HYBRID COE - FROM NUDGE TO NOVICHOK: THE RESPONSE TO THE SKRIPAL NERVE AGENT ATTACK HOLDS LESSONS FOR COUNTERING HYBRID THREATS
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
APRIL 2018
Hybrid CoE Working Paper 2
From Nudge to Novichok:
The response to the Skripal
nerve agent attack holds lessons
for countering hybrid threats
S I R DAV I D O M A N D
Hybrid CoEHybrid CoE Working Paper 2
From Nudge to Novichok:
The response to the Skripal
nerve agent attack holds lessons
for countering hybrid threats
Summary
The attempted murder of former Russian of over 120 identified Russian intelligence
military intelligence officer and agent of officers.
the British Secret Service, Sergei Skripal,
and his daughter Yulia using a military Vladimir Putin and Russian officials were
grade nerve agent known as a novichok quick to deny any involvement. A Russian
is an extreme manifestation of an ‘active state media and Internet propaganda
measure’ of a type for which the Russian counter-attack quickly followed on familiar
state has been responsible in the past. The lines, including injecting ‘fake news’ stories
combination of the known Russian associa- into conventional and social media to dis-
tion with the development of the novichok tract and confuse. The pattern is a familiar
nerve agent, Russia’s likely motive (as one from the way Moscow has responded
stated publicly) to punish those the Russian to other accusations, such as the shooting
state regards as traitors, and the fact that down of the MH17 airliner over Ukraine,
a poisoning of a former FSB defector using deploying denials, counter-accusations, and
radioactive Polonium 210 had previously ‘alternative facts’ to promote conspiracy
been carried out in the UK in 2006 led theories in order to leave the impression
not just the British government but the that there is no truth that can be found.
US and other NATO allies and EU mem- In the Skripal case the Russian authorities
ber states to declare publicly that there also showed themselves able quickly to
is no alternative conclusion other than adapt their main lines of counter-attack to
that the Russian State was culpable for exploit loose use of language in UK media
the attempted murder of the Skripals and interviews, illustrating the extreme care
for using an internationally banned nerve needed in any public statement during such
agent to do so. propaganda battles. There is little evidence,
however, that the Russian propaganda tac-
That unprecedented response from dem- tics have worked with Western politicians
ocratic nations around the world was fol- and publics, largely due to the international
lowed by actions designed both to express NATO/EU solidarity shown through the
solidarity with the UK and to hinder the ac- words and deeds of so many democratic na-
tivities of the Russian intelligence agencies tions, encouraging journalists to expose the
in their countries, including the expulsion nature of the Russian propaganda response.
2 From Nudge to Novichok‘No plausible alternative explanation’
In her statement to Parliament in London This chemical analysis was later formally
on 14 March 2018 ten days after the confirmed by independent laboratories
attempted murder of Sergei Skripal and acting for the international Organisation
his daughter Yulia in the ancient English for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
cathedral city of Salisbury, Prime Minister (OPCW).
Theresa May expressed her horror and re-
vulsion at the use of a nerve agent on Brit-
ish soil. She informed Parliament that the
substance used to poison the Skripals had Since its entry into force in 1997,
been identified as an advanced fourth gen- the Chemical Weapons Convention
eration nerve agent of a type developed by has become one of the pillars of the
the Soviet Union and known by the term global non-proliferation regime. The
novichok, designed to play havoc with the
Convention prohibits the develop-
central nervous system and inflict a linger-
ing death. The Russian Ambassador in Lon-
ment, transfer and use of chemical
don had been summoned two days earlier weapons. States Parties to the Con-
and given 36 hours to inform the UK if any vention take on a duty to uphold
of the past stocks of this nerve agent had and enforce its fundamental tenets.
somehow gone missing. The Prime Minis- States Parties commit not to develop,
ter regretted that the deadline had passed produce or otherwise acquire, stock-
without a response from the Kremlin. Rus- pile or retain chemical weapons, nor
sia had provided no explanation as to how to transfer, directly or indirectly,
this novichok nerve agent could have come chemical weapons to anyone. States
to be used in Salisbury in the heart of rural Parties also undertake not to engage
England. As the Prime Minister explained
in any military preparations to use
“There is no alternative conclusion other
than that the Russian State was culpable
chemical weapons, nor to commit to
for the attempted murder of Sergei and assist, encourage or induce anyone to
Yulia Skripal, which was an unlawful use of engage in prohibited activity.
force by the Russian State against the UK”.
