Interactions between humans, crocodiles, and hippos at Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe
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Human–Wildlife Interactions 15(1):212–227, Spring 2021 • digitalcommons.usu.edu/hwi
Interactions between humans, crocodiles,
and hippos at Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe
Ivan Marowa, Department of History, Heritage and Knowledge Systems, University of Zimbabwe,
630 Churchill Avenue, Harare, Zimbabwe
Joshua Matanzima, University of Zimbabwe Lake Kariba Research Station, Nyamhunga, 48,
Kariba, Zimbabwe
Tamuka Nhiwatiwa, Department of Biological Sciences and Ecology, University of Zimbabwe,
630 Churchill Avenue, Harare, Zimbabwe
Abstract: Human–wildlife conflicts (HWCs) are on the increase due to shrinking space that
results in increased competition for land, water, and other natural resources between humans
and wildlife. Investigating the occurrence of HWCs is important in that the results can be
used to formulate better management policies and strategies. In this paper, we describe the
nature of HWCs emerging between humans and the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) and
between humans and the African hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius; hippo) on Lake
Kariba, Zimbabwe. Lake Kariba is the second largest manmade lake by volume in the world.
Conflicts involving humans and these species are readily noticeable and played out around
water bodies, which are sources of daily human sustenance and important habitats for aquatic
wildlife. We used a mixed-methods approach to gather data on these conflicts, including
questionnaires, face-to-face interviews, focus group discussions, and participant observation.
The research participants involved national parks officials, fishing camp residents, and HWC
victims. Our research confirmed that crocodiles and hippos have negatively affected humans
through deaths, injuries, instilling fear, and destruction of sources of livelihood for fishermen
such as fishing nets and boats. In retaliation, humans have implemented lethal methods to
remove problem animals. The results of this research can inform the conservation community
about the severity of the conflicts, which have been exacerbated by current economic
hardships, to better inform conservation policies.
Key words: African hippopotamus, Crocodylus niloticus, economic hardships, fishing,
Hippopotamus amphibius, human–wildlife conflicts, Lake Kariba, Nile crocodile, subsistence
economy, Zimbabwe
The phrase human–wildlife conflict (HWC) distributed among people and communities.
is commonly used to describe situations that In cases where the wildlife species involved in
involve any negative interactions between the conflict are endangered, human retaliation
humans and wildlife. The “conflicts can be tends to impact conservation efforts (Treves et
either real or perceived, economic or aesthetic, al. 2006). These conflicts are magnified around
social or political” (Messmer 2000, 97). Human– water bodies that are central to both humans’
wildlife conflicts are increasing globally in and wild animals’ daily sustenance and also as
both rural and urban communities because of important habitats for aquatic wildlife.
both human and animal population growth Conflicts between humans and crocodiles
(Messmer 2009). Human population growth (Crocodylus spp.) are increasing due to an
has led to the intensification of the demand for increase in human population (Zakayo 2014,
more land, water, and other natural resources Rose et al. 2020) and changes in land use poli-
(Manfredo and Dayer 2004, Kanga et al. 2011). cies (Aust 2009). The human dimensions of
The nature and intensity of HWCs may vary these conflicts have been documented in vari-
by the status of the species, both temporally and ous communities across the globe (Rose et al.
spatially, as well as the socioeconomic status of 2020). Literature focusing on human–crocodile
the humans impacted by the conflict (Messmer conflicts mainly focuses on conflicts resulting
2000). The animals involved in HWCs differ from saltwater crocodiles (C. porosus; Fukuda
and the impacts to humans may not be evenly et al. 2014, Amarasinghe et al. 2015, van der
Crocodile and hippo conflicts in Zimbabwe • Marowa et al. 213
2011). The hippo has a dual requirement of
daily living space in water and grazing range
(Cerling et al. 2008). This affects the manner in
which hippos utilize resources and survive in
areas with a high density of human popula-
tion and continuous land use changes (Kanga
et al. 2011). The differences in the use of space
of the 2 animals shape the ways in which they
come into conflict with people.
In this paper, we document HWCs involv-
ing crocodiles and hippos that are occurring
Figure 1. Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus; in Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe. We describe the
(photo courtesy of L. Bedford under license https:// nature and impacts of these HWCs in the con-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/).
text of the current economic crises and how
human responses to these animal attacks also
threaten animal welfare.
Study area
We conducted research between December
2018 and August 2019 in the fishing camps
lying along Lake Kariba. Lake Kariba is located
approximately 365 km northwest of Zimbabwe’s
capital city, Harare (Muringai et al. 2019). We
studied the fishing camps of Nyaodza, Gache-
Gache, and Fothergill, located in the immediate
Figure 2. An African hippopotamus (Hippopotamus vicinity of the Kariba town. The fishing camps
amphibius; photo courtesy of B. Gagnon under are in the Sanyati Basin (Basin 5; Figure 3).
license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by- Lake Kariba was constructed by the damming
sa/4.0/).
