How Teachers Compare: The Prose, Document, and Quantitative Skills of America's Teachers
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POLICY INFORMATION REPORT
How Teachers Compare:
The Prose, Document, and Quantitative Skills of America’s Teachers
POLICY INFORMATION CENTER
Research Division
Educational Testing Service
Princeton, New Jersey 08541-0001CONTENTS
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Summary and Highlights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Measuring Literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Evaluating the Literacy of America’s Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Comparing Teachers to the General Population . . . . . . . . 14
This report was written by: Comparing Teachers to Other College-Educated Adults . . 16
Barbara A. Bruschi Comparing Teachers to Other Professional and
Richard J. Coley Managerial Occupations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Educational Testing Service
The Relationship Between Literacy and Income . . . . . . . . . . 22
The views expressed in
this report are those of the Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
authors and do not necessar-
ily reflect the views of the Appendix Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
officers and trustees
of Educational Testing
Service.
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Copies can also be downloaded
from www.ets.org/research/pic
Copyright © 1999 by Educa-
tional Testing Service. All rights
reserved. Educational Testing
Service is an Affirmative Action/
Equal Opportunity Employer.
The ETS logo is a registered
trademark of Educational Testing
Service. The modernized ETS
logo is a trademark of Educa-
tional Testing Service.
February 1999
1PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
As education becomes possibly be adequate for The reader may not The data in this report are
ever more important to such a judgment. always be impressed with from the National Adult
the American public, That said, a national the overall level of the Literacy Survey (NALS)
teachers become ever survey is available that literacy skills displayed conducted by the National
more scrutinized — at tells us how “literate” — by adults, or college Center for Education
best they have been cast using a broad definition graduates, or teachers, Statistics of the U.S.
as reticent participants in — the nation’s adults are. or people in other profes- Department of Education.
education reform efforts. The National Adult sions. In a report issued a The authors thank
More recently, however, Literacy Survey (NALS) is few years ago, Learning by Joan Baratz-Snowden
teachers are being viewed described in this report by Degrees, Archie Lapointe of the American Federa-
as key to any effort at authors Bruschi and and I express concern tion of Teachers; Ronald
education reform. Coley. By paring down about the frequently D. Henderson of the
SAT scores of college- the critical question to modest performance of National Education
bound seniors who indi- how well teachers can many college graduates in Association; Mary
cate that they intend to deal with prose, docu- NALS. Of course, we also Rollefson of the U.S.
major in teacher education ment, and quantitative recognize that many Department of Educa-
are found to be lower, on problems that are regu- people do not put forth tion; and Drew Gitomer,
average, than their class- larly encountered in the their best efforts on the Howard Wainer, Harold
mates’ scores — but the workplace and daily life, assessments in these kinds Wenglinsky, and Kentaro
academic abilities of those we can see how teachers of studies, since nothing is Yamamoto of Educational
who actually make it into compare with other at stake. It is more likely Testing Service for their
the classroom are not adults, to adults with that comparative perfor- thoughtful reviews. These
tracked. Controversial comparable education mance — of the kind reviewers may not agree
results from a teacher levels, and to other presented in this report — with all of the views and
licensing test in Massachu- professionals and manag- tells us more than abso- interpretations contained
setts have added fuel to the ers, as well as how much lute performance. in this report.
fire, creating disturbing people at different levels How Teachers Com- The authors also thank
national headlines and of literacy are paid. pare has no pretension of Norma Norris for expertly
increasing the level of In How Teachers settling the debate over analyzing NALS data,
teacher scrutiny. Compare, Bruschi and the quality of America’s Carla Cooper for doing
Valid data about how Coley analyze the NALS teaching force; but it does the desktop publishing,
teachers compare to data to describe the prose, present carefully collected Janet Spiegel for editing,
people in other occupa- document, and quantita- information that permits Ricardo Bruce for design-
tions are hard to come by. tive literacy of America’s addressing some impor- ing the report’s cover, and
Indeed, how do we teachers and compare tant questions. And the Jim Chewning for coordi-
compare the quality of them to the literacy of data presented compare nating production.
nurses, social workers, other adults. One will exceedingly well to that
dentists, and lawyers? learn from this report which have been care-
Their capability is the that teachers compare lessly used in a great
sum of their personal well, although they do many stories about
qualities, education, vary considerably — as teachers’ capabilities.
experience, and motiva- do individuals in all
tion, to name just a few occupations, professional Paul E. Barton, Director
factors. No single measure and otherwise. ETS Policy Information
of one dimension can Center
2SUMMARY AND HIGHLIGHTS
Education reform is those of other adults. estate and food service teachers and other
currently unfolding across This report presents managers, and design- college-educated
the nation, and teachers results from these ers. They perform at adults. However, there
and teaching are in the comparisons: a similar level with are differences in
spotlight. Concerns about lawyers, electrical earnings between
teacher quality abound, ● As a group, teachers engineers, accountants teachers and other
fed most recently by score relatively high and auditors, market- college graduates at
results from the Massachu- in prose, document, ing professionals, each level of literacy.
