IN SEARCH OF AN EFFECTIVE TRANSLATOR AND INTERPRETER TRAINING MODEL IN MOZAMBIQUE
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ISSN 2307-3918
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IN SEARCH OF AN EFFECTIVE TRANSLATOR AND INTERPRETER
TRAINING MODEL IN MOZAMBIQUE
Armando Adriano Magaia
Faculdade de Letras e Ciências Sociais, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane (UEM), Mozambique
ABSTRACT: Eduardo Mondlane University (UEM) is the only higher education institution offering BA Honours
level translator and interpreter training in Mozambique. However, it still lacks an effective model for the
development of translation and interpreting competence in students. To address this problem, this study seeks to
find a practical model for designing a BA Honours curriculum that is conducive to an effective training of
Mozambican professional translators and interpreters. The study has been designed as action-research because this
design enables better understanding and improvement of training processes (CRAVO and NEVES, 2007). Three
data collection tools were used to generate both qualitative and quantitative data from 123 participants, namely:
(i) a survey, (ii) an English translation test and (iii) a sample of 18 archived Portuguese translations produced by
former students. The survey findings suggest the need to reform the current curriculum in order to make it more
conducive to translation and interpreting competence development. Furthermore, the results of macro- and micro-
textual analysis show that, although UEM students are capable of producing acceptable English into Portuguese
translations, their Portuguese into English translations are, overall, poor. The proposed solution would be the
adoption of a new integrated translation and interpreting competence development model with the following four
pillars: communicative competence, general knowledge, strategic competence and service provision. This model
would lead to the design of a curriculum enabling students to be trained as translators and interpreters under the
same programme, where English into Portuguese and vice-versa translation practice is mandatory.
Keywords: Curriculum design, integrated translation and interpreting competence development model, translation
and interpreting studies, translator and interpreter training.
EM BUSCA DE UM MODELO EFICAZ PARA A FORMAÇÃO DE
TRADUTORES E INTÉRPRETES EM MOÇAMBIQUE
RESUMO: A Universidade Eduardo Mondlane (UEM) é a única instituição do ensino superior que forma
licenciados em tradução e interpretação em Moçambique. Contudo, carece de um modelo eficaz para o
desenvolvimento da competência tradutória e interpretativa. Portanto, este estudo investiga um modelo prático
para o desenho de um currículo de licenciatura, conducente a uma formação eficaz de tradutores e intérpretes
moçambicanos. O estudo seguiu a metodologia de pesquisa-acção visto permitir uma melhor compreensão e
melhoria dos processos de formação (CRAVO e NEVES, 2007). Foram usadas três ferramentas de recolha de
dados para gerar dados qualitativos e quantitativos de 123 participantes, nomeadamente: (i) um inquérito, (ii) um
teste de tradução para o inglês e (iii) uma amostra de 18 traduções arquivadas de antigos estudantes produzidas
em português. Os resultados do inquérito sugerem que é preciso reformar o currículo actual para torná-lo mais
conducente ao desenvolvimento da competência tradutória e interpretativa. Outrossim, os resultados da análise
macrotextual e microtextual mostram que, embora os estudantes da UEM produzam traduções aceitáveis do inglês
para o português, a qualidade da sua tradução inversa, em geral, é fraca. A solução que se propõe seria um novo
modelo integrado de desenvolvimento da competência tradutória e interpretativa assente em quatro pilares,
nomeadamente: competência comunicativa, cultura geral, competência estratégica e prestação de serviços. Este
modelo orientaria o desenho de um currículo que permita que os estudantes sejam formados como tradutores e
intérpretes num único programa, onde a prática de tradução do inglês para o português e vice-versa é obrigatória.
Palavras-chave: Desenho curricular, modelo integrado de desenvolvimento da competência tradutória e
interpretativa, estudos de tradução e interpretação, formação de tradutores e intérpretes.
__________________________
Correspondência para: (correspondence to:) armando.a.magaia@uem.ac.mz
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1In search of an effective translator and interpreter training model in Mozambique
INTRODUCTION component from its curriculum in to order
to adjust to the Bologna process that was
Eduardo Mondlane University (UEM) is the
being implemented. It may be argued that
only higher education institution offering
one fundamental reason for failing to
BA Honours level translator and interpreter
improve this curriculum is the lack of a
training in Mozambique. However, the
clear guiding model outlining the main
university still lacks an effective model for
competences that a translator or an
the training of professional translators and
interpreter should have. Indeed, the
interpreters. This is due to the fact that there
inherited curriculum in place at UEM seems
is currently no specific translation
to reflect the general view that translation
competence development model in place at
and interpreting are just some of the
UEM, which has resulted in a flawed
competences that can be developed within
curriculum design approach that, by and
the major disciplines of Linguistics and
large, reflects a one-size-fits-all mind-set.
Literature.
For example, UEM currently has a
compulsory core curriculum comprising Hence, the researcher’s awareness of his
many subjects whose applicability to role in curriculum development at UEM has
translation or interpreting is questionable. thus motivated him to embark on this study.
