"Intimate relationship" with "virtual humans" and the "socialification" of familyship
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Paladyn, Journal of Behavioral Robotics 2020; 11: 357–369
Research Article
Hiroshi Yamaguchi*
“Intimate relationship” with “virtual humans”
and the “socialification” of familyship
https://doi.org/10.1515/pjbr-2020-0023 It is “expected to grow from US$ 3.49 billion in 2018 to
received January 16, 2020; accepted June 14, 2020 US$ 12.36 billion by 2023, at a compound annual growth
Abstract: In this article, the author provides a new view on rate of 28.78% between 2018 and 2023” [1].
intimate relationships with “virtual humans” such as robots The areas of application of these technologies are wide-
and AIs. Recent technological developments have enabled spread. Among them, the household sector is expected to
firms to create humanlike robots and AIs. It is likely that, in the lead the growth of the whole industry. In 2010, the New
near future, a growing number of people will want intimate Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organiza-
relationships with these virtual humans. This may receive tion (NEDO) in Japan, in association with the Ministry of
harsh criticism, for example, that such a move would indicate Economy, Trade and Industry (METI), predicted the
objectification of women or ethical wrongdoing. Instead, future market size of the Japanese robot industry until
however, it should be viewed in light of quality of life (QOL) 2035. They estimated that in 25 years, the Japanese
for sexual minorities and people with various difficulties. robot industry will grow from about 1 trillion to 9.7
Aided by the discussion of the introduction of the Long Term trillion yen. Within the industry, the service sector is
Public Care Insurance (LTCI) system in Japan in the late 1990s, expected to grow the fastest (Figure 1). This sector includes
the author positions this trend as the “socialification” of nursing care, entertainment, household support, and
familyship – that is, a phenomenon in which the virtual communication.
humans, as products or services offered by businesses, become Robots and AIs have already become popular not only in
partners/family members, and a change by which some parts workplaces or on the street but also in households. Many
of the intimate relationships within families are shared in have practical uses, such as iRobot’s automated cleaner
society. Just as the LTCI system, which was introduced as a Roomba and Amazon’s Alexa, but some do not. Sony’s
socialification of nursing care, reduced the burden of care on “entertainment robot” AIBO, first launched in 1999, moved
Japanese women and improved their QOL, adoption of virtual autonomously and had various sensors to allow it to react to
humans as a socialification of familyship is also likely to its owner’s actions but did not serve any practical functions.
improve the QOL of people with difficulties worldwide. The owners of approximately 150,000 units, which were
sold, simply enjoyed how they behaved as pets.
Keywords: robot, elderly, agalmatophilia, minority rights,
quality of life
1 The rise of “virtual humans”
1.1 “Serious” relationships with robots
and AIs
The robot and Artificial Intelligence (AI) industry is now
one of the fastest growing sectors of the global economy.
* Corresponding author: Hiroshi Yamaguchi, Faculty of Global
Media Studies, Komazawa University, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, Japan,
e-mail: hiroshi.yamaguchi@tokyo.nifty.jp Figure 1: A projection of robot industry in Japan (NEDO 2010).
Open Access. © 2020 Hiroshi Yamaguchi, published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Public
License.358 Hiroshi Yamaguchi
In fact, many AIBO owners treated them as if they were Even physical bodies are sometimes unnecessary for
actually “living” and developed intimate relationships with such relationships. AIs without any physical body can also
them. Sony withdrew from the robot business in 2005, and become partners for committed and/or intimate relation-
ceased its user support and maintenance services in 2014 ships with their owners [5]:
(it resumed the business in January 2018 and launched a new
version renamed as “aibo”). This effectively meant that “When we communicate in an environment with fewer cues from
facial expression and body language, people have a lot of room
AIBO (the first series) faced “death.” In 2015, A-Fan Co.
to idealize their partner,” says Catalina Toma, an associate
held a joint “funeral” ceremony for AIBOs that had professor of communications at the University of Wisconsin. She
stopped working [2]. The AIBOs that were “deceased” due points to research showing that humans who communicate
to lack of parts necessary for repair were lined up and remotely by email or chat often have an easier time forming
their owners put their hands together while listening to personal bonds than people who meet face to face. “It can be
hard for real people, with all the messy complications of the
the voice of a Buddhist monk chanting a sutra. The event
physical world, to compete with that.”
was just like funeral ceremony for pets. Since then, such
ceremonies have been held semiannually; the sixth was
In some cases, the bodies of AIs can be “two-dimensional;”
held in April 2018.
in other words, they are AIs depicted as characters in animes
or games. In Japanese games like Konami’s Love Plus or
Sony’s Summer Lesson, players interact with characters on
the screen. The human interaction made possible by that
1.2 Capability/appearance may not be
game engine was not enough to call it AI, but still one Love
indispensable Plus player enjoyed going to a hot spring alone with that
game as a hot spring trip with that character. In Love Plus,
Humanoid dolls can also be partners in intimate relation-
there is a scene where the player goes on a hot spring trip
ships with people. Some companies sell, the so-called “sex
with the character. This player imitated it [6].