setts teacher licensing test. and quantitative financial managers, For example, teachers
While many have literacy; there are no physicians, personnel scoring at Level 5 on
blamed teachers for what significant differences and training profes- the prose scale earn
they consider low achieve- in scores between sionals, social workers, $574 a week, com-
ment among American male and female and education adminis- pared to $796 a week
students, people are teachers or between trators and counselors. earned by other college
steadily realizing that, elementary and Only computer systems graduates at that level.
because of student demo- secondary teachers. analysts score signifi-
graphics and teacher cantly higher in prose ● There are large differ-
retirements, schools will ● About half of teachers literacy than teachers. ences in earnings
have to hire some 2 score at Levels 4 and between teachers and
million new teachers over 5 (the two highest ● In document literacy, other managerial and
the next decade or so. levels) on the three teachers perform professional workers.
On top of that, there is literacy scales, com- about the same as Teachers rank near the
momentum in many states pared to about 20 in prose literacy, bottom of the list.
to reduce class size, and at percent of other except that they also
the same time, apply more adults nationwide. score lower than The NALS data
rigorous standards to electrical engineers. present teachers as a labor
those entering the teach- ● On average, teachers market bargain, compar-
ing profession. perform as well as ● In quantitative literacy, ing favorably with other
There is simply no other college-educated teachers are outper- professionals in their
escaping the fact that adults across all three formed by electrical literacy skills, yet earning
teachers will play a major literacy scales. Teachers engineers, lawyers, less. We need to abandon
part in solving the nation’s with four-year degrees accountants and stereotypes about teachers
education problems. perform similarly to auditors, and computer that have gained cur-
Capable teachers produce others with four-year systems analysts — all rency, such as that
achieving students, so it is degrees, and teachers people who represent teachers are less able
important to know how with graduate studies quantitative and than others who go into
capable our teachers are. or degrees perform analytic occupations. professions commonly
One source of such at a comparable level They perform compa- regarded as more presti-
information is the to other adults with rably to other managers gious. And we need
National Adult Literacy graduate studies and professionals, and to recognize that we pay
Survey (NALS), which or degrees. outscore real estate and teachers considerably less
provides measures of food service managers than other professionals
literacy — across prose, ● In prose literacy, and designers. with comparable capaci-
document, and quantita- teachers score higher, ties for dealing with
tive scales — and allows on average, than ● Overall, weekly wages prose, document, and
us to compare literacy managers and increase with the level quantitative literacy tasks.
levels of teachers with administrators, real of literacy for both
3INTRODUCTION
Nine out of 10 Americans This recognition Georgia, Ohio, and in teacher education,
believe that the best way to comes at an especially Pennsylvania are in the to applying for and
improve student achieve- important time in process of raising cutoff accepting a teaching job,
ment is to have a qualified our history. The U.S. scores on their certifica- to deciding to make
teacher in every classroom. Department of Educa- tion tests. New Hamp- teaching a career —
Results from a landmark tion estimates that we shire is beginning to test those with higher tested
public-opinion poll, will need some 2 million potential teachers for the abilities leave or decide
conducted by Recruiting new teachers over the first time, while Virginia not to enter teaching.4
New Teachers Inc. (RNT) next decade as school recently set the highest Much of the negative
and public opinion analyst enrollment increases and cutoff in the country for evidence about teacher
Louis Harris, support the many of our current entry into teaching.3 quality is based on the
growing sentiment among teachers retire. There are As the nation moves relatively low average
educators and policy- already some problems to increase the quality of SAT scores of college-
makers that the quality of finding qualified teachers the teaching force, the bound seniors who say
America’s teaching force is in bilingual education, conventional wisdom is they will major in
key to its meeting the goals special education, math- that many of our teachers education. Of course, we
of educational reform.1 ematics, and science. are drawn from the do not know what major
Once the issue of And some school dis- bottom of their high these students actually
student safety is addressed, tricts, particularly those school and college classes. end up pursuing in
the public believes that that enroll students with New opportunities in college, if they did enter
ensuring teacher quality is the most educational other fields for minority a teacher education
the most important way to need, have problems and female college program, or whether
improve education today attracting teachers. graduates have contrib- those who do pursue
— more important than Against this back- uted to cutting off a teaching ever become
standards, tests, vouchers, drop, states and teacher major pipeline of teach- teachers. More recent,
privatization, or school certification bodies are ing talent. Research from negative evidence comes
uniforms. And this per- raising the bar for the 1980s suggests that from states like Massa-
ception is supported by teacher quality to new individuals with less chusetts, where high
recent research showing heights, in a flurry of academic ability enter failure rates at most of
that teachers’ expertise is teacher testing activity. and continue through the the state’s colleges
indeed linked to higher Most states now require teacher education pipe- and universities on a
student achievement.2 So potential teachers to pass line and remain in new exam for teacher
teachers are being viewed a test before being teaching. According to licensing has ruffled the
as part of the solution to admitted into a teacher this research, at each feathers of state policy-
the nation’s educational education program and/ stage — from selecting makers and made
problems, rather than as or before being certified education as a college national headlines.5
a cause of them. to teach. States such as major, to enrolling
1 Recruiting New Teachers Inc., The Essential Profession: A National Survey of Public Attitudes Toward Teaching, Educational Opportunity and School
Reform, Belmont, MA: 1998. (http://www.rnt.org/tep.html).