This perception is corroborated by the fact Being a UEM alumnus and having been a
that, during practical translation classes, lecturer in that university for over 10 years
most students often question the relevance has enabled him to get fully acquainted with
of some of the compulsory subjects they are the Translation and Interpreting course
required to attend, as they fail to see their programme. Therefore, the researcher could
connection with translation and interpreting not shrug off his responsibility as a
competence development. On the other curriculum evaluator, since “teachers have
hand, most of the so-called optional the responsibility of evaluating both the
subjects now on offer at UEM contribute curriculum and instruction” (OLIVA, 2001,
little or nothing to developing translation p. 56).
competence, let alone interpreting In addition, a teacher’s role is not limited to
competence. Again, students often regret simply observing and evaluating the
wasting time attending optional subjects curriculum in the classroom because he/she
that in one way or another end up being is also “a curriculum worker who engages
compulsory, when indeed they should be in curriculum planning in varying degrees,
investing their time and effort developing on different occasions” (OLIVA, 2001, p.
translation and interpreting competences. 16). This view is shared by McKernan
Therefore, this study investigates a possible (1996, p. 53), who observes that “research
practical model – and, hopefully, an by teachers can provide a curriculum
effective curriculum – for the training of knowledge in the same way that research by
professional translators and interpreters at mathematicians and sociologists provides a
BA Honours level at UEM. basis for teaching those disciplines”. He
Rationale adds that such teacher-driven research “will
yield up new curriculum knowledge and
A major reason for conducting this research
contribute to the construction of new
is the fact that an effective training model
understandings and more sophisticated
could guide efforts aimed at producing an
theories of curricularizing” (MCKERNAN,
adequate curriculum for educating
1996, p. 53). Therefore, this study can be
Mozambican translators and interpreters.
viewed as the researcher’s own modest
For the past few years, UEM has been
attempt to contribute to the ongoing
trying, in vain, to review its curriculum. The
curriculum reform process at UEM.
university even reached a point at which it
saw the need to phase out the Interpreting
Rev. cient. UEM: Sér. ciênc. soc.. Vol. 2, No 2, pp 1-22, 2021
2AA Magaia
Aims of the Study the way translators and interpreters act out
their responsibility as managers of the
The overriding goal of this study is to
subtle problems arising in the two modes of
propose a new integrated translation and
translation” (his emphasis). Consistent with
interpreting competence development
this proposition, Gile (1998, p. 41) also
model for the training of Mozambican
argues that, although most scholars view
professional translators and interpreters at
translating and interpreting as essentially
BA Honours level, which can provide the
fulfilling the same function, “many –
foundation for building an improved
especially interpreters – consider that the
translator and interpreter training
two are very different, even incompatible
curriculum at UEM, with the potential to
professions”. To justify this view, Gile
enhance graduate employability.
(1998, p. 41) suggests that in terms of actual
Specifically, this study pursues the translation and interpreting practice, the
following objectives: most obvious of the differences stem “from
a) To assess the effectiveness of the the fact that translators deal with written
current UEM translation curriculum language and have time to polish their work,
in leading to the development of while interpreters deal with oral language
translation and interpreting and have no time to refine their output”.
competence as perceived by It should, however, be noted that although
stakeholders (students, lecturers, the interpreting activity is marked by a great
professional translators/interpreters deal of pressure associated with its
and potential clients); and spontaneity (absent in the translating
b) To propose an integrated translation activity), this does not mean that the
and interpreting competence translator’s profession is always easy. One
development model that can provide of the reasons for arriving at this conclusion
a framework for designing is because “adequate translation cannot be
conducive translator and interpreter explained by lexical matching alone”
training curricula. (NEUBERT, 1997, p. 11-12). Neubert
(1997, p. 12) goes on saying that there are
Theoretical Framework numerous factors that condition a
Translating and Interpreting – Similar translator’s choices such as “systemic-
Yet Different Professions linguistic, some under the semantic
influence of the global text meaning, some
Despite the strong relationship between the under pressure of stylistic demands of the
concepts of translating and interpreting, it is target culture, and others under the control
compelling to study their similarities and of the pragmatics of the translation
dissimilarities in detail. In this regard, even context”.
though De Groot (1997, p. 26)
acknowledges that translating and Despite the difficulties inherent in the task
interpreting share many general features, he of translating, it appears that a translator
argues that “the use of a single term to refer may find himself or herself in a less
to both may veil the – fundamental – demanding situation than that of an
differences between them”. He goes further interpreter. Danks and Griffin (1997, p.
when he says: “The differences, especially 164) corroborate this perception when they
in terms of the processes involved, are in identify the immediate temporal constraints
fact so substantial that the two may require as a fundamental difference between
a different set of skills to be performed readers and listeners as well as between
optimally” (DE GROOT, 1997, p. 26). translators and interpreters. Thus according
Neubert (1997, p. 14-15) agrees when he to these scholars, “Just as readers typically
states that “there are striking differences in have as much time as they need to
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3In search of an effective translator and interpreter training model in Mozambique
understand a text, so do translators have design of translator training curricula
plenty of time to comprehend and translate around the globe are multi-componential.
the text” (DANKS and GRIFFIN, 1997, p. Such models usually include components
164). They go further when they state that, such as source- and target language
indeed, “translators may well have more proficiency, cultural competence, cognitive
time than readers because readers are under qualities, domain/subject specific
the pressure of implicit social norms about competence, transfer competence, research
how long it takes to read a text”, which may competence, interpersonal competence,
not apply to translators (DANKS and technological competence and so forth
GRIFFIN, 1997, p. 164). (GILE, 1995; MASON, 1998; NEUBERT,
2000; PRESAS, 2000, SCHÄFFNER,
These authors are quick to admit that such
2000; KELLY, 2005; PACTE GROUP,
norms may indeed exist, but they assert that
2005; GÖPFERICH, 2009; and
“at least implicitly, within the community
CHODKIEWICZ, 2012).