dolls,” humanlike dolls intended to satisfy their owners’
On November 4, 2018, a male government clerk living
sexual desire. Recent products often employ AI, enabling
in Tokyo, aged 35, engaged in a wedding ceremony with
their owners to communicate with them (sexbots), and
Hatsune Miku. Miku is a type of virtual singer computer
can be customized according to preference. In several
software with a green-haired girl character as an avatar.
countries, such as Russia, France, and Japan, sexbot
The software enables the owner to create female-voiced
brothels provide clients with cheaper and safer alter-
songs, but the girl character cannot physically interact
natives to “real” prostitutes. However, these dolls can at
with the owner since she does not have a physical body.
the same time be more than just “objects.” A number of
Now the clerk lives with Miku who “lives” as the character
news articles can be found on the Internet about those
of a virtual home robot, which costs US$ 2,600, created by
who engage in serious love and sex with the sexbots or
an IoT venture company, Gatebox Inc. All she can do is
sex dolls (for example, [3,4]).
recognize him and engage in simple conversations; yet the
In addition, these people do not necessarily require
clerk says he is happy living with her [7].
that the bots/dolls have a high degree of intelligence when
choosing them as the partners of serious relationships.
According to industry experts, about 2,000 “love dolls” are
sold each year in Japan [4]. Many of these, often costing 1.3 Definitions and scope
more than 6,000 US dollars, neither speak nor move
autonomously. However, many of their owners live with In this article, the author defines the term “virtual human”
them, go out with them, and even talk with them (although as a robot or AI that enables the owner or user to feel
the conversations are one-sided). commitment. If they are equipped with sufficiently devel-
A serious and intimate relationship does not neces- oped AIs, these virtual humans cannot be distinguished
sarily involve physical contact, including sexual acts. A from real humans. However, even those with limited cap-
typical love doll is equipped with the function to have abilities (including lack of physical bodies), or an appear-
sexual intercourse with the owner, but not all owners ance not resembling that of a human, can be virtual
actually use the function. For such owners, emotional “ties” humans if the owner/user feels commitment accordingly.
with the dolls are more important. Such dolls are nothing Some people would be willing to have and maintain serious
less than partners in serious and intimate relationships with and intimate relationships with these virtual humans. Some
their owners. may be reminded of “companion species” as described by“Intimate relationship” with “virtual humans” & “socialification” of familyship 359
Haraway [8]. Companion dogs, for example, may help their Since a virtual human does not necessarily have a
owners in their hunting expeditions but may do nothing physical humanoid body, an “intimate relationship” in this
useful otherwise; even so, these dogs can be precious and study does not necessarily include sexual relations. Also,
indispensable companions to their owners. Surely then, a since they may not be sufficiently intelligent, the author
virtual human can be a companion to its owner/user, just does not employ Giddens’s definition of an intimate
like dogs or AIBOs. relationship, “mutual self-disclosure between equals” [13].
Throughout the world today, we see examples of “per- A closer definition would be “a type of personal relation-
sonification,” which attributes human characteristics to ship that is subjectively experienced and may also be
things that are not human beings. At least in Japan, socially recognized as close,” by Jamieson [14]. It includes a
personification is not limited to mere rhetorical techniques wide repertoire of practices, including “giving to, sharing
or children’s fairy tales. In the traditional Japanese faith (later with, spending time with, knowing, practically caring for,
called Shinto), people thought that God resided in all kinds of feeling attachment to, [and] expressing affection for”
objects. Tylor thought that such animism existed only in another. Since it is personal, the “practice of intimacy”
primitive societies [9], but it prevails in developed societies as may differ from person to person. Sexual activity is surely
well. Unlike Harvey’s [10] claim, such ideas are not limited to important for many, but not for all.
people who have unorthodox customs or beliefs. As Jensen It is important to note, however, that when a partner in
and Blok observed, techno-animism is prevalent all across an intimate relationship is a virtual human, the relationship
Japan [11]. You can see it among factory workers who gave may not be mutual or reciprocal in the sense that is applied
names to industrial robots in their factories, engineers who to relationships between humans. (When a person says,
created a vending machine that speaks, and female fans of “God loves me” and “I love God,” is it a mutual love?)
the game Touken Ranbu featuring personified Japanese Nevertheless, if a person feels an intimate connection to a
katana (swords), in addition to AIBO owners and the man virtual human, it constitutes an intimate relationship.
