burgeoning
improving the efficiency of disposal, providing recycling industry (USEPA 2007).
states and municipalities with financial assistance
and creating federal standards for building and The 1990’s: Subtitle D
maintaining safer landfills (Fletcher 2005).
As the percentage of MSW sent to landfills peaked
Though the technology continued to evolve, in 1990, the EPA continued to refine RCRA
landfill design remained problematic. In the mid- (USEPA 2007). A set of regulations for MSW
1970s, the concept of the “secure” or double-lined disposal referred to as “Subtitle D,” created partly
landfills emerged. Here, two liners are separated in response to lawsuits against the EPA, went into
P.O. Box 6806 | Falls Church, VA 22040 | Phone: 703.237.2249 | Fax: 703.237.8389 | www.chej.org 5
www.chej.org 5 chej@chej.orgLandfills Trashing thefor
as a Means Earth
Disposing of Solid and Hazardous Waste
effect in October of 1993. The hallmark of this large landfills under the Clean Air Act (Fletcher
legislation is the concept of “dry tomb” landfilling. 2005). Other subsequent minor changes to landfill
policy are discussed later in Chapter 8.
Since groundwater contamination occurs when
water mixes with waste, dry tomb landfills are The 21st Century: Alternatives?
designed to isolate waste with a liner and cap,
thus preventing pollution (Lee 2005). The The design of landfills has not changed drastically
minimum standard for a landfill under Subtitle in recent years, nor have new liner systems
D requires both a plastic and a compacted clay prevented leaks in aging liners. CHEJ’s Landfill
liner (Lee 2002). These “dry tomb” landfills are fact pack, Landfill Failures: The Buried Truth,
now the most common type of landfill built in elaborates on landfill designs and their downfalls
the U.S. Since biodegradable waste breaks down (available from CHEJ and at www.chej.org).
much slower due to the lack of moisture and Initially, municipal solid waste “alternatives”
oxygen, and the composition of waste in landfills focused on waste prevention, recycling and energy
shifted to long-lasting items, such as plastics, the production from the gases (mainly methane)
decomposition of “dry tomb” landfills has greatly emitted by landfills. However, the latter two also
slowed (Freudenrich 2000). pose environmental risks, as discussed later.
Additional Subtitle D provisions state that MSW More recently, the concept of zero waste has been
landfills must have liners, leachate collection introduced, which offers a sustainable and safe
systems, groundwater monitoring and corrective solution to landfills. Its advantages and benefits
action (Fletcher 2005). Similar to Superfund, the can be found in Chapter 10: Real Solutions – Zero
corrective action program works with current Waste.
landfill operators to clean up contamination
released into the environment (USEPA 2007a). Facts and Figures on MSW
In 1996, the government began regulating There is a clear downward trend in the number
emissions of certain chemicals and compounds in of landfills in the U.S. (see Figure 1). In 2012
Figure 1: Number of Landfills in the United States, 1988-2010 (USEPA 2010)
Note: Data unavailable for 2003-2004
www.chej.org 6 chej@chej.orgIntroduction
Different TypesIntroduction
of Landfills
CHAPTER 2
there were only 1,908 landfills, compared to 7,924
in 1988 (USEPA 2014a). Unfortunately, fewer
landfills do not mean less waste. The remaining
landfills are larger than before, since the amount
of garbage produced over the past half century
has almost doubled since 1960 (USEPA 2014a).
In 2012, U.S. consumers produced approximately
4.38 pounds of MSW per person per day, totaling
almost 251 million tons, compared to only
88 million tons in 1960! While “recovery” –
recycling and composting – helps to divert waste
away from landfills, close to 55% of the waste still
ends up going to landfills, with another 11.7% Figure 2: MSW Generation Rates 1960-2010 (US EPA 2009)
being incinerated (USEPA 2014a).
most landfills – more than all in the Midwest and
Commercial waste (generated by stores, office Northeast combined. As the number of landfills
buildings, apartment complexes and institutions) declines, MSW continues to travel increased
accounts for approximately 40% of all MSW. distances before landfill disposal. Urban areas,
Private corporations usually manage commercial especially those in the Northeast, export garbage
waste, and are increasingly contracting with to landfills in the Southeast.
municipalities to manage residential MSW as well
(McCarthy 2000). The National Solid Wastes Management
Association asserts that the U.S. currently has the
Newer landfills are much larger than in the past. landfill capacity to last roughly 20 years. However,
This is primarily due to the difficulties in siting certain states including Alaska, Connecticut,
new landfills and the consolidation of the waste Delaware, North Carolina, New Hampshire, and
industry. The Southeast United States contains the Rhode Island have less than five years worth of
available space left (NSWMA 2010).