of translators, the pressure to produce a
good, accurate translation is often more However, some scholars disagree with
important than how long it takes” (DANKS multi-componential models. For example,
and GRIFFIN, 1997, p. 164). At the same Shreve (1997, p. 120) defines translation
time, these scholars acknowledge that competence as “a specialized form of
“translators are faced with the demands of communicative competence” and argues
the commission and its associated that it “is both knowing about translation
deadlines, but the time constraints of and about knowing how to do translation”.
deadlines are usually measured in days and From this definition one can glean that
not minutes and seconds as they are in translation competence requires more than
listening and interpreting” (DANKS and having theoretical knowledge of translation
GRIFFIN, 1997, p. 164). In contrast, the or even the ability to describe the translation
time pressure on interpreters is heightened process. As Shreve (1997, p. 121) puts it,
by the fact that, as these authors go on to translation competence “is about producing
say, “the listeners for the interpreted text are translations that are well formed,
waiting for the speech in the target language referentially accurate with respect to source
and the speaker may (in the consecutive texts, and socially appropriate in their
case) or may not (in the simultaneous case) cultural contexts”. Therefore, translation
be waiting for the interpreter to finish the competence is not some vague concept or
interpretation” (DANKS and GRIFFIN, knowledge that can be demonstrated
1997, p. 164-165). Likewise, GILE (1998, intellectually – it requires the production of
p. 41) suggests that, in contrast to some tangible products, i.e., acceptable
translation, “interpreting requires attention translations. It is quite significant that
sharing and involves severe time Shreve (1997, p. 121) suggests that
constraints”. What comes to the surface is translation competence requires a good
that the context, process and product of amount of practice when he says: “Not
translating and interpreting are different, everyone can translate; those that learn how
even though the two tasks share some to translate do so by acquiring a history of
features. Thus, a translator may not translation experience”. Again, one can
necessarily be an interpreter and, by the glean from this remark that a curriculum
same token, an interpreter may not might fail to develop translation
necessarily be a translator, unless he/she competence in students if it does not
receives sound training in both professions. provide enough time for practising
translation.
Translation Competence
Similarly, Pym (2003, p. 487) criticizes
Typically, the translation competence
multi-componential models, claiming that
models that have greatly influenced the
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4AA Magaia
these “are heavy with assumptions not just should meet the following requirements: (1)
about what translation is and how it should Mastery of the active language; (2) Solid
be taught, but more especially about the background of general knowledge; (3)
level at which specific teaching is needed, Personal qualities: e.g. faculty of analysis
and for how many years”. He postulates that and synthesis, ability to intuit meaning,
“there is no neat definition of all the things capacity to adapt immediately to change in
that translators need to know and will be subject matter and different speakers and
called upon to do” (PYM, 2003, p. 488). situations; (4) Other qualities: having good
Furthermore, Pym (2013, p. 489) claims short and long term memory, ability to
that multi-componential models of concentrate, a gift for public speaking, and
translation competence “bring together physical endurance and good nerves.
various areas in which a good translator is Meanwhile, Fraihat and Mahadi (2013, p.
supposed to have skills and knowledge 184) suggest that professional consecutive
(know how and know that), as well as certain and simultaneous interpreters share five
personal qualities, which remain poorly competences, namely: (1) Linguistic
categorized”. Nevertheless, although Pym Competence in the working languages (SL
(2013, p. 489) disagrees with multi- and TL) including grammar, lexical &
componential models of translation discourse analysis, (2) Transfer
competence, he admits that there is Competence (Efficiency), (3) Cultural and
“nothing particularly wrong with such Societal Competence, (4) Strategic
models”. As he puts it, “they can be neither Competence (Communication &
right nor wrong, since they are simply lists interaction) and (5) Extra Linguistic
of training objectives, with no particular Knowledge in specialized areas (academic,
criteria for success or failure” (PYM, 2013, political, legal, business, etc.). They further
p. 489). Furthermore, referring specifically identify some distinctive cognitive
to the European Master’s in Translation competences between consecutive and
(EMT) model, he suggests that this simultaneous interpreters as well as some
“configuration is nevertheless important shared physical and personal traits and
precisely because it is the result of skills. In the same vein, another model can
significant consensus, agreed to by a set of be found in a report prepared by the ALTA
European experts and now providing the Language Services, Inc. for the Judicial
ideological backbone for some 54 Council of California, Administrative
university-level training programs in Office of the Courts in 2007. Although it
Europe, for better or worse” (PYM, 2013, focuses specifically on court interpreters, its
489). model of interpreting competence can be
Interpreting Competence elucidative. The model consists of the
following skill areas: (1) Linguistic Skills;
As is the case with translation competence,
(2) Speaking Skills; (3) Listening
interpreting competence is hard to define
Comprehension Skills; (4) Reading
and it lacks an agreed upon universal model.