The UK described this as an indiscriminate
and reckless attack against the United
Kingdom putting the lives of innocent
civilians at risk, with the first police officer The NATO Council agreed “... with the
giving aid on the scene having to be hospi- United Kingdom government’s assess-
talised and 39 civilians having had to seek ment that it is highly likely that the Russian
urgent medical treatment. Federation is responsible and that there
is no plausible alternative explanation...
Later that day, the UK confirmed to the Allies expressed deep concern at the first
NATO Council in Brussels that there had offensive use of a nerve agent on Alliance
been a positive and certain identification territory since NATO’s foundation. Allies
by scientists at the Porton Down defence expressed solidarity with the UK, offered
research establishment of the chemical their support in the conduct of the ongoing
agent used as part of the novichok group investigation. Allies agreed that the attack
of military grade nerve agents, developed was a clear breach of international norms
by the Soviet Union but banned under and agreements”. A few days later Jens
the Chemical Weapons Convention. Stoltenberg, the NATO Secretary General,
3 From Nudge to Novichokdeclared to the world’s media “Russia’s That unprecedented public response
response so far has demonstrated a clear from the UK’s allies and partners was
disregard for international peace and followed by actions designed both to
security, we continue to call on Russia to express solidarity with the UK and to
provide complete disclosure of the novi-
hinder the activities of the Russian in-
chok programme to the Organisation for
telligence agencies in their countries.
the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons.
And we welcome the UK’s co-operation
The UK government announced on 14
with the OPCW in the investigation of this
March that it would expel 23 Russian
horrendous attack.”
diplomats identified as undeclared in-
telligence officers, would propose new
legislative powers to harden defences
International collective action
against Hostile State Activity and would
ensure those seeking to carry out such
activity could not enter the UK, and would
On 22 March the leaders of the UK,
suspend all planned high-level contacts
France and Germany met to be updated by
between the UK and Russia.
the UK on the basis of its attribution of the
attack to the Russian state: its knowledge
This step was quickly followed by action
of previous production by Russia of this
against Russian intelligence officers taken
advanced nerve agent; Russia’s record of
by Belgium, Croatia, Czech Republic, Den-
conducting state-sponsored assassina-
mark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany,
tions; and the UK’s assessment that Russia
Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania,
views some defectors as legitimate targets
Lithuania, Luxemberg, Netherland, Poland,
for assassinations. At the end of the meet-
Romania, Spain and Sweden. Non-EU
ing the three leaders reaffirmed that there
countries joined in with expulsions from
is no plausible explanation other than that
Albania, Australia, Canada, Macedonia,
the Russian state was responsible. That
Moldova, Montenegro, Norway and
conclusion was echoed later that day by all
Ukraine, and not least the United States
EU nations in their declaration:
that would expel no less than 60 Russian
diplomats (including 12 posted in the new
“The European Council condemns York with the United Nations) and shutter
in the strongest possible terms the the Russian Consulate in Seattle. NATO
recent attack in Salisbury, expresses announced a cut in the size of its Russian
its deepest sympathies to all whose mission by a third, removing accreditation
lives have been threatened and lends from seven Russian staff and rejecting
its support to the ongoing inves- three other pending applications.