GENERAL RESOURCES ON LANDFILLS
• A list of common household hazardous wastes: http://www.longwood.edu/assets/safety/epalchhw_brochure.pdf
• Industrial Landfills: http://www3.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/industrial/
• C&D Landfills, see: https://www.epa.gov/landfills/industrial-and-construction-and-demolition-cd-landfills
• HazardousWaste Landfills: https://www.epa.gov/hwpermitting/hazardous-waste-management-facilities-and-
hazardous-waste-management-units#landfills
• EPA website about disaster debris: http://www3.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/imr/cdm/debris.htm
• EPA Superfund information: http://www.epa.gov/superfund/
• Wasting Away - Center for Public Integrity: http://www.publicintegrity.org/environment/health-and-safety/
wasting-away
• RCRA Orientation Manual: http://www2.epa.gov/hwgenerators/resource-conservation-and-recovery-act-rcra-
orientation-manual
• History of Waste Management timeline: http://beginwiththebin.org/resources/for-education
P.O. Box 6806 | Falls Church, VA 22040 | Phone: 703.237.2249 | Fax: 703.237.8389 | www.chej.org 7
www.chej.org 7 chej@chej.orgChapter 3
How Landfills Work
In its most basic form, a landfill is simply a Under Subtitle D, landfills are now typically
“bathtub” in the ground. A municipal solid waste required to have an additional layer of compacted
landfill is designed so that waste is placed on the clay soil underneath the plastic liner. There may
ground in a pot, spread in layers, compacted to also be an additional fabric mat (geotextile mat)
the smallest practical volume, and covered with surrounding the plastic liner to guard against
soil at the end of each day (USEPA 1995). tearing from surrounding rock (Freudenrich
2000).
Most landfills built today are designed based on
the “dry tomb” concept, as specified in Subtitle D Cells
of the RCRA. The basic setup of a modern “dry
tomb” landfill can be seen in Figure 3. Waste is stored in a series of “cells” within the
landfill. Each cell contains one day’s trash, which
Bottom Liner System has been compacted and covered in soil. The
amount of trash in a cell is usually 2,500 tons,
The bottom liner system of a landfill is in effect which is then compacted by bulldozers, balers,
the “tub” that separates the contents of the landfill rollers and other equipment to 1,500 pounds per
from the soil around it. The liner system is the cubic yard (Freudenrich 2000).
main barrier against soil and water contamination
from garbage, leachate, and landfill gas. Storm Water Drainage System
The liners for MSW landfills are usually 30- Plastic drainage pipes and storm liners are used
100 millimeters thick and made of a durable to keep out and remove rainwater. The collected
synthetic plastic (polyethylene, high-density water is channeled to drainage ditches and ponds
polyethylene (HDPE), or polyvinyl chloride). around the base of the landfill. The water is tested
www.chej.org 8 chej@chej.orgCHAPTER
How Landfills Work
CHAPTER23
Figure 3: Single Liner Landfill Containment System (Lee 2004)
for chemicals and is pumped off-site once soil One concern about aerating the leachate is that
sediments have settled. volatile chemicals in the leachate will evaporate
into the air and become airborne. This may pose
Leachate Collection & Monitoring System health risks to residents living nearby.
Despite measures to prevent water from entering Landfill Gas Collection System
the landfill, some water always gets inside. The
water moves through the garbage, mixing with The decomposition of waste by bacteria produces
contaminants (chemicals, metals, waste products landfill gas, composed primarily of methane and
of decomposition) and forms “leachate”. carbon dioxide. Its production depends upon a
number of factors, including the type of waste,
In order to collect leachate, modern landfills moisture content in the landfill, amount of oxygen
contain a leachate collection system between the present and temperature (ATSDR 2001).
composite (clay and plastic) liner and the waste
cells (see Figure 3). Beneath the waste is a filter In compliance with the Clean Air Act, “large”
layer, designed to keep the waste from migrating landfills (those with a capacity at or above
downward but allowing leachate to move freely. 2.5 million cubic meters) that emit at least 50
The leachate collection system is between the filter metric tons of non-methane organic chemicals
layer and the plastic sheeting. Leachate moves (NMOCs) per year must have a landfill gas
through a porous material, such as gravel, and collection system, which reduces NMOC
slides off the plastic sheeting to collection pipes emissions by 98 percent. This series of pipes
(Lee 2005). snakes through the landfill, and collects landfill
gas. The gas is either released (vented) or burned.