of the Zambezi River in 1956. It is the second
largest manmade lake in the world (Ndhlovu et
Ploeg et al. 2019), the Nile crocodile (C. niloti- al. 2017) and is also the border between Zambia
cus; McGregor 2005, Aust et al. 2009, Fergusson and Zimbabwe (Figure 3). The lake floods >5500
2010, Chihona 2014, Zakayo 2014, Pooley 2015, km2 of surface area (Hughes 2006). The climate
Pooley et al. 2020), and the Phillipine croco- of Lake Kariba is typically tropical and semi-
dile (C. mindorensis; van der Ploeg et al. 2011). arid (Muchuru et al. 2015). The annual mean
Our research focuses on the Nile crocodile that air temperature ranges from 24.4–24.8°C. The
inhabits Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe. The Nile croc- area is characterized by an average of 30.7°C,
odile is widely disliked and feared (McGregor with maximum temperatures during the hot
2005, Pooley 2016) because it is perceived as dry seasons. Cold winter seasons have an aver-
being involved in the most fatal attacks on age maximum temperature of 21.7°C. Average
humans (Pooley 2016; Figure 1). annual rainfall for Lake Kariba catchment is
In Africa, the African hippopotamus (Hip- approximately 700 mm, and higher volumes
popotamus amphibius; hippo) has also been of rainfall are recorded during the rainy season
implicated in increased HWCs near water bod- from October to March (Muringai et al. 2019).
ies where humans are concentrated (Cerling The fishing camps studied are regulated by
et al. 2008; Figure 2). The hippo, unlike the the Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management
crocodile, which is a predator, is in the class Authority and are registered with the Ministry
of megaherbivores together with elephants of Small and Medium Enterprises and
(Loxodonta africana). These megaherbivores are Cooperative Development (Figure 3). The regu-
more problematic in areas where humans are lations only allow for those practicing fishing
dependent on subsistence activities and lie from fishing camps to fish for limited periods
at the heart of HWCs in Africa (Kanga et al. and regularly travel back to their communal
214 Human–Wildlife Interactions 15(1) Figure 3. Map showing the study locations of Gache-Gache, Nyaodza, and Fothergill along Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe, August 2019. areas where their families are based. Fishermen increasing their chances of interacting and com- are not allowed to build any permanent hous- ing into conflict with crocodiles and hippos. ing structures. The majority of livelihood sus- The study focuses on marginalized fish- tenance in these areas is based on small-scale ing camps surrounded by poor infrastruc- fishing, as all camps and villages fall within the ture development and inefficient transport wildlife safari area and national park. Farming and communication networks. The majority and livestock rearing are not permitted by law of people live under the poverty datum line. in the area (Ndhlovu et al. 2017). Their poverty-stricken situation is worsened The locals believe the main source of neglect by the current economic crises in Zimbabwe of these camps by national parks is because that commenced in the year 2000 (Kadenge the camps are regarded as temporary. These and Mavunga 2011, Muruviwa and Dube 2016, people have been living in the camps for >4 Southall 2017). These economic crises pushed decades, but their habitation of the areas is not some people into fishing, where they are expe- considered permanent. Some young men in riencing conflict with crocodiles and hippos. these camps were born there, and their parents, whether living or deceased, were the pioneers Methods of the fishing camps. Their temporary state Data collection makes them vulnerable to animal attacks, espe- This research was mainly qualitative because cially by big mammals such as elephants and we focused largely on people’s opinions and African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), as their houses experiences. We collected our data using vari- are poorly constructed. Fishermen and other ous research methods that included question- fish camp dwellers frequently visit the lake to naires, participant observation, focus group fetch water and sometimes to bathe, thereby discussions, and face-to-face interviews. Prior
Crocodile and hippo conflicts in Zimbabwe • Marowa et al. 215
Table 1. The composition of the participants in the 5 focus group discussions
(FGDs) carried out at the 3 fishing camps (Gache-Gache, Nyaodza, and Fothergill)
in Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe, December 2018 to August 2019.
Fishing camps FGDs No. of participants Males Females
Fothergill 1 9 5 4
2 7 4 3
Nyaodza 3 8 8 0
4 10 10 0
Gache-Gache 5 6 6 0
to conducting interviews, we obtained consent questions such as: (1) Do people in these camps
from potential research participants. conflict with wild animals? (2) Which particular
In December 2018, we conducted face-to-face wild animals do you conflict with? (3) What are
(or semi-structured) interviews with 4 national the specific problems caused by each wild ani-
parks high-ranking officials in Kariba town and mal (i.e., hippos and crocodiles) to the lives and
1 detective from the Mineral, Flora and Fauna livelihoods of the people in these camps? (4)
Unit regarding HWCs (including those con- Do you report any HWC incidents in this com-
flicts resulting from crocodiles and hippos) in munity? Can you explain the reasons for your
Lake Kariba. These interviews lasted an aver- actions (reporting or not reporting)? (5) Do you
age of 50 minutes. These were divided between have any comments regarding the reactions of
semi-structured and unstructured interviews, the officials? (6) How do you rate the response
and the following were some of the research of the authorities to your reports? (7) What do
questions: (1) Do people conflict with animals you think must be done to mitigate conflicts
in and/or around Lake Kariba? (2) Can you among people and crocodiles and hippos?
explain the occurrence of these conflicts? (3) Do Apart from personal interviews, data was also
people report HWC incidents to your office? (4) obtained from 5 focus group discussions (FGD)
How promptly do you respond to HWC reports, completed at each fishing camp (Figure 3). Two
and are there any challenges that you face? (5) of the focus groups conducted in Fothergill
Are there any measures you take to manage camp included male and female participants.