tigation. It agrees with the United
Kingdom government’s assessment The NATO secretary general an-
that it is highly likely that the Rus- nounced that the permanent size of
sian Federation is responsible and the Russian mission to NATO would
that there is no plausible alternative be cut from 30 to 20 people, adding
explanation. We stand in unqualified that the step was intended as “a clear
solidarity with the United Kingdom and very strong message that there
in the face of this grave challenge to was a cost to Russia’s reckless
our shared security.” actions”
4 From Nudge to NovichokAll these countries took the risk of kicking the lawless and reckless behaviour
out Russian diplomats and others connect- over many years of the Russian state
ed to Russian intelligence whose presence under President Putin. In other
they deemed to be no longer conducive words, years of vexation and provo-
to the public good. A 150 in total from 30
cation by Russia had worn the col-
countries making the response the biggest
lective patience to breaking point,
collective expulsion of alleged Russian
intelligence officers in history. Other coun- enough is enough.
tries chose to act in complementary ways
such as issuing powerful statements or There are now many countries who have
downgrading their national representation felt the disruptive behaviour of the Rus-
at the World Cup. sian state: the illegal annexation of the
Crimea, violating the sovereignty and
territorial integrity of the Ukraine, Russia’s
The link to hybrid threats continued efforts to destabilise Eastern
Ukraine with the intervention in the Don-
bas, the downing of MH17, the constant
pressure of cyberattacks, the attempted
The unprecedented message those
coup in Montenegro, the concealing of
democratic nations intend to send to chemical weapon attacks in Syria, the
Russia goes beyond the attempted interference in democratic and political
murders themselves, shocking as processes, the hacking of the Bundestag
they were. The message goes to the and undermining of democratic institu-
heart of the anxieties of the democ- tions, the glorification of new Russian nu-
racies over the hybrid threats they clear weapons systems, the intrusions into
face from Russia under President NATO airspace, all accompanied by the
Putin. constant drumbeat of hostile propaganda.
Why so many nations joined to act in As the British Foreign Secretary con-
unison in NATO and the EU was the result cluded “This matter goes far beyond a
of a powerful combination of motives. bilateral dispute. If the Russian state is
There is evident solidarity with the UK prepared to deploy a banned weapon in
as a friendly country that had become a British city – amounting to the unlawful
the victim of attack, deep revulsion at the use of force against the United Kingdom
indiscriminate nature of the attack with its – then the Kremlin is clearly willing to act
risks to public health, outrage at the use of without restraint. The bleak truth is that
a chemical nerve agent weapon on Alliance what happened in Salisbury could have
and European soil, all compounded by the happened anywhere”. Russia’s record of
brazen nature of the Russian denials and conducting state-sponsored assassina-
the spreading of ‘fake news’ stories about tions is well-known as are Russian atti-
the attack to try to cause the maximum tudes to defectors as legitimate targets
confusion. for assassinations. The murder by Russian
agents in October 2006 of the former
For those nations the hybrid threat FSB officer and exile in London Alexander
context is clear, linked directly to Litvinenko is an ugly precedent. In his case
the extraordinary method chosen to kill
their exasperation and concern over
him was to introduce the rare radioactive
5 From Nudge to Novichoksubstance Polonium 210 (a substance Alexander Litvinenko in London is striking.
only producible by a nation with a sophis- The only plausible explanation for such
ticated nuclear programme) into his tea at complicated and dangerous methods of
a leading London hotel, leading to a slow assassination is that both were designed
and agonising death. An intensive inves- to send a message to anyone pondering
tigation led Scotland Yard to accuse the dissent amid the intensifying repression
two Russian FSB agents he had met at the of President Putin’s Russia that those it
hotel, Andrey Lugovoi and Dmitry Kovtun, considers its enemies will be hunted down,
of his murder. The clear radioactive traces located wherever they are and unpleas-
they had left on their seats on the airliner antly killed. Although Russia will at the
from Moscow was just part of the damning same time strongly deny responsibility,
evidence. A statutory public coroner’s the world is intended to infer that Russia
inquest into the killing concluded that it was responsible. A policy of deliberately
was an FSB operation and furthermore implausible deniability.
that President Putin probably approved
it. The UK indicted Lugovoi and Kovtun
but Russia refused to extradite them to The pattern of Russian
face justice. Luguvoi is now a Deputy in propaganda response
the State Duma, the lower house of the
Russian Parliament, and he had the nerve
to appear on Russian state TV to denounce Propaganda is an essential part of posing
the UK over its attribution to Russia of the a hybrid threat. There are three potential
attempted murder of Andrei Skripal. In- audiences: the victim to be intimidated;
quiries are now being reopened into other the domestic public of the perpetrator
deaths of Russian emigres in the UK. to be reassured of the rightness of the
action; and the international community to
be persuaded not to intervene or impose
sanctions.