2 National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future, What Matters Most: Teaching for America’s Future, September 1996 and The Education
Trust, Good Teaching Matters: How Well-Qualified Teachers Can Close the Gap, Education Trust, Summer 1998.
3 Jeff Archer, “States Raising Bar for Teachers Despite Pending Shortage,” Education Week, March 25, 1998.
4 For a review, see Mary R. Rollefson and Thomas M. Smith, “Do Low Salaries Really Draw the Least Able Into the Teaching Profession?,” in D.M.
Byrd and D.J. McIntyre (eds.), Research on the Education of Our Nation’s Teachers: Teacher Education Yearbook V, Corwin Press, 1997.
5 Kerry A. White, “Massachusetts Reacts to More Test Data; Teacher Proposal Outlined,” Education Week, August 5, 1998.
4Other research has The RNT and Harris will learn. What we have and with other adults
found only small differ- poll cited earlier provides lacked is a uniform who have similar levels
ences in ability scores support for this perspec- measure of academic of education
when comparing former tive. It found that about ability for the nation’s
teachers to those who 70 percent of respondents teachers. The 1992 ● compare the literacy
remained in teaching.6 considered their com- National Adult Literacy levels of teachers
This research did find that munity’s teachers either Survey (NALS) provides with those of people in
those who entered teach- “highly qualified” or such a measure and allows other managerial and
ing, but not immediately “well qualified.” And in us to compare teachers professional occupations
after college, and those a recent survey by the with other occupations.
who left teaching but American Federation of Prose literacy is provided ● compare the wages
returned later, had higher Teachers, teachers indi- by NALS and is one of of teachers with those
scores. Additionally, there cated that only 5 percent the best available mea- of people in other
is increasing evidence that of their colleagues are sures of verbal ability, a managerial and profes-
some new teachers come poor teachers.9 factor identified by sional occupations
from supply sources other Whatever evidence or research as being associ-
than traditional teacher data people examine, they ated with teacher qual- Before turning to the
education programs and can reasonably conclude ity.10 NALS also allows us results, we provide a brief
that these other sources that there is room for to examine the earnings description of the National
may bring individuals of improvement and more of teachers compared to Adult Literacy Survey.
higher ability levels into accountability in teaching. other workers with
the classroom.7 Many initiatives are being similar occupations
Recent research paints developed and continue at and levels of education.
a somewhat different the federal, state, and
picture. Rather than institutional levels to ****
teachers in general being address teacher quality The purpose of this
viewed as mediocre, the issues at each stage of the report is to:
public, including teachers, teacher education, certifi-
has been recognizing that cation, and professional ● describe the prose,
there are merely a few development process. document, and quanti-
ineffective teachers who Why all this tative literacy of the
should be removed. In fact, matters, of course, is nation’s teachers
one study found that 85 because we believe the
percent of the public trusts more academically ● compare the literacy
teachers to make sound talented a teacher is, the levels of teachers with
educational decisions.8 more his or her students those of other adults
6 Barbara Heyns, “Educational Defectors: A First Look at Teacher Attrition in NLS-72,” Educational Researcher, 17(3), 24-32, 1988.
7 An example of a nontraditional program is Troops to Teachers, launched by the U.S. Department of Defense in 1994, which helps people who
leave military service to secure teaching jobs. In the past four years, some 3,000 people from all branches of the armed services and the Coast
Guard have found jobs as teachers, primarily in the 20 states with the most military bases. Districts in California, Florida, Georgia, Texas, and
Virginia have hired hundreds of veterans for their classrooms. The recruits are much more likely than traditional applicants to be male, members of
minority groups, willing to work in hard-to-staff urban and rural schools, and qualified to teach mathematics, science, and special education
(“Expiring ‘Troops to Teachers’ Project Outfits Classrooms with Professionals in Demand”, Education Week, October 14, 1998).
8 J. Johnson and J. Immerwahr, First Things First: What Americans Expect from Public Schools, Public Agenda Foundation, 1994.
9 American Federation of Teachers, Teacher Quality and Tenure: AFT Teachers’ Views — 1997.
10 Linda Darling-Hammond and L. Hudson, Indicators of Teacher and Teaching Quality, RAND, 1986.
5MEASURING This section of the or of any other group, prose, document,
report describes NALS it is first necessary to and quantitative.