The collection pipes lead out to a removal pipe. In some cases, the gas is captured and burned as
The removal pipe pumps or sprays (“aerates”) an energy source. NMOCs typically represent 1
leachate into a collection pond outside the landfill. percent of landfill gas. Included in NMOCs are
There, leachate is tested for contaminants and toxic volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and
then treated, returning the solids to the landfill. hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) such as benzene,
www.chej.org 9 chej@chej.orgLandfills Trashing
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thefor Disposing Solid and Hazardous Waste
Earth
toluene, ethyl benzene and vinyl chloride (USEPA
2008e). Additional information on landfill gas can
be found in Chapter 4: Problems with Landfills,
under the subsection entitled “Landfill Gas and
Air Emissions.”
Cover/Cap
For an operating landfill, a covering of six inches
of soil is placed on the top of the day’s compacted
waste. This covering aims to keep animals and
insects from getting into the landfill, and to keep
garbage from escaping.
When a landfill is closed, it is first covered with a
layer of soil (fill), followed by a low-permeability
polyethylene (plastic) sheeting. On top of the cap
lies a one to two foot high porous drainage layer.
Up to a foot of topsoil covers the drainage layer to
promote vegetation growth and prevent erosion
(Lee 2005).
Groundwater Monitoring System
Groundwater monitoring wells are placed
around the perimeter of the landfill, usually
several hundred feet apart (Lee 2015). At these
stations, pipes are sunk deep enough to reach
the groundwater. The groundwater is then
periodically sampled for temperature, pH levels
and the presence of leachate chemicals.
www.chej.org 10 chej@chej.orgChapter 4
Problems with Landfills
All landfills lead to environmental pollution. Exposure Pathways
Even a landfill that complies with every EPA law
and regulation will, by the nature of its design, People are exposed to chemicals in landfills
emit harmful gases and leachate into the water, through four basic routes of exposure – air
soil and air. Landfill waste takes hundreds, if not (breathing), skin absorption (direct contact),
thousands, of years to completely decompose. consumption (ingesting drinking water or food
contaminated by chemicals) or from the mother
As the waste degrades, so do the liners and caps via the placenta (while a fetus) or from breast
meant to contain them. The leachate and gas milk. Figure 4 below offers a simple visual of
collection systems, and monitoring wells will these pathways.
need maintenance and upkeep, for which there
is no funding after 30 years post-closure. Each
new truckload of garbage dumped into a landfill
leads to an unknown amount of environmental
pollution, expensive remediation costs, and health
threats to those who live and work near the site
and everyone affected by the wider issue of global
climate change.
These, and the following issues underscore the
need for serious consideration of the zero waste
principle, a safer answer to the alarming problem Figure 4: Landfill Exposure Pathways
of our waste and landfills.
www.chej.org 11 chej@chej.orgLandfills Trashing
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thefor Disposing Solid and Hazardous Waste
Earth
Design Problems All liners are permeable to some degree and are
often punctured with pinholes caused by the
Subtitle D landfills are designed to seal off waste manufacturing and welding process (Montague
from contaminating the surrounding air and 1992). Uneven soil or sharp rocks underneath
water. However, most organic materials require the liner can tear the plastic or cause stress to
air and water to decompose into nutrient- the clay liner. Additionally, household products,
rich matter, which can then be reclaimed by including vinegar, alcoholic beverages, margarine,
the land and fertilize it. This leads to a classic and household cleaners, can permeate through
catch-22 scenario: open landfills contaminate the the plastic liner, degrade it, soften it, or make
environment more easily than closed ones, but it brittle and cause it to crack (Pellerano 2005).
closed, dry landfills slow down organic (and non- Depending on the composition of the waste,
organic) waste decomposition, thus producing leachate can be comprised of many chemical
gas and leachate over a prolonged time-span. This contaminants. Unfortunately, even with an intact
is not to imply that unlined, open dumps are a liner, many of these contaminants can migrate into
better alternative to Subtitle D landfills. Rather, the surrounding soil. Organic chemicals, such as
these modern landfills, even more than their chlorinated solvents, benzene, and vinyl chloride,
predecessors, are fundamentally problematic. have been found to readily pass through a fully
functional liner relatively quickly (Haxo 1988).
Liner Failures
The clay and plastic liners should have surface-to-
Liners are placed at the bottom of the landfill surface sealed contact. When this occurs, even if
to contain waste and separate it from the the plastic sheeting is cracked, initial leakage into
surrounding soil and groundwater. They are the clay layer will be limited. However, if the clay
usually made of durable synthetic plastic, and plastic liners are not in direct contact, such
in combination with compacted clay soils. as when the plastic sheet develops a fold, leachate
Though liners are designed to avoid breakage, can flow out through the hole and widely disperse
deterioration and punctures, industry experts and across and through the clay liner, eventually
the EPA acknowledge that leakage is inevitable contaminating groundwater (Lee 2005). Such liner
after a certain number of years (USEPA 1988). failures and subsequent water contamination are
quite common. For instance, a survey of Virginia
After the Leak: Effects of a Flawed Liner landfills in 2003 found contaminated groundwater
in the monitoring wells of 62% of the sites (deFur
The Dewey Loeffel toxic dump in Nassau, New 2003).