who married Hatsune Miku. Such sympathetic behaviors of In addition, in some cases, it may be particularly
people toward these man-made artifacts are natural exten- important for the relationship to be “socially recognized
sions of their attitude toward graveyards, memorial towers for as close” in the sense that such relationships may not be
beached whales, killed and eaten livestock, exterminated recognized as serious and worth being respected by a
harmful insects and termites, harvested plants, cut flowers, large majority within society. It is somewhat similar to
Bifidobacteria used for yogurt, or Bacillus subtilis used for the same-sex marriage, which is not currently recog-
biological experiments, all of which exist in this country. nized as socially legitimate in many regions of the world,
Distinctions between humans, animals, and things have except in some countries that have changed their
been, and still are, quite subtle. The attitudes Haraway [8] existing laws in recent years. In many of these countries,
found through many years of research were established at gays and lesbians can still live with their partners.
least hundreds of years ago in this country and have been However, quite a few of them are not satisfied with mere
maintained as a social norm to the present day. co-living status. They want social recognition of their
However, it is inappropriate to think that such a way relationships and wish to marry legally. The man who
of thinking does not exist outside Japan. In this cultural married Hatsune Miku got a certificate of marriage from
domain, Japan has not been greatly influenced by traditional Gatebox Inc. The company issued such certificates for
Western culture (based mainly on Christianity) that strictly 3,708 owners of its products through December 2017 [15].
distinguishes among humans, animals, and things. Thus,
examples of this attitude prevail everywhere and are
easily observed in Japan. Nevertheless, we also see similar
examples in other areas of the world, including the
2 QOL of minorities and
Western Hemisphere, at least in fantasies or entertain- challenged individuals
ment content, including Pygmalion in ancient Greece and
Celtic animism in Harry Potter. The dissemination of virtual
2.1 Agalmatophilia (people who love
humans is creating a situation such that the possibility
of Latour’s “non-modern settlement” in [12] should be machines/AIs/characters)
seriously considered in the rest of the world, including in
Western societies. Therefore, in this study, discussion is not In Section 2.1, the author suggests a perspective in which
limited in scope to only Japan. Rather, it will be at least virtual humans are a possible alternative to raise the quality
potentially applicable to other areas of the world. of life (QOL) for sexual minorities, elderly or disabled360 Hiroshi Yamaguchi
individuals, or other groups with various challenges. The and psychologists to turn sexual minorities into hetero-
problems these people face in love and/or sex have largely sexuals” [23]. Grzanka states [24]:
been overlooked thus far. However, growing attention is
paid to such issues as of recently. Interestingly, psychological research generally confirms that
essentialist beliefs about social identities correspond with
A truly humanlike robot has yet to be created. The
putative judgment and stereotyping. Although this trend is
products available now are “robot-like” robots or even consistent across research on race/racism and gender/sexism,
just dolls, some of which are capable only of limited AI the inverse has been observed in research about essentialism
or functions allowing them to perform several humanlike and SO (sexual orientation).
activities, including sexual activities. However, current
technology has developed enough that we could imagine Whether a certain trait of a person is undesirable is
the appearance of robots and AIs eligible to be called irrelevant to whether that trait is innate. People with
“virtual humans” in the near future. agalmatophilia, similar to LGBT individuals, do not hurt
Intimate relationships with non-human artifacts are others with their preferences. In the near future, techno-
somewhat common in fantasies, but in the real world they logical development will realize the creation of virtual
are so uncommon that they have attracted no academic humans in a true sense, and a growing number of people
interest until recently. Alexander Scobie, a historian, will choose AI-enhanced silicon (or other new material)
sought past academic literature referring to agalmato- dolls as partners in a committed relationship. In that
philia, defined as “the pathological condition in which sense, the previously raised concern that “intimate
some people establish exclusive sexual relationship with relationships with a virtual human causes humans to
statues,” but could not find any. [16]” Murray J. White lose interest in other people” might be a legitimate one.
found only one real example of it while a number of However, is that really a problem? If “vicious” men lose
pornographic fantasies depicted such instances [17]. interest in real women and choose far more attractive
However, in recent years a number of articles have been virtual humans, it would instead lower concerns that
published on those who engage in serious and intimate these men would objectify real women. Then women
relationships with dolls or sexbots [4,7,18,19]. Even the would no longer need to become “cyborgs,” as Haraway
expectation of future development of virtual humans raises dreamed [25].
harsh criticism in the media. Opponents have presented a Of course, most men are not so vicious. The man who
variety of arguments: it violates traditional values; it would married Hatsune Miku did not objectify real women;
lead to the objectification of women; it would induce sexual rather, he personified a virtual human and chose her as a
crimes; it is infidelity; it is religious sin or ethical wrong- partner. His choice is based on his experiences of abuse by
doing; and so on [20]. We do not have enough evidence to female classmates in his school days and by a female
judge whether this is an actual change in behavior, or only a colleague in his workplace. It is a fact that men as a whole
shift by which what was previously unobservable has are in more powerful positions than women as a whole,
become observable. In either case, Cohen, who stated that however, it does not mean that each of all men is in more
“Love of statues is a longing for human form in stone’s powerful position than each of all women.