Comprehension Skills; (5) Interpreting
Therefore, some models have features that
Skills; and (6) Behavioural Skills (ALTA,
others omit, reflecting different foci when
2007, p. 2).
investigating interpreting competence. For
example, Gile (1997, p. 197-8) proposes the What it all boils down to is the fact that
simultaneous interpretation effort model, there is a set of competencies or skills,
consisting of three efforts: (1) The listening knowledge, attitudes or qualities that
and analysis effort; (2) The production interpreters should have. This can help
effort; and (3) The memory effort. isolate the most critical areas of knowledge
However, Al-Salman and Al-Khanji (2002, and abilities an interpreter training
p. 607-608) believe that an interpreter programme should focus on. By way of
Rev. cient. UEM: Sér. ciênc. soc.. Vol. 2, No 2, pp 1-22, 2021
5In search of an effective translator and interpreter training model in Mozambique
criticism, however, most of the translation 2016, p. 131). Clearly, one does not solve
or interpreting competence models the challenge of finding adequate translator
available in translation studies comprise and interpreter training models by simply
features that are somehow redundant. This adopting or adapting available European
can make it difficult to craft an appropriate models. There is need to acknowledge the
curriculum under a specific model. This gap and fill it according to local
also denotes a gap and a trap in translation circumstances.
and interpreting studies, as shown below. At the same time, a literature review
A Gap and a Trap in Translation and exposes a “trap” in translation and
Interpreting Studies interpreting studies, as briefly explained
below. Without due care, designing a
A major challenge in translation and
translator and interpreter training
interpreting studies is the dearth of research
curriculum can be treacherous. Hatim and
aimed at finding adequate models for the
Mason (1997, p. 7) point out that “it should
training of professional translators and
not be assumed that because translating in
interpreters in higher education. This
the written and in the oral mode are known
perception is corroborated by Yan et al.
by different terms – translating and
(2015, p. 264), who contend that “despite
interpreting – they have little in common”.
the importance of T&I [translation and
In fact, these scholars criticize the fact that
interpreting] training and the exponentially
translating and interpreting are usually
increasing number of studies dedicated to
separated on translator/interpreter training
this sub-field, there remain very few
programmes, although they are marked by
reviews of this applied branch of T&I
commonalities in using communication
research”. In a similar vein, Albir (2007, p.
strategies (HATIM and MASON, 1997).
163) argues that the formal training of
Along these lines, Asensio (2007, p. 87)
translators and interpreters “lacks the
observes that there has been an overlap
curriculum research tradition of other
between translating and interpreting as
disciplines with a longer academic
professional activities, which “can give rise
standing”. In fact, Kiraly (2016, p. 130)
to repetition (or omission) in the curriculum
criticizes today’s Bologna-influenced
between Translation and Interpreting
translation-studies curricula in place in
courses”. Therefore, an effective
Europe when he observes that, in such
curriculum design should avoid either
curricula, “skills and knowledge to be
repeating or omitting essential aspects
acquired are commonly represented with
inherent in each of these two professions.
geometrical shapes or containers that are
labelled with learning outcomes to Following the presentation of the
represent the achievement of predefined theoretical underpinnings of this study, a
educational outcomes and objectives – brief definition of the term “model” is
which may or may not be aligned with the provided below, followed by that of
demands of the market”. In addition, “competence-based curriculum”, as used in
referring to the curricular framework of the this study.
MA in Translation programme at his
Defining a Model
university, the author further observes that
the panoply of subjects that students choose Since any training programme is based on a
from in a given semester are “little more model, it is important to have a clear
than a patchwork quilt of content to be definition of this concept. According to
accumulated in a sequence that is based Henson (1995, p. 113), “a model is not a
more on the chance of getting into classes reality”, but rather, “a visual or written
one wants to take and fitting them into one’s description of someone’s perception of
schedule than anything else” (KIRALY, reality”. Furthermore, “models are
Rev. cient. UEM: Sér. ciênc. soc.. Vol. 2, No 2, pp 1-22, 2021
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imperfect” (HENSON, 1995, p. 113), which (ALBIR, 2007, p. 167-168). Thus, the term
calls for ongoing research towards “competence-based curriculum” in this
improving them. In this study, the term study means a curriculum designed
“model”, used in conjunction with the term according to the broader professional
“training”, is defined as an idealization of profile and specific sub-competences,
guiding principles, transformed into a knowledge areas, skills and attitudes that a
visualizable schematization of key course intends to develop in students.
interrelated components of a training
philosophy that can provide a framework METHODOLOGY
for designing specific training curricula. In Design and Method
other words, a training model clearly
articulates the main competencies Scholars like Snell-Hornby et al. (1994),
constituting an envisaged profession but Hansen (2006) and Sun (2014) have argued
need not be inflated by detailing every that Translation Studies is an
single sub-competence, skill, knowledge interdiscipline. Odacıoğlu and Köktürk
area or attitude that might contribute (2015, p. 18) go further when they observe
towards developing such professional that “Translation Studies is currently
competence. A training model may be thought to show a transition process from
likened to a skeleton. Furthermore, to be inter-disciplinarity to transdisciplinarity”. It
practical, a model must allow its users to can, then, be concluded that, even though
draw principles to guide training processes translation studies today is widely accepted
and ensure that these stay focused on the as a discipline, its interdisciplinary and
ultimate goal of equipping a student for transdisciplinary nature can allow several
work. This is closely related to the concept approaches to researching this field. With
of competence-based curriculum, briefly regard to methodological implications of
touched on below. considering translation studies as an
interdiscipline, Hansen (2006, p. 6) writes:
Competence-based Curriculum “Disciplines and research patterns from
Albir (2007, p. 164) identifies “adapting psychology, phenomenology, natural
teaching to new pedagogical models” as a sciences and social sciences provide
major challenge facing today’s education, empirical translation research with useful
including translator and interpreter training. tools, methods and techniques”. Sun (2014,
He highlights the need for “training that p. 176), in turn, says: “If we view TS
develops the necessary competences to [translation studies] as an interdiscipline,
perform well in the job market; and training then almost all research methods in its
that guarantees autonomous, multi-purpose feeder disciplines can be used in our
and continuous or lifelong learning which research field”. This shows that research in
can be adapted to a constantly changing translation and interpreting studies should
world” (ALBIR, 2007, p. 164-165). not be restricted to a particular method. A
According to this author, an emerging translation and interpreting studies
pedagogical response is what has been researcher may thus choose any
called “competence-based training”, which methodological approach he/she finds most
comprises specific and general suitable for the object of his/her study
competences (ALBIR, 2007, p. 165-168). (CRAVO and NEVES, 2007).