York operated from 1952 until 1968. It was only
in 1980, however, that state officials discovered
the landfill had been leaking PCBs into local New Doesn’t Mean Safe
waterways and Nassau Lake, a fishing and
An example of a faulty liner occurred in a
recreational haven that now lies devoid of activity.
Toms River Chemical landfill in Dover, New
The fish are unsafe to eat, and residents are scared
Jersey in 1979. There, just three months
to even dip their toes in the water. With cleanup
after the landfill opened, Department of
still being bogged down by General Electric,
Environmental Protection officials found that
the primary user of the dump, the prospect of a
the double-lined landfill cells were leaking
speedy recovery for the region is dim; the landfill
between 60 to 131 gallons of leachate per day
serves as a stark reminder of the potential impact
(Montague 1982a).
of faulty liners (Cooney 2010, Gardiner 2002).
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Problems with Landfills
CHAPTER2 4
Leachate Collection and Monitoring System Landfill Failures – In Their Own Words
Failures
For the past 20 years, research on Subtitle
When rainwater or other precipitation mixes D modern landfills has continually
with waste, leachate is formed. Though landfill concluded that all liners eventually fail.
operators seek to minimize leachate generation by
covering waste daily, this is only effective up to a When adopting the Subtitle D
point. In theory, once a landfill is capped, water regulations, the Environmental
can no longer enter, and thus a landfill ceases to Protection Agency wrote in the 1988
generate new leachate. However, as discussed draft regulations (USEPA 1988):
more in later chapters, landfill caps always allow a
certain amount of moisture into the landfill, thus Even the best liner and leachate collection
continuing to create leachate. system will ultimately fail due to natural
If a landfill liner fails, the leachate collection deterioration.
system cannot work as designed. Leachate is
supposed to move to the bottom of the landfill The U.S. Geological Survey wrote in 2003
and slide off the plastic liner to collection pipes. (Christenson):
However, if a liner has cracks or holes, the
leachate can drain outside of the landfill, rather Modern landfills are designed to minimize
than being funneled into the collection system contamination of ground water, but
(Lee 2005). modern landfills eventually may leak
contaminants in the environment.
Even if the liner is currently intact, the leachate
collection system can still fail. Drainage and
collection pipes can become clogged by silt or misinterpreted as an end to leachate generation,
microorganisms, weakened by chemicals, or when in fact a pipe may be blocked. If a landfill
crushed by overlying waste and soil. Leachate does not have manholes connecting the collection
pumps that drain collected leachate out of the pipes, there is no physical way to find out if the
landfill can also fail, allowing leachate to build up collection system is intact. TV cameras and
and leak. All of these circumstances cause leachate specialized “snaking” tools can be used to find
to pool at the bottom of the landfill, placing a blockage and clear it, or a chemical tracer can
additional pressure on the liner, and eventually be added to the waste to see if it reaches the
leading to a failure in which leachate is released collection system, but both of these methods
into the soil (Montague 1989). Some states have require extra money that landfill operators may
regulations requiring landfill operators to notify not be willing to spend.
nearby residents when a leachate leak occurs
(deFur 2003). However, this provision is useless ifGroundwater detection or monitoring systems
leaks are not identified. are intended to identify liner and leachate
collection system failures. Monitoring wells can
Collection system failures are difficult to detect only detect leaks if the leachate passes by one of
and often require extensive testing, which can the monitoring wells surrounding the landfill. A
be expensive and time consuming with no typical plume of leachate in sand, gravel or silt
guarantee of success. For example, a lack of soils is between 10 and 20 feet wide (Lee 2005).
leachate flow through the collection system can be Thus, if monitoring wells are placed 200 feet apart,
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as per government regulation (requirements Toxic Leachate
range between 100 to 200 feet depending on
the state), and each well monitors a one-foot When moisture filters through a landfill and
area, even a 20-foot wide flume could easily pass mixes with decomposing organic waste, plastics,
between wells without detection (see Figure 5). batteries, electronics, diapers, cleaners and a
multitude of other items, the leachate formed
can contain bacteria, heavy metals and other
carcinogenic compounds. Even assuming that no
items classified as “hazardous waste” by RCRA
end up in a municipal landfill (an extremely
improbable assumption), the combination of water
with chemicals from many household products
can create toxic leachate.