immobile substance, not an itinerant desire that could be The “objectification of women” argument is implicitly
called stone love [21],” overlooked these recent instances. based on the assumption that only men buy/use virtual
Although only a small number of people face this kind humans. This is a biased view. Certainly, there is no doubt
of problem, it is inappropriate to overlook it as negligible; that the sexbots currently available on the market are
such an attitude is nothing more than discrimination female and that most of their users are males. However, the
against sexual minorities. According to Blanshard, agalma- fact that there are currently few female users does not mean
tophilia is labeled as a deviant sexual attraction throughout that females do not need these kinds of products or
history [22]. This remains so even today, as is made clear by services. The sexual needs of females may be suppressed by
the way the aforementioned news articles are written. the male-centric societal norm that women should be
Recall that members of the LGBT community were “virtuous.” The argument that females do not have sexual
considered abnormal as recently as a half-century ago. desires, or that they never try to fulfill unmet desires even if
The general belief that sexual orientation, like homosexu- they can do so secretly, would be the last things most
ality, is inherent, whereas sexual preference (like agalma- feminists would say. There are likely also a number of
tophilia) is not, is not corroborated by scientific evidence. women who would want to choose far more attractive
The so-called “born this way” argument is rather an virtual humans as partners rather than real men, if such
“advocacy against horrific attempts by physicians, clergy products become available. Thus, the improvement of QOL“Intimate relationship” with “virtual humans” & “socialification” of familyship 361
that such products might offer for both some men and some
women deserves consideration.
2.2 Elderly people
Aged people can also potentially benefit from the adoption
of virtual humans. The United Nations estimates that
“virtually every country in the world is experiencing
growth in the number and proportion of older persons in
their population.” Japan has the highest proportion of
elderly people in the world. Societal aging necessarily
involves an increase in single households due to bereave-
ment or divorce. Figure 2 shows a 2015 joint survey of four
countries. The ratio of single households in Japan is much Figure 2: The ratio of single households in percentage. International
Comparative Survey on the Lives of Elderly People (Cabinet Office,
lower than that of the US, Germany, and Sweden, but it is
the Government of Japan).
increasing over time. Japan is said to be an “advanced”
country in that its population is aging. What Japan is
experiencing today is going to be seen in other countries relationship with a friend of the opposite sex, other than
in the near future. the spouse,” a significantly greater ratio of respondents in
For elderly people, having partners to live with is impor- the 2012 survey answered “it does not matter unless such a
tant. In a 1995 government survey on elderly marriages, relationship harms the relationship with the spouse” as
45.3% of respondents answered that love or marriage was compared to “such relationships should not exist” (Figure 4).
good for elderly people. More importantly, the ratio was The ratio of women who actually had intimate relationships,
significantly higher for men, 50.2%, compared to women, including sexual acts, with opposite-sex partners other than
41.5% (Table 1). The 8.7% point difference between men their spouse was 14% for the 40 s age group, 10% for the
and women suggests that there is a mismatch in desire for 50 s, 5% for the 60 s, and 1% for the 70 s; the ratio of men
marriage. was 29% for the 40 s age group, 30% for the 50 s, 20% for the
Such differences between the sexes in the attitude 60 s, and 17% for the 70 s.
toward intimate relationships are more prevalent with In reality, of course, having an intimate relationship
respect to the issue of sexlessness. Araki compares the with an opposite-sex friend/lover other than one’s spouse
results of two surveys, in 2000 and 2012, which were does often matter, because such relationships do tend to
conducted by the Japanese Association for Sex Education harm the relationship with one’s spouse at least to some
[26]. She found that, over the 2000 and 2012 period, the extent. Because inheritance of assets after death is a
proportion of sexless people increased significantly in all significant problem for many elderly Japanese people,
age groups across their 40s–70s (Figure 3). She suggests marriage between two aged people often causes trouble
that the major reason for this is that a growing number of with their sons and relatives.
middle-aged or elderly females are not attracted to sexual There are more than a few elderly people who sexually
relationships. In the 2000 survey, the ratio of people who harass nursing workers at elder-care facilities. According to a
desired to have an “intimate relationship involving sexual survey conducted by the Nippon Careservice Craft Union
intercourse” with a spouse, and actually had sexual
intercourse more than once a month, was 78% for men
and 79% for women. This decreased to 44% for men and Table 1: “Love and marriage for elderly” (Cabinet Office, the
68% for women in the 2012 survey. More than half of Government of Japan 1996 Opinion Poll on the Health of Elderly)
elderly men, and approximately 40% of women, were
Total Males Females
unable to fulfill their desires.