The nature of the hybrid threat
A particular feature of the Skri-
pal case, from which much can be
Intimidation, propagandistic narratives learned in terms of understanding
and dirty tricks or ‘active measures’ made the information warfare element of
up the repertoire of Soviet subversive
any hybrid threat, is the way that
activity. The same components appear to
the Russian authorities used the
be still present in current Russian doctrine.
The obvious Russian-ness of the weapon full gamut of their propaganda
used on the Skripals, a novichok nerve responses.
agent, must have been chosen by the
perpetrators precisely so that the attack There was a hint of intimidation in Pres-
could be attributed back to the Russian ident Putin’s first public response to the
state. In that way the attack could fulfill news coverage of the attack in Salisbury.
the twin purposes of intimidating Rus- He naturally denied Russia’s culpability
sian emigres in the UK and deterring any while carefully injecting a note of menace.
serving Russian official, especially in the “If it was military grade agent,” he said,
secret intelligence world, from assisting “they would have died on the spot, obvi-
the West. The parallel with the murder of ously.” He had already told state television
6 From Nudge to Novichokthat traitors would “kick the bucket” and Sergei Lavrov preferred to blame the US:
“choke” on their “pieces of silver”. The “When one or two diplomats are asked to
theme was later taken up by Foreign Min- leave this or that country, with apologies
ister Sergei Lavrov saying that the attack being whispered into our ears, we know
on the Skripals was not “sophisticated” and for certain that this is a result of colossal
if it had been the victims would have died pressure and colossal blackmail, which is
immediately. Washington’s chief instrument in the inter-
national scene.”
The Russian Deputy Foreign Minister,
Sergei Ryabkov declared at the beginning A Russian tactic, seen in their attempts to
of the crisis “I wish to state with all pos- interfere in the 2016 US election, is the
sible certainty that the Soviet Union or generation of “fake news” stories, the more
Russia had no programmes to develop a improbable the better, that are likely to
toxic agent called novichok”. A few days be carried on social media. The purpose
later that was contradicted by Russia’s of such stories is primarily distraction, to
RIA Novosti state news agency that ran an obscure the truth in a fog of disinforma-
interview with the head of a Moscow lab tion and in the clash of opposing narratives
from the State Scientific Research Insti- and thus in this case to distract attention
tute of Organic Chemistry and Technology from the charge against Russia (such
who confirmed that the Soviet Union had stories included accusing the UK itself of
indeed developed novichok agents, the the attempted murders) and to create an
programme just had a different name: atmosphere of conspiracy (suggesting for
foliant. Russian officials and the state me- example that the death of the Skripal’s
dia have claimed variously that ‘novichok’ pets revealed UK complicity). The stories
never existed, then they told the media are intended to create such confusion
that it did exist from Soviet times but over what can be considered true that the
they had destroyed the stocks, then they public gives up on any attempt to establish
claimed that the stocks had escaped to what is real.