LITERACY and its definition of define what is meant by
literacy. NALS provides “literacy.” The term is Prose literacy — the
the most detailed portrait often used as the oppo- knowledge and skills
that has ever been avail- site of “illiteracy,” which needed to understand
able on the conditions of is typically interpreted and use information
literacy in the United to mean not being able from texts that include
States — and on the to read at all, decode the editorials, news stories,
unrealized potential of printed word, or com- poems, and fiction; for
the nation’s citizens.11 prehend what is written. example, finding a piece
For the 1992 survey, But literacy has a much of information in a
trained staff interviewed richer and deeper newspaper article,
nearly 13,600 individuals meaning than that. Its interpreting instructions
age 16 and older, who dictionary definitions for a warranty, inferring
were randomly selected to range from being able to a theme from a poem,
represent the U.S. adult read and write, to being or contrasting views
population; state samples a well-informed, edu- expressed in an editorial.
and a sample of federal cated person, to being
and state prison inmates familiar with literature. Document literacy —
pushed the final number NALS was guided the knowledge and skills
of individuals surveyed to by the following defini- required to locate and
more than 26,000. Each tion of literacy, adopted use information con-
participant was asked to by a broadly representa- tained in everyday
spend about an hour tive group of experts: materials such as job
responding to a series of applications, payroll
diverse literacy tasks, as Using printed and forms, transportation
well as to questions about written information to schedules, maps, tables,
his or her demographic function in society, to and graphs; for example,
characteristics, educa- achieve one’s goals, and locating a particular
tional background, to develop one’s knowl- intersection on a street
reading practices, and edge and potential. map, using a schedule
other areas related to choose the appro-
to literacy. NALS focused priate bus, or entering
To analyze the on three areas of lit- information on an
literacy skills of teachers, eracy proficiency — application form.
11 NALS was funded by the U.S. Department of Education and administered by Educational Testing Service,
in collaboration with Westat Inc. The first volume in the series offers an overview of the results. See Irwin
S. Kirsch, Ann Jungeblut, Lynn Jenkins, and Andrew Kolstad, Adult Literacy in America: A First Look at the
Results of the National Adult Literacy Survey, prepared by Educational Testing Service for the National
Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, September 1993. Additional NALS
reports offer a more detailed look at particular issues, including literacy in the workforce, literacy and
education, literacy among older adults, literacy in the prison population, literacy and cultural diversity, and
literacy practices.
6Quantitative literacy — Level 1 - to know more about the stated in a short article
the knowledge and skills scores from 0 to 225 tasks or see additional (score of 225)
required to apply arith- Level 2 - examples should refer to
metic operations, either scores from 226 to 275 other NALS reports.13 Document. Some
alone or sequentially, Level 3 - individuals who score at
using numbers embedded scores from 276 to 325 LEVEL 1 Level 1 are able to locate
in printed materials; for Level 4 - Prose. What does it a piece of information
example, balancing a scores from 326 to 375 mean to score at Level 1? based on a literal match
checkbook, figuring out a Level 5 - Some individuals scoring between the directive
tip, completing an order scores from 376 to 500 at this level on the prose and the document, as
form, or determining an scale demonstrate the long as little, if any,
amount of interest from Individuals scoring ability to read relatively distracting information
a loan advertisement. within one of these scale short pieces of text, such is present. Some adults
Based on their perfor- levels have a high prob- as a brief newspaper at this level also display
mance on the literacy ability of performing the article, to find a piece the ability to enter basic
tasks, respondents were tasks at that level suc- of information that is information about
assigned scores on the cessfully.12 Those who identical to or synony- themselves onto an
three proficiency scales, performed at Level 1 mous with information application form or
each ranging from 0 to demonstrated the lowest given in a directive. other type of document.
500. While most previous literacy proficiencies, Typically, little or no Specifically, individuals at
studies of literacy have while those at Level 5 distracting information Level 1 may be able to:
attempted to identify the displayed the highest (information that seems
number of “illiterates,” proficiencies. Similarly, plausible but is incorrect) ● sign their name on a
the goal of NALS was the tasks that character- is present in such tasks. brief form (score of 60)
different — to profile the ized Level 1 were the Individuals who perform
nation’s literacy skills. least challenging in the at Level 1 may succeed ● locate a meeting
Thus, there is no single assessment, while those in prose tasks that ask time on a form
point on the literacy scale associated with Level 5 them to: (score of 180)
that separates illiterates were the most difficult.
from literates, per se. Sample tasks are ● identify a country ● use a pie chart to
Rather, each scale is provided here to illus- mentioned in a short locate a type of vehicle
divided into five levels trate the types of literacy article (score of 149) that had a given
of proficiency, each skills exhibited by those number of sales
encompassing a range who performed at each ● locate a piece of (score of 214)
of scores. level. To avoid excessive information in a sports
detail, we have only article (score of 210) Quantitative. Some
provided example tasks individuals who score at
for prose literacy. ● underline a sentence Level 1 demonstrate the
Readers who would like explaining the action ability to perform single,
12 A high probability is defined as at least 80 percent of the time. Individuals would have a small chance of performing tasks at a higher level.
13 See the original NALS report cited in footnote 11. A summary is also provided in Paul E. Barton, Becoming Literate About Literacy, Policy
Information Report, ETS Policy Information Center, 1994.