Leachate can contain a variety of chemical
contaminants, depending on the specific waste
Figure 5: Leaking Leachate Escapes Detection (Lee 2004) disposed of in the landfill. Table 2 shows the
types of chemicals present in a MSW landfill.
Leachate and other pollutants also pose a threat The toxicity of leachate in landfills is due in part
to groundwater upon leaving the landfill. Spills to the prevalence of industrial and commercial
can occur while handling leachate, and the ponds chemicals and toxic products, such as vinyl (also
that hold leachate, usually lined with HDPE known as polyvinyl chloride or PVC) plastic. PVC
sheeting, can leak and contaminate groundwater. is found in pipes and vinyl siding, in addition to
In addition, ponds for storm water can flood and everyday products, such as shower curtains, food
contaminate surface and goundwater (Lee 2005). containers, vinyl flooring, cosmetic packaging,
and many kids’ toys. PVCcontains plasticizer
Due to the unreliability of groundwater molecules that easily seep out into the leachate
monitoring, some states, such as Michigan, (Meriowski 1999).
require landfills to contain a double-plastic
liner, with a leak-detection system between The majority of plasticizers are phthalates or heavy
the two layers. The very fact that these leak- metals such as lead and cadmium, both of which
detection systems catch failures from the upper the National Toxicology Program classifies as a
liner illustrates the vulnerabilities of liners and human carcinogen (ATSDR 2003). When leachate
importance of locating leaks before groundwater includes these chemicals, it becomes toxic. The
contamination occurs (Lee 2002). Environmental Protection Agency estimates that
in 2012, 870,000 tons of PVC went to landfills
Leachate Problems (USEPA 2014a).
“A landfill is a bathtub in the ground, and a Another major source of toxicity in leachate
bathtub can leak two ways: it can leak through a comes from discarded electronic items. Table 3
hole in the bottom (failure of its bottom liner), or it lists some of the hazardous chemicals found in
can fill up with fluid and spill over its sides. Either such waste. In 2012, 2.42 million tons of unwanted
way, it’s bad news.” - Peter Montague (1989) consumer electronics were discarded in landfills,
estimated at 1.5% of the municipal solid waste
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stream (USEPA 2014a). Electronic waste, or A computer monitor or television screen
e-waste, encompasses not just computers, but a contains an average of 4 to 8 pounds of lead.
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broad range of devices, including refrigerators, When monitors are crushed in landfills, the
washers, dryers, air conditions, cellular phones, lead is released and, as an EPA publication
televisions, foluorescent lamp bulbs, and personal notes, can “leach out under conditions
stereos. Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) found in typical of municipal landfills” (USEPA 2000).
computer monitors, televisions and other display Consumer electronics have been estimated
devices, contain significant amounts of lead and to account for 40% of lead and 70% of heavy
heavy metals. While appliances containing CRTs metals found in landfills (Scanlon 2001).
are classified as hazardous waste, they often end
up in MSW landfills.
Table 2: Sample of Chemicals Found in MSW Landfill Leachate
Chemical Sources Health Risks
Magnets, cutting tools, alloys, Heart and lung damage, dermatitis
Cobalt colored glass or ceramics
Ammonia Fertilizers, household cleaners Skin, mouth, lung and throat irritation
Wood preservatives, pesticides, Skin discoloration, blood vessel damage,
Arsenic sawdust abnormal heart rhythm, cancer
Cathode ray tubes, batteries, Brain and kidney damage, muscle
Lead metal pipes, old paints weakness, decreased mental abilities
Electronics, thermometers, Brain and kidney damage, lung damage,
Mercury batteries skin rashes
Paint, lacquers, adhesives, Fatigue, weakness, confusion, memory
Toluene fingernail polish, paint thinners loss, nausea
Plastics, resins, nylons, rubbers, Anemia, leukemia, bone marrow
Benzene dyes, lubricants, pesticides, damage, immune system damage
detergents
Di (2-ethylhexyl) Plastic products like tablecloths, High, prolonged levels may cause liver
phthalate (DEHP) floor tiles, upholstery, dolls, damage
shoes, rainwear
Note: This table represents some of the typical chemicals found in leachate. The composition of
waste and its decomposition time can cause leachate composition to vary greatly from landfill to
landfill.