In either case, this mismatch of desire could be a Good 45.3% 50.2% 41.5%
cause for lower QOL. Should such individuals just bear Not good 10.5% 9.6% 11.3%
Neither good nor bad 33.8% 30.8% 36.1%
this burden? In the aforementioned surveys, when asked
Not sure 10.3% 9.4% 11.1%
for their opinions on a person’s desire “to have an intimate362 Hiroshi Yamaguchi
Figure 3: The ratio of sexless people across age groups in percentage (Araki [28]).
(NCCU) in June 2018, 29.8% of care facility workers experi- Japan. In 2008, White Hands launched an ejaculation assis-
enced sexual harassment from the elderly [27]. Sexual tance service for severely disabled men in Japan. They
harassment is not necessarily motivated by libido, but libido framed sexual support for disabled people as self-esteem
is also not totally irrelevant. It is natural to think that the care intended to improve their QOL, not as “entertain-
cause of this behavior is at least partly due to the elderly’s ment” or “fulfillment of libido [31].”
unsatisfied desires. De Schildpad is a similar nonprofit organization located
Given this, taking virtual humans as partners can be in the Netherlands. Its staff are “social workers whose role is
an alternative for such people. A virtual human is a more to provide intimacy on a therapeutic basis or emotional
“moderate” choice for the spouse who thinks “it does not befriending,” but sex “is considered only when, for whatever
matter unless the relationship harms the relationship my reason, the disabled person is unable to develop his or her
spouse has with me.” Both spouses’ QOL would thus be own personal relationships” [32]. In addition, the Nether-
increased. lands has a system in which severely disabled people can get
government funding for sex 10–15 times per year.
However, the people involved in such organizations are
often targets of severe criticism and disdain. A major reason
2.3 People with disabilities
for this is the controversy over real people providing the
services; doesn’t that violate “traditional” morals? Isn’t it
People with disabilities can benefit from the adoption of
sexual exploitation of caregivers? Irrespective of whether
virtual humans. According to Rembis, “Though there is
such claims are appropriate or not, at least the adoption
mounting evidence that shows that many people with
of virtual humans could be an alternative as well as a
disabilities lead positive and fulfilled sexual lives, theirs
more moderate (and maybe acceptable) choice for these
is a sexual history characterized largely by oppression
people.
and discrimination” [28]. They typically face difficulty
in finding partners in intimate relationship, including
spouses. In government surveys, although the marriage rate
of physically disabled people (60.2%) is slightly higher than
non-disabled people (57.4%), mentally disabled (34.6%) and 3 “Socialification” of familyship
intellectually disabled (2.3%) people have both significantly
lower rates [29].
3.1 LTCI system and gender equality
In several countries, both for-profit and nonprofit
entities provide various services to facilitate the fulfillment of
disabled people’s sexual desires [30]. White Hands, Inc., is In Section 3.1, the author looks back on discussion of the
one of these nonprofit organizations, established in Niigata, Long Term Public Care Insurance (LTCI) system in Japan“Intimate relationship” with “virtual humans” & “socialification” of familyship 363
Figure 4: The ratio of people who responded “having intimate relationship with a friend/lover of the opposite sex, other than the spouse,
does not matter unless such relationship do any harm the relationship with the spouse” across age groups in percentage [28].
in the late 1990s, and applies the logic of that discussion Japan functioned under the so-called “house” (ie) system,
to adoption of virtual humans. What Japan experienced which “is characterized by the dominance of the eldest
here, of course, was largely influenced by circumstances male of the senior line-age, the subordination of its female
unique to Japan. However, if we take this as a question members, and inheritance by primogeniture” [33]. This
of how to support minorities or vulnerable people by system closely resembled the family system of samurais in
changing the framework for seeing society and families, Edo-era feudal Japan. Because of Confucian morals, it was
it will be helpful not only in Japan but also in many considered natural for the sons’ wives to bear the brunt of
countries around the world. nursing care for the elderly people in the house. Even
Long-lasting discussion on LTCI was necessary in several decades after the end of WWII, when the old house
Japan because a preexisting idea – that nursing care for system was legally abolished, the structure of Japanese
elderly individuals should be done at home by daugh- families remained largely unchanged, especially in the
ters-in-law or daughters – had to be changed. To break countryside. Figure 5 shows the trend in the proportion of
through the situation, advocates introduced the concept elderly people (aged 65 over) who lived with their children’s
of “socialification” of nursing care. The author insists family. Although it decreased over time, even in the 1990s
that the adoption of virtual humans can be viewed as a more than half of elderly people lived with their children.