HWC in and/or around Lake Kariba? (6) What The other 3 focus groups (i.e., Nyaodza and 2
are the causes of conflict among humans, croco- in Gache-Gache camps) were comprised exclu-
diles, and hippos in Lake Kariba? sively of male participants (Table 1). Each focus
These questions were only used as a guide, group lasted as average of 50–70 minutes. Both
and probing questions emerged during the dis- personal interviews and FGDs were audio-
cussion. Individual interviews were conducted recorded.
with members from the fishing camps within The questions we asked during the FGDs
the study. Some of the participants or their were aimed at understanding HWCs at the
relatives were victims who experienced HWCs. community level. The broad questions we
Other victims of HWCs were identified through asked were somewhat similar to those that
the snowball sampling technique (Dragan and had been asked of individuals at face-to-face
Isaic-Maniu 2013). Victims of HWCs were interviews. The aim was to achieve the study’s
mainly asked to narrate their encounter of objective of understanding the impact of croco-
HWC, the specific animal they conflicted with, diles and hippos on the lives and livelihoods
how they were attacked, how they dealt with of the people. People were asked: (1) Do you
the attack, and their situation in the post-inci- conflict with any animals in this camp? (2) If
dent period. The questions were framed in yes, what are these animals? (3) Are there any
such a way that gave room for the respondent negative impacts caused by these animals to
to speak and elaborate at length, thereby cap- your livelihoods? (4) Are there any negative
turing a “thick description” of each situation. impacts caused by these animals to your lives?
The face-to-face interview guides involved (5) What do you think must be done to reduce
216 Human–Wildlife Interactions 15(1)
Table 2. Participant observation details for the 3 fishing camps (Gache-Gache, Nyaodza, and
Fothergill) studied at Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe, December 2018 to August 2019.
Fishing camp Observations Details Dates of Lessons learned per
observation observation
Gache-Gache, People’s These are temporary December Houses are easily
Nyaodza, and homesteads structures. 2018; and destroyed by elephants
Fothergill April, July, (Loxodonta spp.) and
and August baboons (Papio spp.).
2019 visits
They have no ablu- Same as above They visit the lake more
tion blocks and tap frequently fetching wa-
water. ter and bathing, which
increases their risks of
attacks from crocodiles
(Crocodylus spp.) and
hippos (Hippopotamus
amphibius).
Homestead All homesteads in Same as above Hippos easily roam
proximity to the 3 fishing camps around the homesteads,
the lake are from 50–100 m especially at night.
from the water. Children play along the
Lake shore where there
are good grounds.
Nyaodza Nyaodza The river enters the July and It is a high-conflict zone
river estuary lake from the east of August 2019 where many people
the camp. are attacked by female
People fish in the crocodiles in summer
river. when they are hatching
People catch plenty in those areas.
of fish in rivers
compared to other
places.
Nyaodza Shown men Canoes are made Easily destroyed by
in fishing of poles and iron hippos
canoes sheets.
Gache-Gache Charara People fish in the It is a high-conflict zone
river estuary river. where many people
nearer to the The river has more are attacked by female
camp caches. crocodiles in summer
when they are hatching
in those areas.
Gache-Gache, Crocodile and Sun basking, or float- People encroach the
Nyaodza, and hippos lying ing in the water shores to fetch water and
Fothergill on the shores for bathing and fishing
and can be attacked by
these predators.
Nyaodza Man injured Walking with August 2019 He was injured canoe-
by hippo crutches ing in the lake from a
fishing expedition.
conflicts between people and animals (i.e., croc- the University of Zimbabwe Lake Kariba
odiles and hippos) in this camp? (6) Where do Research Station. We distributed and collected
you report problem animal cases? (7) What can 60 questionnaires from different fishing camp
you say about the reaction of these authorities dwellers. The people to whom the question-
or officials? naires were given were not the selected research
Questionnaires were administered with the participants, but were those whose opinions
help of 8 research assistants (6 students on were needed to enrich the findings of the study.
industrial attachment and 2 technicians) from Information from the questionnaires was used
Crocodile and hippo conflicts in Zimbabwe • Marowa et al. 217
Table 3. Assessment of problem wild animals from 60 questionnaires
administered in the Lake Kariba fishing camps, Zimbabwe, December 2018
to August 2019.
Problem animal No. of times each animal %
was mentioned
Lions (Panthera leo) 7 4
Foxes (Vulpes spp.) 2 1
Hippos (Hippopotamus amphibius) 46 25
Crocodiles (Crocodylus spp.) 51 28
Elephants (Loxodonta spp.) 53 29
Water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) 10 5
Baboons (Papio spp.) 14 8
to design descriptive statistics on certain issues interviews, FGDs, and participant observa-
regarding the occurrence and people’s experi- tion on the main problem animals in the fish-
ences with crocodiles and hippos in the fishing ing camps. Hippos (25%), crocodiles (28%),
camps. and elephants (29%) were the wildlife species
In addition, we relied on participant observa- most frequently implicated in HWCs (Table 3).
tion. Research teams visited the fishing camps The other noted animals’ frequencies fall below
at different times between December 2018 and 10%, which means they are less of a problem as
August 2019 (Table 2). The visits were meant compared to hippos, crocodiles, and elephants.
to familiarize the research team with conflict The data obtained from questionnaires
zones (river estuaries) for both crocodiles and administered to fishing camp residents listed
hippos. Participant observations were particu- both land mammals and aquatic wildlife
larly important, as they informed our own eval- because the questions did not prescribe limita-
uation of the occurrence in direct comparison to tions to responses (Table 4). We were interested
gathered data from formal discussions. in gathering general information on problem-
atic wild animals to assess how hippos and
Data analysis crocodiles ranked in HWCs (see Tables 4 and 5).
We analyzed descriptive numerical data
obtained from questionnaires using SPSS ver- Human–crocodile conflicts
sion 16.0 software to obtain percentages and Interview with the officials. National parks offi-
frequencies to identify the most problematic
cials in general stated that elephants, hippos,
animals. We used thematic content analysis to
and crocodiles were the main problematic ani-
interpret qualitative data. We first transcribed
mals in communities living along Lake Kariba.
audio-recorded interviews and then catego- One official from the national parks department
rized them according to emerging themes. stated that the majority of the complaints they
Anderson (2007) found that thematic contentreceived from fishing camps were of crocodiles
analysis can accurately portray the thematic
and hippos. National parks officials reiterated
content of interview transcripts (or other texts)
that they often go to these fishing camps to
by identifying common themes. These themes attend to these reports. Fishing camp dwellers,
were categorized into specific categories that
on the other hand, complained that national
were used to present the results below. parks officials took too long to respond to prob-
lem animal reports.