Furthermore, he sees advantages in this This study has been designed as action
model, such as “greater transparency of research. Action research design in
professional profile in study programmes, translation studies is recommended by
greater emphasis on the outcome of scholars such as Cravo and Neves (2007, p.
learning, more flexibility and a greater 96), because it allows researchers to “be
integration of all aspects of a curriculum” involved with people and particularly with
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7In search of an effective translator and interpreter training model in Mozambique
the people who will, in the end, benefit from where specialized medical language
their research: the translators themselves, is used; and
the students of translation and translators- 3) a sample of students’ final
to-be, the teachers of translation, and, above Portuguese translations archived in
all, the ‘consumers’ of the end product”. the English section, containing 100-
Similarly, Saldanha and O’Brien (2013, p. 135 words in the source text
16) suggest that action research is selected. In total, six different
appropriate in translation studies because it source texts were used for the
is “collaborative: it seeks to empower the samples analysed in this study,
stakeholders and moves away from the given the fact that participating
concepts of the ‘researcher’ and the students had submitted their final
‘researched’”. translation projects in different
Research Instruments and Analytical years. The first text was extracted
Framework from a report on the Zimbabwean
electoral process in 2008; the
In action research, data can be gathered
second sample was extracted from
from multiple sources, including field
an ODI (Overseas Development
notes, audiotapes, videotapes, photos, pupil
Institute) paper on poverty; the third
diaries, interviews, questionnaires,
text analysed was extracted from an
sociometry, documentary evidence, case
economic report published by the
studies, matrices, artefacts and tests (See
International Monetary Fund (IMF);
MILLS, 2003; HOPKINS, 2002 and
the fourth text was taken from a
COHEN et al., 2002). Thus, in this study,
report on maternal and child health
data was collected by means of:
published by the Zimbabwean
1) a survey questionnaire, consisting Ministry of Health; the fifth text was
mainly of Likert-type items divided extracted from a paper on the
into four sections, which gathered African Peer Review Mechanism;
quantitative data. However, open- and the sixth and last text was taken
ended questions were included in from an IMF study on gender and
order to capture qualitative data economy. All of these texts
with the very same instrument. This contained a reasonable amount of
was possible because even though specialized terminology in their
participants were mostly asked to respective domains.
tick applicable answers among five
With regard to the survey
options, they were equally
questionnaire, it should be noted
encouraged to share their deep
that this instrument contained a
thoughts by providing reasons for
section with a proposal developed
their answers in each of the
by the researcher following a pilot
questions;
study conducted in 2016. This
2) a translation test, where former proposal featured an integrated
students were asked to translate a translation and interpreting
short text from Portuguese into competence development model
English. The sample text consisted laid upon four pillars, namely: 1)
of 135 words, having been extracted Communicative competence, 2)
from a document about mother and General knowledge, 3) Strategic
child mortality, published by the competence, and 4) Service
Mozambican Ministry of Health. provision. The proposal also
The content of the selected source included the following description:
text is, by and large, simple except
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8AA Magaia
In the proposed model, Scenario 2: Two Separate BA
translation/interpreting Honours programmes (one in
competence consists of translation and the other in
communicative competence, interpreting); and
general knowledge, strategic Scenario 3: A BA Honours in
competence and service provision. Language Sciences (which would
Communicative competence include translation and interpreting
encompasses linguistic, competences among linguistics,
sociolinguistic and pragmatic literature, secretarial skills, text
competences in both the source- revision and editing, etc.)
language and the target-language
(English-Portuguese). General The quantitative data was mainly entered
knowledge means acquaintance into a Microsoft Excel workbook and
with any field/subject of the analysed with the aid of this statistical tool.
translator’s/interpreter’s interest, Likewise, the qualitative data from
including linguistics or translations was analysed following the
translation/interpreting. Strategic macro- and micro-textual analytical
competence includes declarative framework developed by Magaia (2014).
knowledge and application of According to Magaia (2016, p. 59), a
translation methods/procedures, or translation error is defined as “an instance
interpreting modes/techniques, of underperformance during a translation
problem identification and solving act, observed through the lack of translation
strategies (i.e. lexical, structural, message accuracy and target text
idiomatic, pragmatic, cultural, effectiveness”. In this translation
register and style problems), assessment method, a source-language-
including correct use of originated error (SLOE) is defined as “any
tools/resources (e.g., error being caused by flawed interpretation
physical/electronic dictionaries, of the source-language text, in part or in
parallel texts, terminology whole” (MAGAIA, 2016, p. 59). Under the
databases), subject/thematic broader category of SLOEs, the following
research, logical/critical reasoning, micro-level translations errors are found:
proofreading/revision skills, etc. wrong meaning (WM), wrong lexical
Service provision includes choice (WLC), omission (O) and nonsense
interpersonal skills, entrepreneurial (NS). Likewise, a target-language-
skills, self-marketing, negotiation originated error (TLOE) is “any mistake or
skills, project/time/stress error exposing a translator’s poor mastery
management, knowledge of and of the target language/culture norms and
compliance with conventions, but which is not necessarily
ethical/deontological norms, etc. identifiable through source-text vs. target-
Under this model, students practise text comparison” (MAGAIA, 2014, p. 84).