Source: Kjeldsen (2002), ASTDR (2004b, 2004c, 2007b, 2007,1999a, 2000a, 2007a, 2002a) (in order of chemicals
listed, top to bottom)
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Table 3: Select Chemicals Found in Landfill Leachate from Electronic Waste
Chemical Sources Health Risks
Plastics in computers Kidney disease, lung damage, fragile
Cadmium
bones
Anti-corrosion agent in Allergic reactions, bronchitis, respiratory
Chromium (VI) steel computer parts problems, DNA damage
Glass panels in screens Severe brain and kidney damage,
Lead and monitors miscarriage, high blood pressure, anemia
Circuit breakers, Brain and nervous system damage, kidney
Mercury switches, other electronic problems, ulcers, high blood pressure
equipment
Polybrominated Flame retardant additive
Liver and thyroid problems
Diphenyl Ether (PBDE) in plastics and textiles
Though banned by Negative effects on the liver and
Polychlorinated
Congress in 1977, PCBs endocrine system; skin and eye problems;
Biphenyls (PCBs)
exist in older electrical impaired immune system; neurological
equipment effects in children; low birth weight;
reproductive organ damage; cancer
Source: ATSDR (2008, 2007, 2004a, 2000, 1999, 1999a), Scanlon (2001)
Unfortunately, heavy metal contaminants do Just the mere inclusion of MSW landfill sites on
not break down into inert forms, but rather the Superfund National Priorities List indicates
continually contaminate the surrounding soil and that dangerous toxic contamination does occur
water (Lee 2004). Furthermore, treatment systems at these landfills. Superfund sites are the worst
for leachate are often unable to remove heavy of the worst among toxic contamination sites
metals (Anthony 2001). in the country. MSW landfills that are on the
Superfund list include the Marine Corps Logistics
A study done in the early 1990s on the toxicity Base landfill in Georgia, Operating Industries,
of MSW leachate found that all samples were Inc. landfill in California, and the “Hastings
acutely toxic; three of four were genetically toxic, Groundwater Contamination” landfill in Nebraska
and two of four contained concentrations of US (Wang 2009). In EPA Region I (Connecticut,
EPA priority pollutants exceeding standards Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode
for drinking water. Based on their results, the Island, Vermont), 17 out of the 117 Superfund
authors concluded that leachate from MSW sites were once municipal solid waste landfills
landfills was as acutely and chronically toxic as (USEPA 2010e). According to the EPA,
that of hazardous waste landfills (Schrab 1993). approximately 20% of all Superfund sites are
MSW landfills (USEPA 2015).
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Toxic Leachate and Groundwater Contamination up the food chain, which impacts people who
live outside of the immediate proximity of
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“It is prudent public health policy to assume that the landfill. Other negative effects of leachate
any contamination of groundwaters by MSW contaminated water include aesthetic problems
landfill leachate represents a hazardous situation (odor, discoloration, etc.) and a shortened lifespan
to the public health of those who consume the of appliances, plumbing and washed clothes (Lee
waters, even if the concentrations of all regulated 1994).
contaminants measured in the groundwater are
below the drinking water standards.” While studies have not definitively “proven” a link
- Dr. Fred Lee (1994) between leachate-contaminated groundwater and
health problems (see Appendix A), the known
Though the public health risks of toxic leachate health effects of many contaminants found in
remain largely unknown, it is important to groundwater from leaking landfills highlight the
remember that all chemicals can be toxic to need to employ a precautionary approach. Why
human health, depending on the concentration place the public at risk, knowing that all landfills
and duration of exposure. There are over 84,000 will eventually leak, when safer alternatives
chemicals used in the manufacturing and (recycling, compost, etc.) exist?
processing of everyday products, and fewer
than 200 of them are measured when testing Holding Ponds and Leachate Disposal
groundwater for leachate contamination (USEPA
2010a, Lee 2010). Groundwater near landfills Leachate disposal can take many forms. Many
may have thousands of chemicals at unknown times leachate is collected and sent to wastewater
concentrations, yet if the tested chemicals for treatment plants to be treated, though this can
established drinking water standards are at adversely impact the plant due to the high levels
low enough levels, water is considered “safe”. of ammonia found in leachates (Abbas 2009).
Furthermore, different chemical contaminants
have differing health effects, and people drinking Another disposal option involves letting the
contaminated water may be exposed to different leachate stand in a holding pond for a period of
concentrations. time so that microbacteria can breakdown the
chemical compounds. Leachate collection systems
In addition to risks from chemicals, landfills also funnel the leachate to pipes, which then deposit
contain biological contaminants. Landfill waste the waste runoff into a pond. These open air
includes fecal matter from diapers, septic tanks ponds also allow the leachate to evaporate into
and pet manure. While bacteria and viruses found the air, thereby reducing its volume and creating
in fecal matter have a short lifespan, cyst-forming a more solid sludge that is then dumped back into
protozoa can survive and mix into the leachate a landfill, or even burned (Abbas 2009). These
(Sulfita 1992). These risks may be small, but they volatile chemicals are released into the air as
cannot be ignored. another source of air pollution.