Results Questionnaires. Crocodiles were mentioned
Wildlife species implicated in human– 47 times as killing and eating people, 41 times
wildlife conflicts as injuring people, 2 times as eating fish from
Information presented below is from nets, 11 times as disturbing people from fetch-
responses obtained through questionnaires, ing water, 3 times as drowning nets, 4 times as218 Human–Wildlife Interactions 15(1) Table 4. Frequency of incidences involving the crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) and the impacts on people in Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe, December 2018 to August 2019. Impacts of livelihoods Frequency % Impacts on lives Frequency % Disturb laying of nets 1 1.6 Kill and eat people 47 78.3 Destruction of nets 4 6.6 Injure people 41 64.3 Drowning of nets 3 5.0 Fear of fetching water 11 18.3 Eating fish in the nets 2 3.3 Table 5. Frequency of incidences involving the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) and the impacts on people in Lake Kariba, Zimbabwe, December 2018 to August 2019. Impacts on livelihoods Frequency % Impact on lives Frequency % Disturb the laying of nets 3 5.0 Kill people 36 60.0 Drown boats 10 16.6 Injure people 20 33.3 Destroy boats 18 30.0 Chase people 2 3.3 destroying nets, and once as disturbing the lay- so they reside in bays where humans are easy ing of nets. prey. Men interviewed at 2 different FGDs in Focus groups. During the FGD sessions, the Nyaodza and Gache-Gache indicated that the top concern expressed by most participants difficulty to detect the crocodile is the major was that national parks authorities do not take reason people fall prey to them. their problems seriously. Participants were Participants in the FGDs indicated that more more concerned about problems with croco- incidents occur in the morning when many diles and hippos than elephants, lions (Panthera people visit the harbor for various reasons, leo), baboons (Papio spp.), and African buffalo such as buying fish and bathing. Not only (Syncerus caffer). According an FGD participant, are the fishermen attacked by crocodiles, but “…crocodiles and hippos have increased in women and children are also attacked. School numbers more than other animals. These ani- children from Nyaodza and Fothergill camps mals are our major problem. They disrupt our visit the lake every morning to bathe as they livelihoods, kill and eat us.” prepare to go to school. But according to the Participants were concerned that crocodile locals, more men are exposed to human–croc- populations were increasing in Lake Kariba. odile conflict than women. They also believed the increase in crocodiles Participant interviews. The people in the fish- was also impacting fish populations and caus- ing camps we interviewed in person described ing them to prey on people. One elder stated, the many problems caused by crocodiles to “national parks must reintroduce egg collection their lives and livelihoods. Gillnet fishers, who along the lake shore, as they used to do before. make a living solely on fish, explained that they If they resume egg collection, they could save compete for fish with crocodiles, and crocodiles us from perishing from crocodile attacks.” often eat fish caught in their nets. The main A similar observation was made by research source of their frustration is the destruction of FGD participants at Fothergill fishing camp. their nets and boats by crocodiles and hippos, They believed egg collection helps to sustain respectively. Given the current economic crises and control crocodile populations. The fisher- in Zimbabwe, the gillnetters described the diffi- men also started that adult (or aged) crocodiles culties they endured in mobilizing the increas- need culling largely because they are the ones ingly scant resources (and money) to purchase causing many attacks in Lake Kariba. These new nets from Lusaka, Zambia. Buying new adult crocodiles that were preying on humans nets from Zambia requires foreign currency, were believed to be too old to catch other prey, which they do not have because of liquid-
Crocodile and hippo conflicts in Zimbabwe • Marowa et al. 219 ity challenges in Zimbabwe’s cash economy. behavior with witchcraft. Because they import nets, the entire process of The painful part of crocodile deaths is that acquiring new nets is difficult and expensive sometimes the bodies fail to be recovered. In for them. The costs of nets are also increased by instances that the bodies are recovered (in import duties at the Zimbabwe-Zambia border rare cases that national parks officials shoot in Kariba. the problem animal to retrieve bones from the The fishermen indicated that crocodiles crocodile’s stomach), relatives will only bury attack people in 2 different ways and spaces: in some parts of the body. This has a psycho- the lake and along the shores (i.e., in the very logical impact on the families of the dead who shallow water that reaches a person’s knees). have to live their entire lives knowing that they In Kariba fishing camps, crocodiles clandes- never had a chance to properly bury their rela- tinely attack people in areas where there is tive. Graves are crucial in African societies, as much human activity. It was locally believed they are a tangible platform that connects the that crocodiles have no power on the shores or dead with the living. In the absence of a grave, shallow water, and thus they drag their prey rituals cannot be performed. Rituals help with into the deeper water where they assume more healing, whereas the absence of graves has psy- power and energy to kill and eat prey. chological impacts on the living. In terms of An official with national parks explained direct effect, the death of a single person is a that “areas of the lake shore with much human major hardship for a family, but indirect effects activities are avoided by larger mammals; thus, impact entire communities in terms of psycho- crocodiles end up preying on people who are logical stress and disorders. always at the harbors.” At all the fishing camps, To prevent death during crocodile attacks, people virtually live facing the water, and people take several measures to defend them- when attacks occur, they are witnessed by oth- selves. According to an elder from Gache-Gache ers in the camps. Another national parks offi- camp, “at 1 occasion people were canoeing in cial concurred: “people become the meat of the the shallow waters and the crocodile jumped crocodiles.” into the boat and attacked one of them…as the People also described the unusual behavior