socialification of familyship, just as LTCI was a sociali- For decades, gender equality in Japanese workplaces
fication of nursing care. is lagging behind other OECD countries, and this con-
Nursing care for elderly individuals became a major stitutes another fact that made nursing care for elderly
social problem with the aging of Japanese society. people a problem for women. Figure 6 shows the so-called
Whereas elderly people constituted 4.9% of the popula- “M-shaped curve” of the women’s labor force participation
tion in 1950, that number rose to 14.6% in 1995, and is ratio (the percentage of women participating in work among
expected to reach 39.9% by 2060. Life expectancy at women in the workable age group). A typical explana-
birth, which was 61.5 for women and 58.0 for men in tion of this is that many women quit their jobs upon
1950, increased to 84.60 for women and 77.72 for men marriage or childbirth. However, it is likely that caring
in 2000. for elderly family members was also a reason women
During the second half of the 20th century, the problem quit or did not return to their jobs; even if they return,
of nursing care for elderly individuals in Japan was at least they typically choose part-time jobs. In a government
partially discussed in relation to feminism. There are survey in 1997, the number of women who quit their jobs
several reasons for this. First, the majority of elderly people amounted to 108,000. Partially because of the long working
lived with their son’s family. During the pre-WWII era, hours of Japanese men, daughters and daughters-in-law364 Hiroshi Yamaguchi
Figure 6: The ratio of women’s participation in the labor force (the
Figure 5: The proportion of elderly people (aged 65 over) who lived
percentage of women participating in work among women in the
with their children’s family. The Fiscal 2017 White Paper on Health,
workable age group) across age groups. The Fiscal 2017 White
Labour and Welfare. The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare of
Paper on Gender Equality, the Cabinet Office of Japan.
Japan.
were typically expected to become the major providers of were the most reluctant [35]. They, mostly older men,
nursing care for elderly family members. Therefore, the insisted that nursing care should be provided by younger
growing need for nursing care for elderly people was family members (effectively meaning daughters-in-law
considered a major obstacle to improving gender equality or daughters), as was “tradition” or the “Japanese style.”
in Japanese society. In the discussion at the Diet, they raised concerns about
Feminists and other proponents of gender equality the financial sustainability of the system, but behind
advocated for the concept of socialification of nursing their statements were old views of the family.
care. Shimoyama defined the term as “the shift of Politicians were not the only ones to oppose introduc-
primary responsibility for nursing care for elderly people tion of the LTCI system. Elderly people themselves, the
from younger family members (typically women) in the beneficiaries of the system, also showed considerable
household to society as a whole” [34]. They used the reluctance. The major reason for this was fear of the
term “socialification” because they expected the service “intrusion” of “outsiders” into their family lives. This fear
of nursing care for elderly people to be shared by society; remains even now. Suzuki used factor analysis to extract 5
specifically, both business- and nonprofit-sector entities factors that make people reluctant to use care services
would provide services with financial support from the provided by LTCI [36]. The most prominent were “Reluctance
public insurance system. Family members would also to change lifestyle” and “Relatives’ lack of under-standing or
continue to provide services but the burden on them was cooperation,” both of which relate to reluctance toward
expected to ease. socialification of nursing care.
The idea of the socialification of nursing care faced Table 2 shows the change in women’s opinions of the
severe opposition and reluctance from society and idea that! “Aged parents should live with their son’s
individuals, however. Higuchi described her experience family.” The idea implies that the sons’ wives would be
as a member of the government’s Geriatric Health expected to provide care for the elderly parents. The
Welfare Council in 1990s. During the discussions at the proportion of wives who agreed with the idea was higher
council, many members (including a high-rank official of with age, meaning that opponents to socialification of
the Ministry of Health and Welfare) repeatedly expressed nursing care were not limited to men. However, compared
a strong opposition to the idea of the socialification of to a 1993 poll, a 1998 poll clearly shows decrease in the
nursing care. When the Council’s report that Japan percentage of wives who agreed and increase in the
should introduce a public LTCI system was discussed in percentage who disagreed, regardless of age. Table 3 shows
the Diet in 1996, it was the ruling party members who people’s opinions on willingness to live in elderly care“Intimate relationship” with “virtual humans” & “socialification” of familyship 365
Table 2: Women’s opinions on “Aged parents should live with their of categories (B) and (C). By framing the socialification of
son’s family” (Cabinet Office, Opinion Poll for People’s Lives) nursing care within a broader perspective, as above, in
which society develops toward a better state, people
Agree Disagree with various objections found it easier to accept the
1993 1998 1993 1998 proposed changes. In the late 1990s, socialification of
household work had already become popular in all the
Total 61.5% 50.4% 38.5% 49.6%
Age of wife: under 29 58.8% 45.4% 41.3% 54.6% categories; it was clear that the LTCI system should be
30–39 53.0% 44.0% 46.9% 56.1% the next introduction in the sequence.