When leachate-contaminated groundwater Upon arriving at the holding pond, the leachate
discharges to surface waters, such as springs, may be sprayed out of the pipe and through
aquatic life can be impacted. Toxic chemicals the air. Spraying the leachate causes its volatile
can bioaccumulate (become concentrated) in components - compounds which can be toxic – to
the aquatic life, and as the fish are eaten, move evaporate quickly and pollute the surrounding air.
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Besides sitting in holding ponds, leachate may gas generation. Decomposing organic waste
also be transported to another part of the landfill produces methane and carbon-dioxide. Each
where it is then sprayed over the trash (ESD gas compromises 40-60% of the total emissions,
2007). Besides not solving the issue of leachate, depending on the make-up of the waste.
the spraying of the leachate creates air pollution Methane is only produced by anaerobic (oxygen-
that can affect nearby residents. independent) bacteria, so very dense landfills
which allow little oxygen access to its waste may
None of the leachate disposal methods discussed produce more methane than carbon dioxide.
above truly address the issue before them: what to Other factors influencing the amount of gas
do with leachate in the long run. Leachate, even emissions include moisture content (more water
if reduced in volume or treated by a wastewater leads to more bacteria which leads to more gas)
facility, still leaves behind a residue that must and the temperature (warmer landfills promote
be dealt with (Abbas 2009). As with the landfill bacterial growth).
itself, these are temporary fixes for a long-term
problem. Landfill gas is usually produced under the surface
of the landfill. It then tries to move away from the
Landfill Gas and Air Emissions landfill, in a process called landfill gas migration.
The gas will take the path of least resistance,
Unfortunately, leaking leachate is not the only which is generally upward. This is especially the
problem plaguing landfills. Gas emissions are case with gases lighter than air, such as methane.
always released during the decomposition of However, if the landfill is very compact, the
waste. In addition to being an odor nuisance, methane may migrate sideways to other parts of
these greenhouse gases can contain toxic the landfill or out of the landfill entirely, where it
contaminants harmful to the health of those can then move upward. Landfill gas migration
who breathe the surrounding air. Like liners and has been observed for distances of over 1500 feet
leachate collection systems, measures to contain (ATSDR 2001). Gases which are heavier than air,
gas emissions are moderately successful at best. such as carbon dioxide, will collect in channels
Fugitive emissions from landfills continue post- beneath the surface of the landfill.
closure. Today’s waste will contribute to global
climate change and air pollution for many years Landfill gases often permeate out of the top
into the future. covering of soil on open landfills, leading to
air pollution. Due to the questionable long-
Landfills emit gasses for three reasons (ATSDR term success of landfill caps, closed landfills
2001): can also allow the escape of landfill gas. After
• Bacteria break down organic waste, a landfill is capped, grass and other vegetation
releasing methane and carbon dioxide. are usually planted on the surface to prevent
• Certain chemicals in landfills are volatized erosion. However, landfill gas often seeps through
when they break down, changing from a the cracked cover or cap of a landfill. If carbon
liquid or a solid into vapor. dioxide continues to be released, it can prevent
• Certain chemicals combined in a landfill the plant roots from taking up oxygen. Landfills
react with each other to form a gas. with faulty caps are often characterized by large
swaths of non-vegetated land as a result of landfill
Of the three, the first category – decomposition gas (Lee 1994).
– represents the largest proportion of landfill
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Landfill Gas and Climate Change methane organic compounds (NMOCs) per year,
aren’t even required to have gas collection systems
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One of the biggest concerns with landfill gases are (USEPA 1996). The Agency for Toxic Substances
their contribution to global climate change. Both and Disease Registry (ATSDR) estimates that the
methane and carbon dioxide are greenhouse gases peak gas production occurs five to seven years
(GHGs), a term which refers to gases that absorb after the waste was dumped.
heat emanating from the earth’s surface and then
radiate a portion of that energy back down to However, Lee asserts that this model is based on
earth, thereby increasing the surface temperature un-bagged, homogenous waste which interacts
more so than if the gases were not present. Global with moisture (Lee 2005). In reality, dry tomb
warming is attributed in part to this greenhouse landfills are sealed off from moisture and waste
gas effect. Municipal Solid Waste landfills were is often contained in plastic bags. When plastic
responsible for 17% of anthropogenic (human- bags eventually decay, likely decades after the
caused) methane emissions in 2009, making such lifespan of the gas collection system, the waste
landfills the third largest anthropogenic source of will break down and release gas into the soil (Lee
methane (USEPA 2012). 2002). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) estimates that over the lifetime
Estimates on how much landfills contribute to of a landfill, the gas recovery rate is merely 20%
global greenhouse gas production vary greatly, (Bogner 2007).