victim was wrestling to come out of the jaw of of crocodiles attacking people inside the boats the crocodile…the other fisherman started hit- and canoes. It is mostly fishermen who are ting the crocodile with chikwarapuro [canoe pad- attacked in this way; thus, there is a significant dles] in its mouth…he hit the crocodile until it relationship between gender and activity when left the victim and inundated itself...the victim attacked. To some extent, women and children survived with minor injuries on his hand.” are also at risk of being attacked in this way, as Some men explained that if a person blocks they also canoe to fetch clean-deep water. One the crocodile nose or eyes and/or presses its tail man explained that “a crocodile can jump 1 to down, the crocodile can let go. People explained 2 meters high to catch its prey…if it manages to that the crocodile is a very sensitive animal bite you it drags you straight into the water.” that does not want certain parts of its body to There are some crocodiles that people eas- be tampered with. However, such actions are ily identify as problem crocodiles, and they against the conservation efforts of animals by sometimes nickname them. At Fothergill fish- national parks and many stakeholders of croco- ing camp, there was 1 big crocodile that peo- dile farming in Zimbabwe. ple believe ate 2 members of the community Participant observation. Our observation of (an old man and a child). It was nicknamed crocodiles and hippos resting along the Lake “mutumba,” a Shona word that metaphorically Kariba shoreline made us understand that inter- refers to something “extraordinarily huge.” In action between them and the human popula- the same camp, there is fishing ground that is tion posed a huge threat. We observed children nicknamed “Macheni Bay.” This was largely avoiding areas where crocodiles were laying because there was a huge crocodile that used as they fetched water or taking a bath from the to attack men and eat their genitals, leaving lake. Similarly, women did the same when they the entire body untouched, which was unusu- came to fetch water. The fact that hippos and ally strange. Local beliefs have associated such crocodiles hide and move underwater certainly
220 Human–Wildlife Interactions 15(1)
puts the lives of lake users, particularly women boats. Thus, people mentioned the impacts of
and children, at high risk. These predators are hippos on wellbeing more than on their liveli-
capable of mounting a clandestine attack when- hoods. This is partly because impacts on lives
ever possible. are irreplaceable as compared to livelihoods.
We also interviewed survivors of crocodile Focus groups. During our FGDs, participants
attacks during fieldwork as part of participant stated that hippos have a reputation of cap-
observation. These interviews provided first- sizing boats in these fishing camps. Capsizing
hand experience with crocodile conflicts and of boats has serious negative results on the
subsequent impacts. Living with victims who lives and livelihoods of the people, as they are
are disabled due to crocodile attacks instilled injured and their boats are destroyed. People
fear of the predator for other members of the stated that when the boat is capsized, the hip-
community. pos attack and injure fishermen, and some-
As part of participant observation, in August times if the fishermen are unable to swim, they
2019, we visited a young man who had been drown. Some women indicated that even if
attacked by a crocodile and was recovering someone can swim, they might be attacked by
from the wounds at the Kariba hospital. He had the crocodiles while trying to reach the shores.
been attacked by a crocodile at Nyaodza fishing Unlike crocodiles that mainly attack people
camp. His ribs had been wounded. He described in the water and in immediate proximity to the
that he was attacked while harvesting fish from lake shore, hippos attack people on land far from
his nets. We also observed that there are no clin- Lake Kariba, especially at night as they graze. In
ics in the camps except for first-aid trained per- Gache-Gache, a story was told of a man who was
sonnel at Nyaodza and Fothergill, while there killed by a hippo in Charara, 500 m away from
is no first-aid trained person at Gache-Gache the lake. Narrating the incident at an FGD, some
camp. The first-aid advantage, however, is elders in Gache-Gache explained that “2 men
not of much help because the trained persons were coming from regular fishing work and
at Nyaodza and Fothergill often have no basic decided to rest far from the shore, that is when
medicine and equipment to assist the injured. the hippo came running from behind them
and 1 of them was bitten and died.” Hippos,
Human–hippo conflicts unlike crocodiles, do not eat people. This partly
Interview with officials. The national parks explains why people fear crocodiles more than
authority interviewed about the occurrence hippos in these fishing camps.
of HWCs in the fishing camps indicated that Participant interviews. During face-to-face
these fishing dwellers come into conflict with interviews, we learned that hippos, like croco-
hippos. He mentioned that each time a per- diles, can also attack people while bathing or
son is attacked by a hippo, they go and assist fetching water in shallow areas. There were
the victim. He admits that sometimes they are numerous reports of people who were either
delayed getting to the conflict scene due to injured or killed by hippos in fishing camps.
lack of resources, such as fuel. He stated that A young man aged 25 years explained in an
hippos (and crocodiles) are the most prob- interview how he was attacked by a hippo at
lematic animals in the lake and affect the fish- Nyaodza fishing camp: “I was attacked in May
ing populations and camp dwellers. Another 2018. I went into the lake to fetch water alone in
national parks official also stated that “people a canoe. I was sitting on the edge of the canoe
are attacked by hippos mainly because there is and the hippo attacked me from there and it
now increase in human’s encroachment to Lake bit me on my right limb. I now use walking
Kariba for fishing, as there is high unemploy- clutches. I visit the doctors for check-ups in
ment in Zimbabwe.” Harare...I no longer have money to fund my
Questionnaires. Hippos were mentioned 36 health bills. I was not compensated by national
times as killing people, 20 times as injuring peo- parks. I am no longer fishing, and I do not have
ple, and 2 times as chasing people. Regarding the money. Life is now difficult for me.”