Sweden or the Czech Republic or Slovakia
or the United States (in order it was said to In the days following the expulsion of Rus-
destabilize the world). sian diplomats the Moscow media put out
stories that variously Sergei Skripal took
A common Russian leadership theme is to an overdose (because he was said to be
assert victimhood at the hands of the West addicted to novichok), that he attempted
and thus reflect responsibility away from suicide and therefore presumably tried to
itself. In this case, Russian spokesmen take his daughter with him, that his at-
went on the offensive against the UK for tempted murder was revenge for Britain’s
having dared to claim Russian involvement, supposed poisoning of Ivan the Terrible,
accusing Theresa May and her secret or that the UK was responsible for the
agencies of a plot to undermine Russia in attack so that they could have something
the eyes of the world. The Russian For- to blame Russia over and thus spoil the
eign Ministry spokeswoman for example World Cup. The stories were accompanied
reacted to the mass expulsion of diplomats by warnings that given the US and UK
as “a conspiracy of anti-Russian solidarity intelligence failures in the run-up to the
imposed by the British on EU countries”. war in Iraq no allegation against Russia
Speaking at a conference on Afghanistan could be taken seriously. Salisbury where
in Tashkent, the Russian foreign minister, the Skripals were attacked is the nearest
7 From Nudge to Novichokrailway station to the UK defence research recovered sufficiently to leave hospital for
establishment Porton Down where the a secure location, the Russian Embassy
definititive identification of the nerve agent complained that they had been denied con-
as a novichok took place: unsurprisingly sular access to her, and when she declined
this fact too was wound into a conspiracy their assistance, claimed that the UK is
theory that the British MOD had manu- forcibly detaining her.
factured the agent and somehow it had
escaped laboratory confinement to drift The Foreign Office in London has said that
over Salisbury (and by coincidence target in the first month after the attack it count-
the Skripals). Russia suggested that a lack ed 24 such ludicrous fake news stories.
of information about Mr Skripal’s pets —
he is believed to have had two cats and two Moscow also was quick to exploit the
guinea pigs — could be regarded as suspi- perfectly proper public statement by the
cious and that they could provide clues to Director of the Porton Down research
the poisoning. Sergei Lavrov, speaking in establishment that his scientists were
Moscow, argued that British intelligence 100% sure that a novichok agent had been
agents could have been involved to create used, but the evidence as to its composi-
a distraction from Brexit. He suggested the tion did not enable them to identify from
attack was “in the interests of British spe- the science where it had been made. That
cial forces who are known for their abilities was used to cast doubt on the original UK
to act with a licence to kill.” attribution to Russia, notwithstanding
that rested on the unique combination of
The Russian embassy in London was at the facts that Soviet scientists developed the
same time suggesting that the UK had its novichok agents starting in the 1970s,
own stores of novichok agents and ques- Russia subsequently stockpiled the agents,
tioning why hospital staff in Salisbury hap- Russia has a record of state-sponsored
pened to have an antidote to the novichok assassinations and Russia has a publicly
nerve agent used in the attempted murder avowed motive for trying to kill Sergei Skri-
(reality check: there is no known antidote pal, all leading to the conclusion there is
to such an advanced nerve agent – the ‘no plausible alternative explanation’. The
patients would have been treated with British Foreign Secretary had opened the
atropine, which is on the World Health jaws of this propaganda trap by not being
Organisation’s list of effective and safe sufficiently precise about the difference
medicines needed in a health system and between the true statement that this was
used for treating insecticide poisoning and scientifically established to be a novichok
conditions such as slow heart rate). To cap agent, of the type known to be made by
it all, the Russian Embassy in London used Russia, and the equally true statement that
its Twitter account to send sarcastic mes- there was no plausible alternative explana-
sages, including a photograph of Hercule tion, for all those reasons, that the novi-
Poirot, Agatha Christie’s famous fictional chok used must have been made in Russia.