40–49 60.7% 47.2% 39.3% 52.8%
50–59 69.9% 57.6% 30.1% 42.5%
60–69 70.0% 60.1% 29.3% 39.8%
3.3 Socialification of familyship
How then can we apply the above discussion to the
Table 3: Opinions on willingness to live in elderly care facilities acceptance of virtual humans? Through this discussion on
the LTCI introduction, Japan recognized that what had been
Total Willing Unwilling Not Sure perceived as a personal issue had an importance for society
Total 100.0% 65.3% 20.5% 14.2% as a whole. The proponents succeeded in persuading
Total – men 100.0% 60.8% 25.2% 14.0% opponents of various kinds through deliberate discussions.
Age of wife: 20–29 100.0% 52.0% 22.6% 25.4% This experience in Japan will be helpful for the proponents
30–39 100.0% 63.6% 18.8% 17.6% who appeal to society to recognize the importance of
40–49 100.0% 62.7% 22.7% 14.5%
intimate relationships with virtual humans. The argument
50–59 100.0% 67.9% 22.8% 9.3%
Over 60 100.0% 57.1% 31.2% 11.6%
applies not only to Japan but also to the rest of the world.
Over 70 100.0% 52.0% 38.8% 9.2% According to the classification in Table 4, the adoption
Total – women 100.0% 68.8% 16.9% 14.3% of virtual humans into families as serious and intimate
Age of wife: 20–29 100.0% 56.0% 16.8% 27.2% partners (in other words, the socialification of familyship)
30–39 100.0% 73.2% 9.4% 17.4% should be included primarily in category (A). In a house-
40–49 100.0% 77.5% 10.9% 11.5%
hold with mismatch in sexual desire between husband and
50–59 100.0% 71.0% 17.6% 11.4%
Over 60 100.0% 61.8% 26.4% 11.7% wife, virtual humans can supplement or replace their
Over 70 100.0% 54.1% 34.6% 11.2% unmet needs or desires. If a person cannot find a partner
due to various disabilities or challenges, a virtual human
can be a partner. Adoption of virtual humans would
facilities. In a 1995 government survey, over half of the increase QOL for such individuals.
people responded that they were willing to live in elderly Of course, housekeepers can be employed to do
care facilities. Typically, they expressed that they would not household chores. However, people’s needs vary. Some
want their children to bear the burden of nursing care. people desire a partner for more intimate (including sexual)
relationships, and other people simply do not want others
to enter their houses. For these people, employing a human
housekeeper is not the best choice.
3.2 Socialification of nursing care It is highly likely that a virtual human, if actually
developed, would be the product of a business enterprise
Under these circumstances, the proponents of the LTCI and offered with necessary user support services. If, in the
system deliberately persuaded various sectors of Japanese near future, having a virtual human as a partner becomes a
society by employing the concept of socialization of human right, the government or local communities might
nursing care. They began by situating nursing care within bear some of the costs (and in such a case, it would fall
a broad range of household activities and showed how under category B or C in Table 4). In this sense, the introduc-
family lives in society had already been socialified. Hattori tion of virtual humans is one step toward socialification of
classified socialification of household work into 4 cate- familyship, in which families are at least partially supported
gories (Table 4) [37]. by society.
According to this classification, the socialification of This change is not a fundamental one, like changing
nursing care by the LTCI system would be a mixture white into black. Looking back on the history of the family366 Hiroshi Yamaguchi
Table 4: Four categories of socialization of household work
Type Description
(A) Socialification in private sector Introduction/Expansion of goods that reduce the burden of household work (such as
commercialized cooked goods and processed foods) and of services that replace
household work itself
(B) Socialification in public sector Supporting household work with greater social value, such as childcare, education,
and nursing care, by collaboration with governmental services
(C) Socialification through mutual aid within Mutual support within local communities, in areas where for-profit activities by
local communities businesses work poorly
(D) Socialification in recognizing time-losses Systems in which the society recognizes the “glosses” caused by engaging in
household work such as childcare and nursing care leaves
system, we see that families consisting only of couples and 3.3.1 Diversification of membership
their direct children are not so traditional. In the early
modern age, “The principal boundary circumscribed the kin, In socialified families, members are not limited to parents
not its sub-unit, the nuclear family” [38]. When such “open and their direct biological children. Although relatives, who
lineage families” were common, families were more open to once had been members of families, have not yet regained
mutual help from “outsiders” within local communities, in their positions, members are not even limited to human
part due to the high mortality rate of children and repeated beings. Pets seem to be included as members in many
difficulties such as famine. In early modern Japan before families [8]. Virtual humans will be the next candidates for
the Meiji Restoration up to the mid-1800s, during which family membership.
a similar situation prevailed, the divorce rate was much
higher than today, and practices for forming family
relationships without blood ties, such as adoption, were 3.3.2 Diversification of member commitment level
common [39,40].
