Heat Shock Protein 70 (Hsp70) Suppresses RIP1- Dependent Apoptotic and Necroptotic Cascades - Molecular Cancer Research
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Published OnlineFirst September 28, 2017; DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.MCR-17-0408
Cell Death and Survival Molecular
Cancer
Research
Heat Shock Protein 70 (Hsp70) Suppresses RIP1-
Dependent Apoptotic and Necroptotic Cascades
Sharan R. Srinivasan1, Laura C. Cesa1, Xiaokai Li2, Olivier Julien2, Min Zhuang2,
Hao Shao2, Jooho Chung3, Ivan Maillard3, James A. Wells2, Colin S. Duckett4,
and Jason E. Gestwicki2
Abstract
Hsp70 is a molecular chaperone that binds to "client" model, MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells treated with Hsp70
proteins and protects them from protein degradation. Hsp70 inhibitors underwent apoptosis, while cotreatment with z-
is essential for the survival of many cancer cells, but it is not yet VAD.fmk switched the cell death pathway to necroptosis. In
clear which of its clients are involved. Using structurally distinct addition, cell death in response to Hsp70 inhibitors was
chemical inhibitors, we found that many of the well-known strongly suppressed by RIP1 knockdown or inhibitors. Thus,
clients of the related chaperone, Hsp90, are not strikingly these data indicate that Hsp70 plays a previously unrecognized
responsive to Hsp70 inhibition. Rather, Hsp70 appeared to be and important role in suppressing RIP1 activity.
important for the stability of the RIP1 (RIPK1) regulators:
cIAP1/2 (BIRC1 and BIRC3), XIAP, and cFLIPS/L (CFLAR). Implications: These findings clarify the role of Hsp70 in prosur-
These results suggest that Hsp70 limits apoptosis and necrop- vival signaling and suggest IAPs as potential new biomarkers for
tosis pathways downstream of RIP1. Consistent with this Hsp70 inhibition. Mol Cancer Res; 16(1); 58–68. 2017 AACR.
Introduction inhibitors, including VER-155008 (8), MAL3-101 (13), and JG-
98 (14). These molecules belong to distinct chemical families and
Elevated expression of Hsp70 correlates with poor survival and
have nonoverlapping binding sites (15). For example, JG-98 is an
resistance to chemotherapeutics (1–4). Hsp70 is generally
allosteric inhibitor that binds tightly to a deep pocket (16) that is
thought to inhibit both the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways of
conserved in members of the Hsp70 family (14). Importantly,
apoptosis (5) by protecting important "clients," such as the
JG-98 and its analogues have been found to be relatively selective
oncoproteins Raf-1 and Akt-1, from degradation (6–8), However,
for members of the Hsp70 family, based on results from pull-
this model is largely based on analogy to the related chaperone,
downs (17), overexpression, and point mutations (18–21). The
Hsp90 (9, 10). Inhibitors of Hsp90 are well known to release
mechanism of JG-98 is to block a key allosteric transition in
clients from that chaperone, leading to protein degradation and,
Hsp70 that favors degradation of some Hsp70-bound clients (19,
ultimately, apoptotic cell death (11, 12). It is not clear whether
21). Other compounds bind different locations and have distinct
Hsp700 s activity is restricted to these "Hsp90-like" functions or
mechanisms (22). For example, VER-155008 competes for bind-
whether it plays a broader or even parallel role.
ing of nucleotide to Hsp70 (8), and MAL3-101 binds to a distinct
The molecular roles of Hsp70 in cancer have been elusive, in
allosteric site (23). Although JG-98 is relatively nontoxic (EC50 >
part, because of a lack of selective chemical inhibitors. A number
20 mmol/L) to normal mouse embryonic fibroblasts, it has anti-
of recent reports have created the first generation of Hsp70
proliferative activity (EC50 ¼ 400 nmol/L) in multiple cancer cell
lines (14) and its analogues kill tamoxifen-resistant cells (24).