7relatively simple arith- piece of text even when ● locate two types of inferences are sometimes
metic operations, such as distracting information information in a sports required in performing
addition. The numbers to is present. They also article (score of 250) such tasks. In addition,
be used in such tasks are appear to have little individuals at Level 2 are
provided, and the opera- difficulty integrating, ● interpret instructions likely able to:
tion to be performed is comparing, and con- from an appliance
specified. Those scoring at trasting two or more warranty (score of ● locate an intersection
the lowest level on the pieces of information 275) on a street map (score
quantitative scale may be found in printed mate- of 230)
able to: rial. Individuals at this Document. Those
level are likely to be scoring at Level 2 on the ● locate eligibility
● total a bank deposit successful on literacy document scale display information in a table
entry (score of 191) tasks that ask them to: skill at matching a piece of employee benefits
of information in a form (score of 246)
LEVEL 2 ● underline the mean- or other type of docu-
Prose. Individuals ing of a term in a ment with information in ● identify and enter
scoring at this level on the brochure on govern- a directive, even when background informa-
prose scale demonstrate ment benefits (score distracting information tion on a Social
the ability to locate a of 226) is present. Low-level Security card applica-
piece of information in a tion (score of 259)
EXAMPLE TASK FOR PROSE LITERACY, LEVEL 1
Underline the sentence that tells what Ms. Chanin ate during the swim.
8Quantitative. Indi- ● determine the differ- information in a piece of ● find a sentence in a
viduals at Level 2 display ence in price between printed material with news article that
the ability to perform tickets for two shows information in a directive interprets a situation
a single arithmetic (score of 246) when low-level inferences (score of 304)
operation using numbers are required. They also
that are given to them or ● calculate the total cost display skill at integrating ● read a lengthy article to
that can easily be located of purchases from an information from dense identify behaviors that
in printed material. order form (score or lengthy text. Level 3 meet a stated condition
Adults at this level are of 270) scorers are likely to (score of 316)
likely able to: succeed at literacy tasks
LEVEL 3 asking them to: Document. Individu-
● calculate postage and Prose. Individuals als performing at Level
fees for certified mail scoring at Level 3 on the ● write a brief letter 3 appear to have little
(score of 238) prose scale demonstrate explaining a billing difficulty integrating
the ability to match error (score of 288) several pieces of
EXAMPLE TASK FOR PROSE LITERACY, LEVEL 2
9information from one or EXAMPLE TASK FOR PROSE LITERACY, LEVEL 3
more documents. They
List two things that Chen became involved in or has done to help resolve conflicts
also display skill at using
due to discrimination.
and interpreting rather
complex tables and
graphs containing
information that is either
irrelevant or inappropri-
ate to the task. Adults at
this level can:
● identify information
in a bar chart show-
ing energy sources
for various years
(score of 277)
● enter information
into an automobile
maintenance record
form (score of 323)
Quantitative. Indi-
viduals at Level 3 dem-
onstrate skill at perform-
ing tasks in which two
or more numbers must
be found in a piece of
printed material to solve
an arithmetic problem.
The mathematical
operation(s) to be
performed can be
determined from the
terms used in the direc-
tive. Some of the tasks in
this level involve the use
of a calculator. Adults at
Level 3 are likely able to:
10● calculate the difference LEVEL 4 ● state in writing an Document. Individu-
between the regular Prose. Individuals argument made in a als at Level 4 are able to
and sale prices of an scoring at this level lengthy newspaper make high-level infer-
item in an advertise- display the ability to article (score of 328) ences to interpret various
ment (score of 278) match multiple pieces types of documents. They
of information in a piece ● contrast views also appear to have little
● determine the discount of writing. Further, they expressed in two difficulty performing
from an oil bill if paid appear to be able to editorials on fuel- tasks that involve the use
within 10 days (score integrate or synthesize efficient cars (score of conditional informa-
of 308) information from com- of 359) tion. They are likely
plex or lengthy pieces of able to:
● calculate miles per text and to make complex ● compare two meta-
gallon using informa- inferences about what phors used in a poem ● use a table to identify
tion from a mileage they read. They are likely (score of 374) the percentage of cases
record chart (score to succeed at tasks that that meet specified
of 321) ask them to: conditions (score
of 342)
EXAMPLE TASK FOR PROSE LITERACY, LEVEL 4
Contrast Dewey’s and Hanna’s views about the existence of technologies that can be used to produce more
fuel-efficient cars while maintaining the size of the car.
11● use a schedule to EXAMPLE TASK FOR PROSE LITERACY, LEVEL 5
determine which bus to
Identify and summarize the two kinds of challenges that attorneys use while
take in a given situation
selecting members of a jury.
(score of 352)
● use a table to identify a
pattern of oil exports
over time (score of 352)
Quantitative. Indi-
viduals at this level have
little difficulty performing
two or more arithmetic
operations in a sequence.