Belgian detective with the message “In the Sadly a number of Western politicians then
absence of evidence, we definitely need a could not avoid falling themselves into the
Poirot in Salisbury”. Asked by a journalist if propaganda trap thus inadvertently baited
the tweet was appropriate comment given to cast doubt on the attribution.
the Skripals were fighting for their lives in
hospital, the Ambassador replied “Did you The cynical and brazen way in which Mos-
like it?” When, thankfully, Julia Skripal had cow has used its propaganda techniques
8 From Nudge to Novichokin response to a very serious allegation that one sovereign nation has forcibly tak-
by the international community of state en territory from another in Europe. Rus-
complicity in attempted murder has sia has fomented conflict in the Donbas
nevertheless had the unintended effect and supported the Assad regime, including
of undermining the Russian denial of any when the regime deliberately ignored its
responsibility for the use of the novichok obligation to stop using chemical weapons.
agent. Russia has also violated the national air-
space of European countries and mounted
It will be important for the future a sustained campaign of cyber espionage
to make sure that Western publics and disruption, including meddling in elec-
are fully informed of the range of tions….We will always respond robustly to
propagandistic tactics used in hybrid attempts to harm the UK and destabilise
the world order. It happened against a
threats, not least those directed at
backdrop of a well established pattern
sympathetic voices overseas and at of Russian State aggression. We will not
the Russian public that paint Russia tolerate the threat to life of British people
as the victim of Western aggression. and others on British soil from the Russian
And that all who comment officially, government. We will continue to bring all
and journalists who report them, the capabilities of UK law enforcement to
take every care to be precise in the bear against serious criminals and corrupt
use of language, even in the hurly elites. The expulsion of Russian diplomats
burly of political debate. will also fundamentally degrade Russian
intelligence capability in the UK for years
to come. These responses demonstrate a
firm, defensive and proportionate ap-
Policy responses to hybrid threats proach to Russia’s continuing efforts to
divide EU and NATO members”.
Of particular concern is the possibility that
NATO and European nations will no doubt there may be future deniable use of nerve
be looking again at their national security agents. The EU Council on 22 March
strategies in the light of continued Russian concluded that “Against this background,
bellicosity and intransigence. An example the European Union must strengthen its
is the outcome of the recent UK National resilience to Chemical, Biological, Radio-
Security Capability Review, published logical and Nuclear-related risks, including
after the Skripal attack, that sets out its through closer cooperation between the
policies towards hybrid threats: European Union and its Member States
as well as NATO. The European Union and
“The risks from state-based threats have its Member States should also continue to
both grown and diversified. The indiscrim- bolster their capabilities to address hybrid
inate and reckless use of a military-grade threats, including in the areas of cyber,
nerve agent on British soil was an unlawful strategic communication and counter-in-
use of force by the Russian State. It hap- telligence. The European Council invites
pened against a backdrop of a well-estab- the European Commission and the High
lished pattern of Russian State aggression. Representative to take this work forward
Russia’s illegal annexation of Crimea was and report on progress by the June Euro-
the first time since the Second World War pean Council.”
9 From Nudge to Novichokceptable Russian actions is likely to
Conclusion evoke a vigorous propaganda count-
er attack, of denial, obfuscation and
diversion with an overtone of intim-
As a permanent member of the UN Securi- idation using both conventional and
ty Council, Russia has a special obligation social media. Western politicians and
to uphold the rules of good international
spokespersons need to be prepared
conduct. When it does the opposite and
tramples upon these rules, the Kremlin
for this: every word they say will be
threatens the very architecture of global analysed and any potential opening
security. provided exploited as part of the
propaganda onslaught.
The Kremlin now knows it underestimated
the strength of global feeling: they may
have thought that the world had become
so hardened and cynical as not to care
about the use of chemical weapons in Is there a connection between Putin’s indul-
Europe, and to be indifferent to the reck- gence of Assad’s atrocities in Syria including
less disregard for public safety and the CW use and the Russian state’s evident
suffering of Sergei and Yulia Skripal. The willingness to employ a chemical weapon on
Kremlin now has their answer, that the use British soil? How much easier does it become
of chemical weapons, including the use of for a state to deploy chemical weapons when
any toxic chemicals as weapons under any its government has already tolerated and
circumstances, is completely unacceptable, sought to hide their use by others? Russia has
must be systematically and rigorously con- made immense efforts to conceal the use of
demned and constitutes a global security chemical weapons by the Assad regime in
threat. Perhaps too they had calculated Syria. In October, an international investiga-
that European nations had become so tion concluded that Bashar al-Assad’s forces
morally weakened, so dependent on hydro- had used the nerve agent sarin against the
carbons, so chronically risk averse and so town of Khan Sheikhoun in April 2017. Yet
fearful of Russia that they would not dare instead of condemning Assad, Russia covered
to respond. The Kremlin has now seen up for him by vetoing the renewal of the in-
unqualified solidarity in the face of their ternational inquiry and, in effect, forcing it to
actions. shut down. In April 2018, further CW use by
the Syrian regime against civilians in the town
The international response to the of Douma, causing many deaths of women
Skripal poisoning carries an import- and children, has been fiercely condemned
in the UN Security Council but Russia again
ant lesson for the future of the value
adopted a line of denial, challenging whether
of strong NATO-EU co-operation to
any CW attack had taken place.