Similar selectivity for transformed cells is observed using Hsp70
1
Program in Chemical Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. inhibitors belonging to other chemical series (8, 25). The consis-
2
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San tency of this result is important because parallel activity across
Francisco, San Francisco, California. 3The Life Sciences Institute, University of chemically distinct molecules often suggests that the activity is
Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 4Department of Pathology, University of mediated by the intended target. On the basis of all of these recent
Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
findings, we envisioned JG-98 and other new Hsp70 inhibitors as
Note: Supplementary data for this article are available at Molecular Cancer promising chemical tools for better understanding the chaper-
Research Online (http://mcr.aacrjournals.org/). one's molecular roles in cancer.
Current address for C.S. Duckett: Baylor Scott & White Research Institute, Using multiple, structurally distinct Hsp70 inhibitors, we
Department of Medicine, Section of Hematology and Oncology, Baylor College found that Hsp90 clients, such as Akt or Raf1, are only weakly
of Medicine, Dallas, Texas.
degraded after treatment. Rather, the stability of the RIP1 regu-
Corresponding Author: Jason E. Gestwicki, University of California San lators, IAP1/2, XIAP, and cFLIPS/L, seemed especially sensitive to
Francisco, 675 Nelson Rising Lane, San Francisco, CA 94158. Phone: 415-502-7121; Hsp70 activity. Indeed, in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, the
Fax: 415-476-8386; E-mail: jason.gestwicki@ucsf.edu
kinetics of cell death correlated better with the loss of the RIP1
doi: 10.1158/1541-7786.MCR-17-0408 regulators than with degradation of Hsp90 clients. Consistent
2017 American Association for Cancer Research. with a role in limiting RIP1 activation, treatment with Hsp70
58 Mol Cancer Res; 16(1) January 2018
Downloaded from mcr.aacrjournals.org on March 8, 2021. © 2018 American Association for Cancer Research.Published OnlineFirst September 28, 2017; DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.MCR-17-0408
Hsp70 Inhibition Activates Cell Death
inhibitors led to apoptotic cell death, but coadministration with Immunoprecipitations
z-VAD-fmk switched the cells to a necroptotic pathway. Further- Ripoptosome. Cells were pre-treated with z-VAD.fmk (20 mmol/L)
more, cell death in response to Hsp70 inhibitors required RIP1 to limit cleavage of RIP1. Following compound treatments, cells
activity, as shown using RIP1 knockdown and selective RIP1 were incubated for 24 hours before proceeding with lysis, immu-
kinase inhibitors. Thus, although Hsp70 is likely to have multiple noprecipitation, and Western blots, as described previously (27).
clients, its activity on RIP1 seems to be especially important in cell
survival. These findings may help guide the selection of Hsp70- Fluorescence and light microscopy
selective biomarkers and potentially accelerate the discovery of Cells were visualized using an Olympus IX83 Inverted Micro-
clinical candidates. scope. Nuclear morphology was examined by Hoechst 33258
staining (Sigma). For each experiment, at least 10 individual
Materials and Methods frames were examined and representative panels chosen for
Reagents and antibodies presentation. For quantification, we manually counted 200 cells
Inhibitors. The following reagents were purchased from from three independent experiments.
Sigma-Aldrich: necrostatin-1, bortezomib; Enzo: z-VAD.fmk;
Millipore: necrosulfonamide (NSA); LC Labs: 17-DMAG; Proteolytic profiling ("N-terminal degradomics")
StressMarq: VER-155008; and Teva Pharmaceuticals: etopo- Eight liters of T-cell leukemia Jurkat A cells were grown in four
side. JG-98, JG-84 and JG-258 were synthesized and charac- separate 3 L spinner flasks to a density of 0.8 106 cells/mL (see
terized as described previously (14). All compounds were below). The cells were then treated for 16 hours with (i) 10 mmol/L
suspended in DMSO, and the final solvent concentration in JG98 alone; (ii) 10 mmol/L JG98 and 20 mmol/L NSA, (iii) 10
the assays was held to 1%. mmol/L JG98 and 20 mmol/L of cell-permeable pan-caspase
inhibitor zVAD(OMe)-fmk; or (iv) left untreated. For the com-
bination treatments, the cells were pretreated with NSA or zVAD
Antibodies. The following antibodies were purchased from Enzo:
for 1 hour prior to the addition of JG98. Cell growth was
Hsp72 (C92F3A-5), XIAP (ADI-AAM-050), c-IAP1 (ALX-803-
monitored using a Scepter cell counter (Millipore) to estimate
335), caspase-8 (ALX-804-429); SCBT: GAPDH (sc-32233),
the amount of cell death and cell morphology changes monitored
Hsp90 (sc-7947), Raf-1 (sc-133), caspase-8 (sc-6136), anti-rat
under a Zeiss Observer Z1 microscope to confirm the expected
(sc-2006), goat IgG (sc-2028); Cell Signaling Technology: Akt-1
phenotype. Free N-termini were detected as described previously
(2967), cleaved caspase-3 (9664), c-IAP2 (3130); BD Pharmin-
(see below). In short, cell lysates were collected and the cells lysed
gen: RIP1 (610459), Cdk4 (559693), cytochrome c (556433),
using 0.1% Trion X-100 (0.8–1.2 109 cells per sample), free N-
Bcl-xL (610746); Molecular Probes: COXIV (A21347); Alexis:
termini biotinylated using a cleavable peptide ester (TEVest4B)
FLIP (ALX-804-428); Millipore: Smac (567365).