They can also perform
single arithmetic
operations in which the
quantities are found in
different types of displays,
or in which the operations
must be inferred from the
information given or from
prior knowledge. These
individuals are likely to
succeed when asked to:
● use information in a
news article to calculate
how much money
should go to raising a
child (score of 350)
● use an eligibility
pamphlet to calculate
how much money a
couple would receive
for basic supplemental
security income in one
year (score of 368)
12LEVEL 5 in documents. They are ● use information from a
Prose. Individuals likely able to: news article to calculate
at this level have little the difference in times
difficulty finding infor- ● use information in a for completing a race
mation in dense text that table to complete a (score of 405)
contains a considerable graph, including
amount of distracting labeling the axes ● use a calculator to
information. They can (score of 378) figure the total cost
also make high-level of carpet for a room
inferences and use special- ● use a table to compare (score of 421)
ized background knowl- credit cards, identify
edge to help them under- two categories of
stand what they read. comparison, and write
Level 5 scorers can about the differences
succeed at tasks asking (score of 387)
them to:
● use information from a
● compare the table to write a para-
approaches stated in a graph about a school
narrative on growing survey (score of 395)
up (score of 382)
Quantitative. Indi-
● summarize two ways in viduals at this level can
which lawyers may perform multiple arith-
challenge prospective metic operations sequen-
jurors (score of 410) tially. They are also able
to find the features of
● interpret a brief phrase problems in a piece of
from a lengthy news printed material and to
article (score of 423) use their background
knowledge to determine
Document. These the quantities or opera-
individuals have the tions needed. People at
ability to search through this literacy level are likely
complex displays that to succeed with tasks
contain several pieces that ask them to:
of distracting informa-
tion. They also have ● use an order form to
little difficulty making calculate the shipping
high-level inferences and costs and total costs of
using specialized back- items (score of 382)
ground knowledge to
interpret information
13EVALUATING THE As seen in the previous COMPARING TEACHERS rest of this report’s com-
section of this report, TO THE GENERAL parisons, we present data
LITERACY OF NALS collected informa- POPULATION for teachers as a whole.15
AMERICA’S tion on multiple dimen- Like any large group Figure 2 compares
sions of literacy. Like- of people measured on the average scores of
TEACHERS wise, there are multiple a broad scale, teachers teachers to those of the
ways to view the exhibit a considerable total population across
survey’s results. range of performance on all three literacy scales
What measure of the three literacy scales. and shows teachers’
literacy should be used? The largest group of scores as significantly
Average or mean literacy teachers (about 40 higher. For example, the
scores are useful mea- percent) scores at Level 4 average prose literacy
sures that can quickly on all three scales. The score for teachers was
convey an overall sense next largest group (about 330 — 58 points higher
of how one group 34 percent) scores at than the average score for
performs compared to Level 3. Somewhere the total population
another. But while around 10 percent scores (more than a standard
useful, averages or means at Level 5, and a minute deviation). Although this
provide an incomplete percentage (about 1 marked the largest
picture of the distribu- percent) scores at Level difference in scores,
tion, or range, of 1.14 These data can be teachers also performed
achievement across seen in Figure 1. significantly better on
different groups of Fortunately, NALS the document and
people, and can mask has a large enough quantitative scales.
important differences. sample of teachers to Teachers also were
To illustrate this allow us to examine the more likely to score at
range, we also present literacy levels of different the highest levels on each
data on the percentages groups of teachers. Figure of the literacy scales. For
of adults who performed 1 compares male and example, while only
at each of the five lit- female teachers and about 3 percent of the
eracy-scale levels. First, elementary and second- population scored at
we examine the literacy ary teachers, showing Level 5, about 10 percent
levels of teachers along- that there are no statisti- of teachers scored at that
side those of the entire cally significant score level. About half of U.S.
adult population. differences between those teachers scored at Levels
in either grouping. 4 and 5, compared to
For this reason, in the about 20 percent of the
14 Standard errors and sample sizes are provided in the appendix.
15 Teachers were defined as Pre-K, K, elementary, secondary, and special education teachers.
14Figure 1: Distribution of Prose, Document, and Quantitative Literacy of Teachers,
by Category
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, National Adult Literacy
Survey, 1992
15total population. At the COMPARING TEACHERS Figure 3: Literacy Levels of Teachers
other end of the scale, TO OTHER COLLEGE- Compared to Those of the Total Adult
about 22 percent of the EDUCATED ADULTS Population
population scored at Level We might expect
1, the lowest level of teachers to perform better
literacy, while only 1 on literacy tasks than the
percent to 2 percent of total adult population,
teachers performed at this because teachers have
level. Teachers did best on more education — and
the prose literacy scale, we know that education
with 57 percent scoring at is related to literacy. But
Levels 4 and 5. These data how do teachers compare
are shown in Figure 3. to adults with similar
levels of education?
Figure 4 compares the
average prose, document,
Figure 2: Average Prose, Document, and
Quantitative Literacy Scores of Teachers
Compared to Those of the Total Adult
Population
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center
for Education Statistics, National Adult Literacy Survey,
1992
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center
for Education Statistics, National Adult Literacy Survey,
1992
16and quantitative literacy levels for both groups. Figure 5: Literacy Levels of Teachers
scores of teachers with a For teachers and other With a Four-Year Degree Compared to
four-year college degree adults with a four-year Those of All Adults With a Four-Year Degree
but no graduate studies college degree, about 75
(about one-quarter of the percent scored at Levels 3
teachers in the NALS and 4, and about 10
sample) to the scores of percent scored at Level 5.