translating and interpreting from Thus, under the umbrella category of
and into English on an equal footing TLOEs, the following micro-level errors are
with Portuguese. distinguished: target language norm
deviation (ND), misspelling (MS), poor
In addition, three new curriculum proposals punctuation (PP) and unnaturalness (UN).
were attached, each reflecting an ideal
curriculum under three different scenarios: It should be further pointed out that the
qualitative data included in this study was
Scenario 1: A joint BA Honours in critical to understanding the reasons behind
translation and interpreting; the quantitative data yielded. Therefore, this
data was transcribed according to the
Rev. cient. UEM: Sér. ciênc. soc.. Vol. 2, No 2, pp 1-22, 2021
9In search of an effective translator and interpreter training model in Mozambique
questions it was answering. At the same Procedures and Ethical Considerations
time, the answers were analysed paying All participants were contacted either
attention to recurrent themes in the likeness personally or by email and invited to
of the analytical framework used in the participate voluntarily in the study. To this
researcher’s previous case study end, subjects were provided with an
(MAGAIA, 2014, p. 64-66), building on informed consent form, which they signed
Rowley’s (2002) strategy for analysing case after receiving background information on
study data. In this strategy, “a framework of the aim of the study and confidentiality
sections reflecting the themes in the case aspects. Then the subjects were asked to
study are developed and evidence is complete a survey questionnaire and return
gathered within relevant themes, and it at their earliest convenience. In addition
analysed and compared in these categories” to returning the questionnaire, former
(ROWLEY, 2002, p. 24). students also submitted a sample of English
Against this background, the next section translations for macro- and micro-textual
describes the marking scheme used in analysis. Furthermore, former students had
analysing the students’ translations. a sub-section within the survey with some
specific questions to learn about their rates
Marking Scheme
of employment and professional
The marking scheme used in this study is experience. This step was followed by a
based on a 0-20 mark range, which is collection of a corpus of former students’
customarily followed at UEM, and it final Portuguese translation projects for
stipulates that the total number of words in macro- and micro-textual analysis too. Data
a source text be divided by 20 to know the collection took place from mid-April to July
number of words affected by each error. 2017 upon obtaining permission to conduct
Then 20 is divided by the quotient of the research at the Faculty of Arts and Social
first operation. The quotient of the second Sciences (to reach current students) and at
operation is divided by 2 to know the weight the Language Institute of Maputo (to reach
of the SLOE penalty. Finally, the quotient potential students), and after ethical
of the third operation is divided by 2 to clearance was granted by the University of
know the weight of the TLOE penalty. In South Africa (the institution providing
other words, the weight of a TLOE penalty academic supervision for this research).
is always 50% of that of a SLOE. Here is an
example: RESULTS
If the source text has 100 words, then: Presented below are the findings of the
study, starting with those of the survey
1. Step 1: 100÷20 = 5;
questionnaire.
2. Step 2: 20÷5 = 4;
Survey Data Results
3. Step 3: divide the quotient of
operation in step 2 by 2 (in this case, Respondent Profile
4 divided by 2 equals 2, which A total of 123 respondents participated in
means the penalty for each SLOE is the study. Students (former, current and
2 marks); potential) make up the vast majority of
those participants, with a total of 90
4. Step 4: divide the quotient of
respondents, equivalent to 73%. Lecturers,
operation in step 3 by 2 (in this case,
professional translators/interpreters and
2 divided by 2 equals 1, which
potential translation and interpreting service
means the penalty for each TLOE is
users together make up 27% of the
1 mark);
participants (33), with each category having
11 participants.
Rev. cient. UEM: Sér. ciênc. soc.. Vol. 2, No 2, pp 1-22, 2021
10AA Magaia
Effectiveness of the UEM Curriculum at the moment”; and: “Despite its
shortcomings, the curriculum does have the
The survey data shows that 46% of the
potential to train future translators”. The
respondents find the present curriculum
few who would not recommend the current
effective. Reasons for approving of the
curriculum pointed out, inter alia, that:
current curriculum include the fact that “it
“There are no medical students who would
allows you to get to know multiple
like to enrol to study medicine and end up
processes of translation and how to deal
studying law. That’s what is happening in
with many of the issues during the
our curriculum. We’re not focused on
translation process” and that “the course has
translating and interpreting”; “At the
modules which make sense to translation
beginning, in the first years of the course,
studies”. Nonetheless, 26% are “not sure”,
one doesn’t feel like a translator because
19% rate it “ineffective”, and 2% consider
you start late with modules directly related
“very ineffective”, while 7% have no
to translation”; and: “The curriculum
answer to this question. Some respondents
doesn’t comprise relevant modules for a
pointed the following as reasons for their
translation course.”