impact on livelihoods, hippos were mentioned 3 Based on this interview and others, it was
times as disturbing the laying of nets, 10 times clear that hippos can impact the lives and
as drowning boats, and 18 times as destroying livelihoods of the people, causing unbearableCrocodile and hippo conflicts in Zimbabwe • Marowa et al. 221
Table 6. Ratings of the Zimbabwe National many hippos roaming around the lake shore
Parks and Wildlife Management Authority’s re- close to people’s homesteads. This increased
actions to problem animal reports in the fishing contact between people and hippos. Hippos do
camps during the study period, Lake Kariba,
Zimbabwe, December 2019 to August 2019. not attack people in the water only; they also
attack people on the shore, as indicated above.
Rate Number of Percentage (%)
people We were also shown another area close to the
homesteads where a young man was attacked
Poor 48 80
by a hippo.
Average 9 15
Good 3 5 Perceptions of the authorities’
Excellent 0 0
response to HWCs
Interview with officials. Our results indicate
that national parks authorities delay respond-
memories and destroyed futures. The young ing to problem animal reports in the fishing
man interviewed above sustained injuries from camps. The national parks officials we inter-
the hippo attack, and he is now physically chal- viewed often mentioned lack of resources on
lenged. He is not fishing anymore because he is their part as their main reason why they do
paralyzed. Thus, he no longer has a source of not effectively react to problem animal reports.
livelihood, which has made life more difficult National parks now mainly rely on aid from
for him. He cannot pay his hospital bills, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such
he sometimes misses doctors’ appointments for as Zambezi Society and Kariba Animal Welfare
check-ups due to lack of funds. Fund Trust (KAWFT). Commenting on aid
Women are also at risk of being attacked by received from NGOs, 1 national parks official
hippos because they also use canoes to fetch stated the aid received from KAWFT allows
clean drinking and cooking water, as they do them to operate. They work with KAWFT to
not have running water, boreholes, and wells in heal sick animals and remove snares. However,
their fishing camps. When boats are hit by hip- KAWFT only donates aid in relation to protect-
pos, they are damaged and the fishermen often ing the welfare of animals and not humans.
have no resources to repair them. One fisherman Thus, there is a need for the establishment of
described their ordeal as follows: “our boat was NGOs that protect the welfare and wellbeing of
hit by a hippo when we were coming from fish- both humans and wildlife.
ing, and we were thrown into the water. Luckily, Questionnaires. Eighty percent of respondents
both of us were able to swim. [Neither] of us to our questionnaire evaluated the national
was injured, but our boat was destroyed beyond parks officials’ reaction to reports of attacks by
repair. It took us time to find a new boat. When hippos or crocodiles as poor, 15% rated their
the boat is destroyed, you must know that you reaction as average, and 5% regarded their
will not eat until you get another one.” reaction as good (Table 6). From the perspec-
Fishermen may struggle to lay their fishing tive of the respondents, national parks officials
nets whenever hippos roam around their oper- are underperforming in their duties, and that
ational areas in the lake. They identified areas is a source of frustration for those who require
in the lake where they catch big fish, but if the their services. Respondents also lamented the
area happens to have a high concentration of absence of compensation schemes for the inju-
hippos on a particular day, they are forced to ries, deaths, or damages caused by both hippos
lay their nets on those with low catches. People and crocodiles.
in the fishing camps described the various Focus groups. Although FGD participants
methods they employ to retaliate from hippo reported problem animals to national parks
attacks. People attack the hippos with stones officials, they were unhappy with the way the
whenever they come close to the harbor, even authorities handled HWCs. They were con-
if they are not attacking anyone. cerned that officials do not take their reports
Participant observation. We observed that hip- seriously. Camp dwellers have to take the initia-
pos virtually live with the people and victim- tive to mobilize resources and save the injured
ized them. During our fieldwork, we witnessed person(s) through traditional means or rushing222 Human–Wildlife Interactions 15(1) them to the hospital when possible. One inter- areas. The locals believed that the tempo- viewee stated that “we contribute dollar-dollar rary status of their communities makes these per person [each person contributes $1 USD] in authorities not care about their welfare. They the fishing camp to assist victims.” These contri- say that they have been living in those sites for butions were inadequate to transport the victim several decades, but they are not given a per- and to pay bills at the hospital. The situation is manent status of residence, which further leads even worse in instances where the injured are to their marginalization. Failure of establishing referred to hospitals in Karoi or Harare that a satellite station also leads to under-recording are far away, thereby increasing the expenses and mismanagement of conflict situations. against their meager incomes. Participant observation. We did not observe As an alternative, they contact the army any national parks sub-stations in the fishing barrack at Wafa-Wafa for assistance. It was camps. The national parks stations were far emphasized that in circumstances of wild ani- removed from the people who are in conflict mal attacks, the dwellers actually receive help with animals every day. These observations from the soldiers rather than from national may explain why it takes long for the authori- parks. Many (if not all) locals own canoes (and ties to respond to problem animal reports. As not engine boats), which makes it difficult for such, minor incidents of attack are likely to them to ferry a victim to Kariba town. Hiring a go unreported, leading to under-reporting of speed boat in the current economic situation is human–wildlife conflicts. beyond the reach of many. These people hardly have savings because of low catches of fish that Discussion occur mainly in the winter season and also due The research discovered that crocodiles to destruction of nets. and hippos conflict with fishing villagers to a Participant interviews. Research participants greater extent as compared to other animals. we personally interviewed described numer- Crocodile attacks affect the lives of the people ous occasions during which people were killed as they injure and kill people. They also affect by either hippos or crocodiles, and national their livelihoods through destroying nets and parks rangers were called, but they did not kill stealing fish caught in the nets. Hippo attacks the problem animals. One participant lamented also impact the lives of the people they injure that “when they come here after a person has and kill, and they also disturb people’s liveli- been killed they take no