U.S. adults with the same Overall, in fact, the
educational level. There distribution across
were no statistically literacy levels was quite
significant differences in similar for both groups.
performance between the How do teachers with
two populations. graduate studies or
We can also look at graduate degrees compare
Figure 5 and examine the to adults with similar
distribution across literacy levels of education? As
Figure 4: Average Prose, Document, and
Quantitative Literacy Scores of Teachers
With a Four-Year Degree Compared to
Those of All Adults With a Four-Year Degree
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center
for Education Statistics, National Adult Literacy Survey,
1992
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center
for Education Statistics, National Adult Literacy Survey,
1992
17shown in Figure 6, distributions of these two Figure 7: Literacy Levels of Teachers
teachers with graduate groups across literacy With Graduate Studies or Degree Com-
education had average levels and see that they pared to Those of All Adults With Graduate
scores across all three are quite similar. More Studies or Degree
literacy scales that were than half of both groups
basically the same as scored at Levels 4 and 5.
those of other adults
with graduate education. COMPARING TEACHERS
Almost two-thirds of TO OTHER PROFESSIONAL
the NALS sample of AND MANAGERIAL
teachers reported having OCCUPATIONS
either graduate studies or NALS asked
a graduate degree. respondents to indicate
Looking at Figure 7, their current or most
we can compare the recent job and sorted the
Figure 6: Average Prose, Document, and
Quantitative Literacy Scores of Teachers
With Graduate Studies or Degree Com-
pared to Those of the Total Adult Popula-
tion With Graduate Studies or Degree
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center
for Education Statistics, National Adult Literacy Survey,
1992
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center
for Education Statistics, National Adult Literacy Survey,
1992
18resulting information Figure 8: Average Prose Literacy Scores of Teachers Compared
into occupational to Other Managers and Professionals
categories, using the
Census Classification for
Industries and Occupa-
tions. These categories
were then combined
into four occupational
groupings, one of which
was termed “managerial,
professional, or techni-
cal.” This category
contained teachers,
computer systems
analysts, lawyers, etc.,
and scored highest
among the occupational
categories across all
three literacy scales.
We now compare the
performance of U.S.
teachers to that of
other professionals.
Figure 8 shows the
comparison for prose
literacy. The black
horizontal bars represent
the confidence intervals
around the average
scores for each occupa-
tion; the shaded vertical
area represents the
confidence band for
teachers’ scores, allowing
them to be easily com-
pared to those of other
professionals. Only the
horizontal bars that do Note: Occupations in bold type have average scores that are statistically signifi-
not touch the vertical cantly different from teachers. While other score differences may appear large, they
are not statistically significant. Bars represent the confidence intervals around the
shaded area represent average scores. The vertical shaded area represents the confidence band for
significantly different teachers’ average score and is intended to facilitate comparisons.
scores from teachers,
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,
from a statistical per- National Adult Literacy Survey, 1992
spective.
19Figure 9: Average Document Literacy Scores of Teachers So on the prose
Compared to Other Managers and Professionals literacy scale, only
computer systems ana-
lysts scored significantly
higher than teachers.
Teachers performed at a
comparable level to
lawyers, electrical engi-
neers, accountants and
auditors, marketing
professionals, financial
managers, physicians,
personnel and training
professionals, social
workers, education
administrators, and
educational and voca-
tional counselors; they
scored significantly
higher than managers
and administrators, real
estate and food service
managers, and designers.
On the document
literacy scale, teachers
fared just about as well
as in prose literacy,
although in addition to
computer systems
analysts, they scored
significantly lower than
electrical engineers
(Figure 9). Teachers did
not perform significantly
different from lawyers,
accountants and audi-
tors, marketing profes-
Note: Occupations in bold type have average scores that are statistically significantly
different from teachers. While other score differences may appear large, they are not
sionals, financial manag-
statistically significant. Bars represent the confidence intervals around the average ers, physicians, social
scores. The vertical shaded area represents the confidence band for teachers’ workers, personnel and
average score and is intended to facilitate comparisons.
training professionals,
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, and educational counse-
National Adult Literacy Survey, 1992 lors and administrators.
20On the other hand, they Figure 10: Average Quantitative Literacy Scores of Teachers
significantly outper- Compared to Other Managers and Professionals
formed managers and
administrators, real estate
and food service manag-
ers, and designers.
Teachers scored least
well in the quantitative
area, significantly below
electrical engineers,
lawyers, accountants and
auditors, and computer
systems analysts (people
in highly quantitative and
analytic fields). Much like
their performance on the
prose and document
scales, however, teachers
performed comparably to
the other managers and
professionals in this
category and outscored
designers and real estate
and food service manag-
ers. These comparisons
are shown in Figure 10.
Note: Occupations in bold type have average scores that are statistically significantly
different from teachers. While other score differences may appear large, they are not
statistically significant. Bars represent the confidence intervals around the average
scores. The vertical shaded area represents the confidence band for teachers’
average score and is intended to facilitate comparisons.
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,
National Adult Literacy Survey, 1992
21THE NALS found a strong Figure 11: Median Weekly Wages for
relationship between Teachers and Other College Graduates,
RELATIONSHIP literacy and earnings. On by Literacy Level
BETWEEN average, individuals with
higher levels of literacy
LITERACY AND were more likely than
INCOME others to earn higher
wages, to be employed
more weeks per year, and
to be employed in
managerial and profes-
sional occupations.