counter hybrid threats. It also illus-
trates that any challenging of unac-
10 From Nudge to NovichokAuthor
Sir David Omand is a visiting Professor in the War Studies Depart-
ment of King’s College London and at PSIA Sciences Po in Paris.
He is a former British civil servant. He has held the appointments
of UK Security and Intelligence Coordinator in the Cabinet Office,
Permanent Secretary Home Office, Director GCHQ and Deputy
Undersecretary of State in the Ministry of Defence. He has pub-
lished two books: Securing the State (Hurst, 2010) and Principled
Spying: the Ethics of Secret Intelligence (with Mark Phythian)
(Oxford University Press and Georgetown University Press, 2018).
11 From Nudge to NovichokLiterature:
European Council statement, 22 March, Brussels: EU pp. 9-11
http://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/33457/22-euco-final-conclusions-en.pdf
Johnson, Boris (2018) British Foreign Secretary speech at the Lord Mayors Ban-
quet, London, 28 March
https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/foreign-secretarys-lord-mayors-eas-
ter-banquet-speech-at-mansion-house-wednesday-28-march
Johnson, Boris, The Times, 27 March 2018.
https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/west-takes-a-stand-to-halt-reckless-
ambitions-article-by-boris-johnson
NATO Council statement, 14 March 2018, Brussels: NATO
https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/news_152787.htm
May, Theresa, Speech to the House of Commons, 14 March 2018
https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/pm-commons-statement-on-salisbury-
incident-response-14-march-2018 and
https://www.opcw.org/fileadmin/OPCW/S_series/2018/en/s-1612-2018_e_.pdf
Omand, David (2018) The Threats from Modern Digital Subversion and Sedition
Journal of Cyber Policy, London: Routledge
OPCW, Report on Technical Assistance Requested by the United Kingdom, The
Hague: OPCW, 12 April 2018,
https://www.opcw.org/news/article/opcw-issues-report-on-technical-assis-
tance-requested-by-the-united-kingdom/
Statement following trilateral UK/France/Germany meeting of 22 March, https://
www.gov.uk/government/news/pm-trilateral-with-president-macron-and-chancel-
lor-merkel-22-march-2018
UK Government, National Security Capability Review, London: HMSO, March
2018,
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
file/696305/6.4391_CO_National_Security_Review_web.pdf
UK Government, Letter from National Security Adviser to NATO SecGen, 13 April
2018,
https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/letter-from-the-uk-national-securi-
ty-adviser-to-the-nato-secretary-general
The European Centre of Excellence for Countering Hybrid Threats
tel. +358 400 253800 www.hybridcoe.fi
ISBN 978-952-7282-06-9
ISSN 2670-160X
Second version of the publication. Previously published as "Working Paper April 2018: From
Nudge to Novichok: The response to the Skripal nerve agent attack holds lessons for
countering hybrid threats".
Hybrid CoE is an international hub for practitioners and experts, building participating
states’ and institutions’ capabilities and enhancing EU-NATO cooperation in countering
hybrid threats located in Helsinki, Finland
The responsibility for the views expressed ultimately rests with the authors.
12 From Nudge to NovichokHybrid CoE
You can also read