action…they just shoot hood through destroying boats and nets. When in the sky to threaten the crocodiles and that such conflicts occur, people report them to the does not help us at all.” The general feeling is national parks authorities. However, people that an animal that has killed a person should say the authorities do not respond to these be killed as well. It is believed that “once an ani- reports swiftly, and this has resulted in their mal has tasted human blood…it may continue anger toward the authorities. hunting humans on the same spot.” The same views were expressed in Kariba Human–crocodile conflicts town where people are in conflict with ele- The treatment of the crocodile as an endan- phants, lions, and baboon. The fact that author- gered species led to the rapid growth of its ities do not seem keen to take effective action populations at Lake Kariba (Cott and Pooley against crocodiles has deepened the perception 1972, Hutton and Child 1989, McGregor 2005), that “wildlife is more important than human and this has resulted in considerable conflict beings.” Due to this thinking, people tend to between humans and crocodiles. These huge resort to lethal ways of retaliation to animal crocodiles can be 4–5 m in length, preying on attacks. Thus, national parks must actively and large animals such as wildebeest (Connochaetes efficiently address the concerns of the people spp.) and buffalo (Pooley et al. 2020). Crocodiles living in Nyaodza, Fothergill, and Gache-Gache were mentioned more frequently in the distrib- fishing camps and other such camps. uted questionnaires because life in the fishing The rage of the people felt toward national camps revolves around Lake Kariba. People parks rangers was intensified by the absence fetch water from the lake for domestic and of a satellite station of national parks in these construction purposes, and they rely on water
Crocodile and hippo conflicts in Zimbabwe • Marowa et al. 223 transport to travel to islands located in the lake attacks against others (Colson 2000, as cited in and surrounding towns like Kariba. McGregor 2005). Witches can choose to either The continued negative impacts of crocodiles kill or injure the victim. on the lives and livelihoods of the local inhab- The nature of crocodile attacks we gath- itants exacerbate the impoverishment of the ered in the fishing camps correlates with what locals. This impoverishment can best be under- Pooley (2016) discovered in Eswatini (for- stood in the context of the current economic merly Swaziland). Describing how people are crises in Zimbabwe. When nets are destroyed, attacked close to the shores, Pooley (2016) noted people may lack resources to replace them that crocodiles observe where animals (includ- quickly. This leaves people with no income to ing humans) regularly cross watercourses or go buy food, clothing, and health care in urban to drink or bathe, and when hungry, they will Kariba. These communities are already impov- wait patiently near these places for the prey to erished and underdeveloped and the perpetua- approach. After crocodiles see prey, they sub- tion of human–wildlife conflicts will only serve merge, approach silently and invisibly, lunging to worsen their situation. Impoverishment also with great speed and power at the last moment results from the failure of the fishermen to to seize the victim in their powerful jaws. complete their fishing trips because of wildlife Victims are usually dragged into deeper water attacks in the lake or on the lake shore (Ndhlovu and drowned (Pooley 2016). et al. 2017). However, most people are mainly concerned with the harm and deaths associated Human–hippo conflicts with crocodile attacks than the impacts on live- We have also presented data on the impacts lihoods. This is presumably because there are of hippos on the lives and livelihoods of the alternatives with livelihoods, but impacts on people. Hippos attack people differently from lives and wellbeing cannot be replaced. the crocodiles. This means that people also Due to the current high unemployment rates, employ different strategies of avoiding attacks there is an increase in fishing pressure (Ndhlovu from these animals. Hippos cause more dam- et al. 2017). Hence, many people encroach the ages to people’s livelihoods as compared to fishing camps either as fishers or as fish buy- crocodiles through destroying boats, though ers, and they are often preyed on by crocodiles. they do not eat people as crocodiles do. Though The other cause of human–crocodile conflict in hippos cause more damages than crocodiles, Kariba is the decrease in water levels that com- it is crucial to note that crocodiles are feared menced during the fall of 2015. Ndhlovu et al. more than hippos, partly because crocodiles eat (2017) identified that low water levels amplify humans. sensitivity as fishers reported that their fishing The fishermen normally work for other peo- grounds were reduced as a result. Furthermore, ple with boats until they have money to pur- fishers compete with wild animals, including chase or make their own boat. Nyikahadzoi hippos and crocodiles, for the remaining fish- (1995) noticed that the loss of nets because ing grounds. This increases the risk of wildlife of destruction by crocodiles (and hippos) is attacks as well as the distance to the lake. known to have forced some small-scale fish- Crocodile attacks are also associated with ers from Lake Kariba into circumstances where witchcraft in the fishing camps, as is the case they depend on friends or relatives for support in other parts of Africa (Chihona 2014, Zakayo or into employment by larger and well-estab- 2014). The interconnections between crocodile lished fishermen. This indicates the importance attacks and witchcraft also make evident that of social capital and networking in the fishing crocodiles are entangled in African cultural camps. Current economic crisis in Zimbabwe beliefs and perceptions (Eniang et al. 2020). makes it even more difficult for them to acquire Serious, mysterious crocodile attacks engen- new boats in time, thereby resulting in cuts on der the association of human–crocodile con- their weekly budgets for their family upkeep. flict with witchcraft in many communities in There are vendors who sell food stuff at high Africa (McGregor 2005, Pooley 2016). Witches costs, which forces fishermen to reduce their are said to be able to move about in the form diet. Such reduction results in malnutrition, of a crocodile or have powers to send them in leading to kwashiorkor (severe malnutrition
224 Human–Wildlife Interactions 15(1)
from protein deficiency) among children of 5 money collected (from wildlife criminal offend-
years and below. ers) as fines by national parks in and around
Human–hippo conflicts are increasing in Lake Kariba go when officials fail to respond
Africa and other parts of the world, but little to genuine threats to human existence. They
is known about the factors contributing to the say that demonstrates the serious embezzle-
increased conflicts for application to their miti- ment of funds on the part of the government
gation (Kanga et al. 2011). Thus, this study con- to which Zimparks (Zimbabwe National Parks
tributes to the minimal literature that focuses and Wildlife Authority) is affiliated.