Here we examine
how teachers’ wages
compare to those of
other college-educated
adults at each level of
literacy. We also compare
the median weekly wages
of teachers to the wages
of other occupations
within the managerial/
professional category.
Figure 11 shows the
median weekly wages
earned by teachers and
other college-educated
adults at each of the five
literacy levels. Level 1
data have not been
included, since sample
sizes are too small to
permit reliable estimates.
In general, for both
N/A - insufficient sample sizes to permit reliable estimates.
groups, earnings increase
Note: * indicates a statistically significant difference in
with the level of literacy. wages at that level. While other differences may appear
What the bars also show, large, they are not considered statistically significant
because of small cell sizes and large standard errors.
however, is that there are
differences in earnings Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center
between teachers and for Education Statistics, National Adult Literacy Survey,
1992
other college graduates at
each literacy level. For
example, teachers scoring
22at Level 5 on the prose Figure 12: Median Weekly Wages of Teachers Compared
scale earned $574 a week, to Other Managers and Professionals
compared to $796 a week
earned by other college
graduates, a statistically
significant difference.
Finally, there are
differences in average
earnings between teachers
and other managerial and
professional workers.
Median weekly wages are
shown in Figure 12.
Teachers appear near the
very bottom of the list,
earning a median wage of
about $500 a week.16 So
while teachers’ average
literacy compares favor-
ably with the average
literacy of most other
professional and manage-
rial occupations, their
compensation falls
far short.
A 1998 report by
the Organization for
Economic Cooperation
and Development
(OECD) supports this
observation and provides
more current data. The
report discloses that the
United States devotes a
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,
smaller percentage of its
National Adult Literacy Survey, 1992
national income to
16 We recognize that higher-salary occupations, like lawyers and physicians, require professional degrees and advanced training. Teachers also work
fewer weeks per year than other professionals. On average, teachers in the NALS study reported working 45 weeks per year, compared to 49 to 50
for most other professionals.
23teachers’ salaries than states, the amount of other countries. An time a typical U.S. experienced high school middle school teacher teacher in the United spends in front of a States earns 1.2 times the classroom per year is 964 gross domestic product hours, among the highest (GDP) per capita. Among in OECD countries.17 the 29 OECD members, only the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Norway pay their high school teachers less when mea- sured as a percentage of their GDPs. In Germany, Ireland, South Korea, and Switzerland, among others, teachers earn at least twice the GDP per capita. Moreover, the average teacher salary in the United States is significantly below that of other university gradu- ates. In many other countries — such as Australia, France, and Britain — teacher salaries are actually higher than the salaries of other university graduates. Making matters worse, demands on teachers’ time in the United States are extremely high. In fact, the OECD report 17 Ethan Bronner, “Other Countries Catching up to U.S. in Education, Study Finds,” The New York Times, November 24, 1998. 24
CONCLUSION This analysis has provided and by electrical engineers the best measure of
information that can be and computer systems teachers’ professional
used to make some analysts in document abilities, it does measure
judgments about the literacy. Teachers per- teachers’ skills in handling
capabilities of teachers in formed least well on prose and documents of a
dealing with prose, the quantitative scale; wide variety, as well as
document, and quantita- however, most of whom quantitative problems
tive problems. While they scored below were encountered in daily life.
teachers display a consid- professionals employed What we can take away
erable range of such skills in quantitatively from this analysis is the
(as all groups do), on the oriented fields. assurance that our teach-
whole they perform very Finally, teachers earn ers measure up well with
well. And contrary to less than other profession- those in other professions
popular media accounts, als, on average, even when and those with similar
teachers perform about as the number of weeks levels of education.
well as other adults with worked per year is taken This is contrary to the
similar levels of educa- into account. A recent national view that has
tion. Across all three analysis by the Organiza- developed, proving that
literacy scales — prose, tion for Economic Coop- we need to abandon the
document, and quantita- eration and Development currently prevalent,
tive — teachers perform supports this finding and negative stereotypes.
significantly higher than also concludes that teach- This analysis also
the general adult popula- ers’ salaries in the United shows we employ teachers
tion and score at similar States lag behind those in for pay that is well below
levels to other college- other countries, while U.S. the market rate for their
educated adults. teachers’ workloads are levels of prose, document,
Teachers also perform often greater. and quantitative problem
well compared to other The National Adult solving. With the
adults employed in Literacy Survey provides impending shortage of
professional and manage- the first opportunity to teachers and the apparent
rial jobs. The National answer several important competitiveness of their
Adult Literacy Survey questions: How literate skills, we need to give
showed that, in prose and are America’s teachers? more attention to what
document literacy, teach- How do teachers compare we pay them, and to
ers scored significantly to others with comparable recognize the many
higher than professionals education levels? How do options these capable
in several occupations and teachers compare with people have in the Ameri-
were outperformed only other professionals? can marketplace.
by computer systems While the NALS
analysts in prose literacy study is not necessarily
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