negative response: “We’re only learning
translation. What about interpreting? If we Irrelevant Subjects
are to be translators and interpreters, we According to the survey data, History of
should learn both, not only one”; “Most Ideas was found to be the most irrelevant
translation students are more likely to subject, with a negative rating by 47
develop skills in literature, history of ideas participants (38%). Negatively rated by 36
and linguistics rather than in translation as respondents (29%), Mozambican Literature
such”; “The major bottleneck of the current and Culture comes second, followed by
curriculum is that it leaves the best part for Introduction to Literary Studies II and
the end (where most of the students are Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology,
already busy looking for job opportunities each considered irrelevant by 31
and are no longer full-time students)”; and participants (25%). Introduction to Literary
“By looking at the grid, one can see that Studies I and Optional Subjects as a whole
certain modules are a bit out of context in are viewed as irrelevant by 27 (22%) and 25
terms of what we imagine when we hear or (20%) participants, respectively. Equally
look at the definition of the course.” rejected, although by fewer, are
Recommendability of UEM Curriculum Introduction to Linguistics II (12%),
Portuguese Descriptive Linguistics III
Collectively, 57% of the respondents said
(11%) and English Descriptive Linguistics
they would recommend the current
II (10%) and English Descriptive
curriculum compared to 20% who would do
Linguistics III (9%).
so hesitantly and 5% who would not do it at
all; 9% were not sure and 9% did not answer Among the reasons for finding such
this question. The majority of those subjects irrelevant are: “Their focus is not
recommending the current curriculum gave on what we, translators, need; these
the following reasons: “It is a very modules embarrass and confuse us”; “These
interesting course with highly qualified modules do not meet our specific needs.
trainers with long years of experience”; The content of these modules is useful for
“This course is eligible for those candidates other courses except for
who love languages and would like to translation/interpreting”; “They don’t help
engage in a professional linguistic career”; much in solving translation problems”;
“I still believe UEM is the best university in “Some don’t have anything to do with the
Mozambique in terms of lecturers’ course; others are repetitive”; “There’s no
qualifications”; “It is the only BA degree added value, most of these modules are
course in translation offered in the country taught in Portuguese”; “Translation
Rev. cient. UEM: Sér. ciênc. soc.. Vol. 2, No 2, pp 1-22, 2021
11In search of an effective translator and interpreter training model in Mozambique
students do not have to spend two semesters current UEM translation course seems to be
learning Linguistics and Literature and a able to boost the students’ chances of
semester learning History of Ideas”; “They getting a job not very long after graduation.
are not useful when you have to deal with a In this regard, 82% of former translation
translation assignment. Apart from that, I students said they had a job at the time of
think that there are too many optional data collection. Of these, 67% said they had
modules, and it would be much better to a full-time job while 33% were working
make use of that time for freelance. At least 10 of the graduates
translation/interpretation-related subjects”; having either a full-time or a freelance job
“I don’t see the need to study History of took less than 1 year to get their first job.
Ideas and Mozambican Literature and Nevertheless, it appears that the translation
Culture in the context of translation”; and: training that former students had at UEM
“Optional modules are vague! Learners does not have any direct relationship with
may choose something which is far their current job, since only 6 of the students
detached from translation”. who reported having a job describe their
task as being related to translation and/or
Former Students’ Confidence to Provide
interpreting, compared to 6 whose job
Translation and Interpreting Services
involves neither translation nor interpreting
The vast majority of respondents (90%) said and another 5 who do other tasks plus a little
they were confident in their own capacity to translation and interpreting.
provide translation services from English
into Portuguese and vice versa. Some of the Reactions to the Proposal to Train
reasons for these feelings are: “I am Translators and Interpreters Under One
confident that I have almost all the tools and Single Programme, Or Under Two
techniques needed to translate any text”; “I Separate Courses, Or Under an
learned enough to work with any kind of Umbrella Language Science Course
text”; and “I have undergone this training Most respondents (80%) are in favour of a
programme. I have had some theoretical model where translators and interpreters are
and practical lectures that helped me build trained simultaneously under one single
self-confidence, but mostly practice”. In programme, against 10% who disagree and
contrast, only 43% said they trusted their 6% who are “Not sure”, and 4% who have
own capacity to provide interpreting no response. In justifying their choice, some
services from English into Portuguese and of the respondents said: “A single course
vice versa. Some of the reasons why the would empower the students and those
majority felt inadequate are the following: modules that are ‘useless’ would be
“I keep running away from interpreting replaced by interpreting lessons”; “By
because it is difficult”; “I feel more like a designing a single course, perhaps it would
fish in the water translating than be easier to focus on a single curriculum and
interpreting because I didn’t have provide the main training needed”; “I don’t
interpreting lessons”; and: “I don’t feel think graduates from this course will ever
quite confident about interpreting because I work solely in one of the two streams, that
had no training in interpreting; I don’t feel I is, either only as a translator or only as an
have the methodologies and procedures interpreter – they co-occur”; “The skills
required for interpreting services, as required are almost the same and at the end
interpreting was not part of the translation of the day graduates end up doing one or the
curriculum I took”. other in the real market”; “When people
hear that you are a translator, they
Graduate Employability and Course
automatically think that you are also an
Relevance
interpreter, so if you say that you are unable
In terms of graduate employability, the to do one thing or the other, they think that
Rev. cient. UEM: Sér. ciênc. soc.. Vol. 2, No 2, pp 1-22, 2021
12AA Magaia
you are incompetent”; “By the time the translating either way”; “Although we live
student graduates, he will be complete and in a Portuguese speaking country, it does
ready to carry out the two activities, which not mean that as Translators we should only
would greatly improve his performance”; translate into Portuguese (i.e., only from
“Many translators end up interpreting English). The reality has proven that the
without the requisite competencies. It’s far other way round will always be needed”; “I
better to endow the students with everything strongly agree because that is the reality in
they need”; and: “If they can do both, it will the Mozambican translation market. Even if
help them seek for the market. It will also the translator does not feel they can provide
reduce the cost for the users.” high quality services in translating from
Portuguese into English, they will end up
Reasons for disagreeing with this proposal
doing that, otherwise they can lose a client”;
include: “This would be too much for the
and: “If the interpreter can’t do it in both
students because it would add more
languages he or she is not ready to work on
modules and workload than the current one,
it, for he or she must have a good command
which is also too much as the focus is also
of both languages.”