on human–hippo conflicts in Africa. The
impacts of hippos on people’s lives and liveli- Subsistence economy at a crisis
hoods can also be understood in the context of We reported the impacts caused by both
the economic crises as indicated above. crocodiles and hippos on the people residing
in the fishing camps. We argued that the sever-
Responses to human–wildlife conflicts ity of these impacts is heightened by the cur-
with crocodiles and hippos rent economic crises in Zimbabwe. McGregor
Although humans are largely impacted by (2005) found similar interconnections between
crocodiles and hippos, it is worth noting the economic crises and HWCs.
human actions that also impact the welfare of The response or reaction to HWCs reported
these animals, particularly the crocodile. For to national parks reflects the level of avail-
example, crocodiles are often trapped in the nets ability of resources in a country facing serious
in Lake Kariba, which affects the well-being of the economic hardships and shortage of fuel. The
animals, as it might injure itself as it wrestles to national parks authorities interviewed were
come out of the net. But, of course, these human not addressing the HWCs occurring in the fish-
impacts on the animal are “unintentional.” ing camps, partly because of limited resources.
Similarly, “in other African contexts, the Their lack of response can impact efforts to con-
introduction of gillnetting has had a destructive serve crocodiles and hippos. Van der Ploeg et
effect on crocodile populations” (McGregor al. (2011) argued that in a developing world,
2005, 361, citing J. Hutton, personal commu- rural poverty, weak governance, and scarce
nication). Gillnetting is a threat to the wellbe- financial resources hamper the conservation
ing and survival of the Nile crocodile in Lake efforts on the ground.
Kariba (McGregor 2005). Results from other As indicated above, the locals highlighted that
research on HWCs in Tanzania indicated that when the authorities visit the camps after a con-
these conflicts have significant impacts on croc- flict, they rarely kill the problem animal. Thus,
odile populations (Zakayo 2014). Sometimes the authorities are viewed as very incompetent
angry fishermen poison or attack crocodiles by the locals. Incompetence and incapability of
with spears, as McGregor (2005) found among the national parks can arguably be regarded as
the Batonga people of Binga Rural District. The a threat to conservation of the endangered spe-
ways in which people wrestle themselves from cies. Madden and McQuinn (2014, 97) observed
the jaws of the crocodile, like blocking its nose, “unaddressed or poorly addressed conflicts
can have health consequences on the involved present increasingly difficult obstacles of effec-
crocodile, which further threatens crocodile tive conservation and management of many
survival. The crocodile needs to be conserved wildlife species around the world.” We have
largely because it plays an important role in also indicated that the locals believe that they
maintaining the productivity and diversity of are being neglected by the authorities, largely
wetland ecosystems on which people depend because the camps are regarded as temporary
(Van der Ploeg et al. 2011, Sai et al. 2016). by these authorities. But we argue that whether
Hippos also contribute to both wetland and people are settled at an area temporarily or per-
terrestrial ecosystems; thus, throwing stones manently, their welfare should be promoted at
at them, as people do along the harbors in the the same level with that of hippos and croco-
fishing camps, also threatens their health and diles. When people feel their needs and welfare
survival. are recognized by conservationists, they are
Many people wonder where huge sums of likely to develop positive attitudes toward wildCrocodile and hippo conflicts in Zimbabwe • Marowa et al. 225
animals (Yang et al. 2010). Acknowledgments
The fact that the locals interviewed were The researchers extend their gratitude to the
adamant that national parks must resume people living in the fishing camps under study
crocodile egg collection and selective hippo for allowing them to spend extended periods
culling indicated that they did not want to of time in their communities for data collection
resort to wide-scale lethal methods in resolv- purposes. Their hospitality and patience with the
ing HWCs. It is advisable that parks pay atten- tenuous process is greatly appreciated. We also
tion to such calls because their continued acknowledge the valuable assistance obtained
avoidance can cause the locals to resort to kill- from the team at Zimbabwe Lake Kariba
ing the animals, which threaten the conserva- Research Station, who worked as research assis-
tion of these endangered species. These fish- tants in gathering data. The authors are respon-
ing camps must also benefit from the revenue sible for all the conclusions and assessments
accrued by national parks from egg collections made in this paper. This research was funded
and hunting through improvement of infra- by the University of Zimbabwe’s Department
structure in their communities. Thus, the rev- of Biological Sciences in collaboration with
enue can be used to construct boreholes and University of Zimbabwe Lake Kariba Research
blair toilets for the people in these camps. This Station. Comments provided by M. Larese-
strategy can also cultivate positive attitudes in Casanova, J. Tegt, and T. Messmer, HWI edi-
the people toward animals. Hutton and Child tors, as well as 2 anonymous reviewers, greatly
(1989) argued it is impractical to attempt to improved earlier versions of our paper.
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