based on the percentage of gas produced by
landfills that is captured through gas collection If 80% of the lifetime emissions from a landfill
wells. However, as solid waste planning expert are released into the atmosphere, finding landfill
Peter Anderson writes “there is virtually no field alternatives seems imperative as citizens, scientists
data on the amount of fugitive gas emissions and governments seek to address the issue of
from landfills,” so the EPA claim that 75% global climate change.
of landfill gas is captured may be grossly
overestimated (Anderson 2007). Landfill Gas, Air Quality and Public Health
Air pollution from landfills remains a more local,
“Large” (at or above 2.5 million cubic meters for though no less important, concern. Chemicals,
capacity) landfills are not required to have a gas even in small amounts, can be transmitted out
collection system in place for the first five years of the landfill into the air and soil with fugitive
of active waste storing (or, if the landfill closes methane and carbon dioxide emissions. This
within two years, then two years after initial places residents of the surrounding community
garbage collection). Moreover, after a landfill at risk to toxic exposure (Lewis 1998). Captured
closes permanently, “the [gas] collection and landfill gas, often vented straight into the air, also
control system must have been in continuous places residents at risk. Many landfills do not
operation a minimum of 15 years” – a time period have high enough stacks to adequately dilute these
that includes gas collection during active waste gaseous pollutants through dispersion. Thus,
storing – and NMOCs emission rates need only much of the polluted air remains near the landfill
be below 50 metric tons per year before the gas site (Raloff 1999).
collection system can be removed. There are
significant portions of time that the landfill emits Low levels of organic compounds are present in
greenhouse gases unchecked. “Small” landfills, or landfill gases, including a number of hazardous
those that emit less than 50 metric tons of non- air pollutants (HAPs) and volatile organic
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compounds (VOCs). Table 4 shows common Table 4: Common Volatile Organic
volatile organic compounds found in landfill gas. Compounds Found in Landfill Gas
According to the EPA, these include suspected (Number of times found in 46 landfills)
and probable carcinogens such as toluene,
benzene, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, vinyl Trichlorofluomethane Carbon tetrachloride
chloride (much of which originates from PVC), (46) (37)
perchloroethylene, and methylene dichloride
(USEPA 1995). Even though these chemicals make Benzene (45) 1,2-dichloroethene
up a small portion of landfill emissions, most can (37)
have toxic effects at very low levels.
Trichloroethene (44) Chloroform (36)
Odors and Particulate Matter Vinyl chloride (42) 1,1-dichloroethane
(33)
The extent of health effects from landfill gases
Toluene (40) 1,1-dichloroethene
depends on the toxicity of the chemicals and the
(32)
extent of exposure. Methane is a major contributor
to the formation of ozone, which can cause or Tetrachlorethene (39) Ethyl benzene (31)
aggravate respiratory conditions (ATSDR 2001).
1,1,1-trichloroethane
Landfill odors can be overpowering for those living
(38)
and working within a mile of a landfill, especially
where a landfill has been built with insufficient Methylene chloride Chloromethane (30)
buffer land surrounding it (Lee 2005). Odors are (37)
likely caused by landfill gases like sulfides (which
1,2 dichloroethane (37)
produce the rotten egg smell), ammonia, and
certain NMOCs, such as vinyl chloride (ATSDR Source: EPA (1990)
2001). In addition to causing headaches, nausea
and sleep disturbances, strong odors can trigger Burning Landfill Gas
asthma attacks.
Landfill gas may also contain various heavy
Landfill dust is created when waste is dumped, metals, such as mercury. Mercury is a potent
when the daily cover is removed or added, and neurotoxin (nerve poison). Mercury in its
from truck traffic. The presence of this dust elemental form is present in many products,
could create a nuisance or possible health threat including thermometers, the currently popular
to property owners nearby. Substantial amounts incandescent light bulbs, and batteries (Raloff
of litter can blow off the top of open landfills on a 2001). When these products are disposed of in
windy day (Lee 2005). landfills, microbes in the landfill can convert the
mercury to its highly poisonous methyl mercury
Moreover, landfill odors serve as a reminder of the form (Lindberg 2001).
economic and psychological implications of living
near a landfill – including lower property values A 2001 study found that high concentrations of
and social stigma. In a study in Pennsylvania, methyl mercury, 1,000 times higher than any
landfills negatively affected property values concentration of methyl mercury ever found
for almost a 2-mile radius, farther and more in ambient air, were present in the water vapor
significantly than roads or factory farms (Ready condensed from landfill gas in Florida (Raloff
2003). 2001). This study indicated that landfills are likely
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