given to non-translation related subjects”;
“Anecdotal evidence shows that few in this The few who disagree provided the
training would be able to develop following reasons: “It would be a huge
satisfactory competences in the interpreting challenge, as we need to have such a great
area”; “The competences acquired in command of the English language;” “This
translation and interpreting are different, is in fact the ideal scenario, although the
hence the need to specify the study of each reality might show that few acquire
area/branch”; and “There are students with equivalent competences in both directions”;
difficulties in assimilating both areas and: “I believe that there’s need for the
simultaneously.” student to have more target language
command”.
Findings Regarding a Mandatory
Bidirectional Translation / Interpreting Feedback on the Researcher’s Model
Practice Policy Proposed as a Framework for Guiding
With regard to the suggestion to introduce a the Training of Mozambican
policy according to which it would be Translators/Interpreters
mandatory to have practical translation According to the survey data, 84% of the
and/or interpreting classes from Portuguese respondents approve of the proposed model,
into English instead of just practising it with 42% finding it “very practical” and
from English into Portuguese, 83% are in 42% judging it “practical”, against 4%
favour, while 6% disagree and 11% did not considering it just “a little practical”, 5%
share their opinion. Some of the reasons for being uncertain and 7% preferring not to
supporting this policy are: “The translator answer the question. Here are some of the
and/or interpreter never knows what he will reasons for supporting the researcher’s
be translating and must be versatile and able proposal: “Mostly because of the service
to handle either language”; “The translator provision part. It teaches us how to behave
needs to be fluent in both languages to be in the employment market”; “It is realistic,
successful in his career”; “It would provide well compounded and brings the most
solid understanding of both languages for relevant aspects in respect of
translators and interpreters”; “Since we are translation/interpreting competence
studying both Portuguese and English, the development”; “It’s clear that the model
students should master both languages”; covers and provides a wide range of skills
“Most companies prefer hiring those who and competences that the students will have
work in both directions”; “A truly skilled acquired by the end of their training”; “This
translator is the one who is comfortable model has a holistic and strategic view
Rev. cient. UEM: Sér. ciênc. soc.. Vol. 2, No 2, pp 1-22, 2021
13In search of an effective translator and interpreter training model in Mozambique
which essentially aims at training out of 123 participants, i.e. more than half
translators”; “First, it teaches you of the respondents. Proposals two (which
languages; then it gives you the chance to teaches translation and interpreting in two
choose what you like; then it teaches you separate courses) and three (teaching
how to deal with people; it prepares you to translation and interpreting under an
deal with the real world/life situations”; umbrella language science course) were
“The first focus is communicative rated second best and worst, respectively.
competence because this stage will give a Some of the reasons why proposal 1 was
picture of who is linguistically prized by the majority were: “Joining
mature/prepared to face the demands of the translation and interpreting will help
course”; “It truly encompasses the students improve their competences and
dimensions that empower the give them more employment options when
translator/interpreter; I think it covers the they finish the course”; “It is very practical,
various existential areas of a competent and it doesn’t only train a translation student
translator/interpreter”; and “It comprises all but a professional”; “The proposal is
the tools that a translation/interpreting inclusive: it gathers both courses and offers
student needs, from translation/interpreting enough number of optional modules”; “It
competence to service provision allows the candidates/students greater
competence. One of the most difficulties freedom of choice according to their
faced by former students is related to interest”; “The competences are taught
finding a job. So, this model gives simultaneously and the student is given the
important tools, such as entrepreneurial chance to specialize either in translation or
skills, self-marketing, etc., which enable interpreting and to freely choose any other
former students to opt for self- field to study a different field which may
employment”. become useful when providing
The few finding it “a little practical”, or translation/interpreting, since a good
hesitating, justified their choice as follows: translator has to be well versed in different
“A translator or an interpreter will no longer areas”; “It essentially focuses on the
have competences in linguistics, pragmatics training of translators/interpreters and is
and other fields at all”; “We lack some based on specific skills which the student
materials that would improve the chooses at the end of his training”; “It’s
curriculum such as audio-visual materials”; encompassing and consistent with the
“I think communicative competence should translation and interpreter training
cover more space than general knowledge; philosophy”; “It’s dynamic and
and “With regard to communicative straightforward. Right at the beginning
competence, semantic competence, lexical students get the feeling of their future job.
competence and syntactic competence are The modules are pragmatic”; “It enables the
missing”. individual to deal with the two most
common ways of using two languages
Feedback on Three Curriculum
simultaneously without prioritizing neither;
Proposals to Replace the Current UEM
and “Although the student only specializes
Curriculum
in one of the two areas, he or she has
The survey asked participants to rank the sufficient basic notions in the other area”.
best, second best and worst curriculum
proposal among three proposals made by Assessing Graduates’ Translation
the researcher based on his proposed Quality
translation/interpreting competence model. Findings on Former Students’ Output
Thus, proposal 1 (which features translation Speed
and interpreting subjects being taught under On average, each of the 18 former UEM
one single course) was ranked first by 64
Rev. cient. UEM: Sér. ciênc. soc.. Vol. 2, No 2, pp 1-22, 2021
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