Ryan and Jatha argued that having multiple sexual Virtual humans typically have operating systems devel-
partners was common and accepted before human beings oped by their manufacturers. They require maintenance or
started agriculture, saying that “monogamy is not innate even in some cases replacement. Thus, intimate relation-
sociosexual system of humans [41].” Although there are ships with them are necessarily accompanied by close ties
many objections to their argument, it is difficult to deny with outside entities. These entities commit to the private
such a trait constituted at least a part of the diversity of lives of the owners of virtual humans through their
human behavior at that time. Asking whether such a trait products or services, but their level of commitment is low,
was innate or not represents the dichotomy that Haraway since they are outside the family. This is similar to the case
rejected [8]. We should remember that our society, until a of providers of nursing care services for elderly people.
few decades ago, had been denying that homosexuality They also commit to the private lives of elderly people but
has been a part of human sexuality since the prehistoric remain outside of the family. In both cases, the outside
age; and even now, many people stick to an argument that service provider can be viewed as a member of the
a human trait should be innate for it to be justified, based extended family, with limited commitment.
on this dichotomic logic. Changing this does not destroy
traditions nor infringe human rights.
The shift from larger families to small nuclear families 3.3.3 Diversification of income source
should not be seen as a unilateral development, a move
from a barbaric past to an ideal society. Rather, it is better A recipient of LTCI receives insurance payments, which
seen as an optimization according to changes in the social comprise a significant portion of the person’s income. Thus,
and economic environment. We will now see another such the socialification of nursing care involves the diversifica-
shift in familyship. tion of income source for the recipients. Similarly, if the use
In that sense, socialification of familyship should be of virtual humans is recognized as a publicly important
considered from a larger perspective. In essence, sociali- aspect of human rights, some, if not all, expenses may be
fication consists of a variety of diversifications of the social covered by the public; this would be a diversification of
components of groups. There are several aspects. income source for the family. It would be somewhat contro-“Intimate relationship” with “virtual humans” & “socialification” of familyship 367
versial for the government to pay for a sexbot; instead, Whether a person engages in a serious and intimate
paying for a partner robot that helps with its users’ relationship with a virtual human is completely that person’s
household chores and is also capable of sexual activities choice. Thus, adoption of virtual humans into our society
might be more acceptable. would do no harm to people without such intentions, just as
accepting same-sex marriages in society does not force
anyone to marry a same-sex partner. These diversities in
3.3.4 Diversification of bearer of burden human activity do not infringe upon the human rights of
those who oppose them. Rather, they improve the QOL of
Maintaining a household requires various activities, and in those who want such products/services. Rich diversity in
most cases they are sources of both enjoyment and stress society would enrich our culture.
simultaneously. The two are interlinked and affect each Needless to say, the author does not claim that the
other, and thus dissatisfaction increases with the mismatch adoption and spread of virtual humans will have no
of perceived balance of enjoyment and burden between adverse effect on society. If the majority of people think of
couples. The LTCI system reduced the stress on female virtual humans as being more attractive partners than real
family members by improving the balance of the nursing humans, and thus real human couples become a minority,
care burden. If a virtual human is adopted as an alternative/ the birthrate might drop to a level at which the society
complementary partner of intimate acts at home, the family becomes unsustainable. In addition, given that an aware-
member who suffers from the stress of unwilling intimate ness of animal rights has spread rapidly in recent years,
contact with her/his partner frees from the stress. In both the argument that we should take the rights of virtual
cases, lower stress eases dissatisfaction [42,43] and raises a humans into consideration will increase in the future.
person’s QOL. However, this seems unlikely to occur, at least for
The adoption of virtual humans as the partners of the time being. A potential threat exists but would
serious and intimate relationships are similar to the become an issue only in the long run. We have plenty of
socialification of both nursing care and household work time to think about it. On the other hand, the QOL of
and included in the socialification of familyship. All of sexual minorities, elderly people, and other groups with
these involve aforementioned diversifications raise the challenges is already a problem in the present.
QOL of the beneficiaries. Instead of pre-regulating virtual humans (who are not
yet a reality), and struggling to prevent them from appearing
in the world, we should consider how to successfully accept
virtual humans in society. They would improve the QOL of
4 Concluding remarks minority groups in society, while having no effect on the
rest. Emotional and ideological resistance distracts the
In this article, the author provides a new perspective on opponents’ attention from the people who could be saved
intimate relationships with robots and AIs, defined as and the problems that could be solved by virtual humans.
“virtual humans.” The technological potential for virtual The author would like to thank anonymous referees
humans draws criticism as a violation of traditional family for helpful comments and suggestions and Editage
values or catalyst for objectification of women. However, (www.editage.jp) for English-language editing.
extended families including a few trustworthy outsiders as
members existed in the past; therefore, the adoption of
virtual humans is rather in line with tradition of many
cultures. Additionally, virtual humans are not limited to
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