and subtiligase, protein fragments captured on Neutravidin beads
and trypsin-digested. Each sample was then fractionated by HPLC
Tissue culture
into 12 fractions, for a total of 48 LC/MS-MS injections on
MDA-MB-231 WT cells were maintained in DMEM (Invitro-
an Orbitrap Velos Pro (Thermo Fisher Scientific). Peptide iden-
gen), supplemented with 10% FBS, 1% penicillin–streptomycin,
tification was performed using Protein Prospector (v. 5.10.15 or
and nonessential amino acids. Jurkat cells were grown in
higher; University of California, San Francisco, CA). All spectra
RPMI1640 (Corning), supplemented with GlutaMax. MDA-
were searched using the full human SwissProt database (down-
MB-231 and Jurkat cells overexpressing Bcl-xL and RIP1 knockout
loaded June 27, 2013) with random sequence database for
Jurkat cells were all created as described previously (26).
FDR determination. Search parameters included: fixed modifica-
tion cysteine carbamidomethylation; variable modifications
Cell line authentication
N-terminal aminobutyric acid, methionine-loss (N-terminus)
All cell lines were purchased from ATCC and experiments
and methionine oxidation; up to one missed tryptic cleavages;
performed on cells that were passaged less than 20 times.
C-terminal trypsin cleavage; nonspecific cleavage N-terminus;
parent mass tolerance 30 ppm; fragment mass tolerance 0.5 Da.
Cell growth assays
Expectation value cutoff was adjusted to maintainPublished OnlineFirst September 28, 2017; DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.MCR-17-0408
Srinivasan et al.
Figure 1.
Inhibition of Hsp70 causes rapid antiproliferative activity. A, Chemical structures of Hsp70 inhibitors (JG-98, JG-84, MAL3-101, and VER-155008), controls (JG-258)
and inhibitors of Hsp90 (17-DMAG), and the proteasome (bortezomib). B, JG-98 (5 mmol/L) suppresses growth of MDA-MB-231 cancer cells with relatively
rapid kinetics compared with 17-DMAG (5 mmol/L) or bortezomib (40 nmol/L), as monitored by MTT assays. Results are the average of two independent experiments
performed in quintuplicates. Error bars, SEM. C, Hsp70 inhibitors induce rapid cell growth effects, as measured by CellTiter Glo. Results are the average of
experiments performed in triplicate. Errors, SEM. D, Chaperone clients are degraded relatively late after treatment with JG-98 (10 mmol/L), after onset of effects on
cell growth. Results are representative of experiments performed in duplicate.
longer times, approximately 18 to 24 hours (Fig. 1B). To confirm apoptosis. This is an important step because MTT and CellTi-
this result using a distinct cell growth measure, we also performed terGlo assays primarily report on proliferation and not neces-
CellTiterGlo assays on treated MDA-MB-231 cells and found that sarily on cell death. Indeed, we found that JG-98 induced
the kinetics in response to multiple, different Hsp70 inhibitors: classical apoptosis features, including morphologic changes
JG-98, JG-84, VER-155008 or MAL3-101, was markedly faster consistent with programmed cell death (Supplementary Fig.
than treatment with Hsp90 inhibitors (Fig. 1C). As mentioned S1A) and positive Annexin staining (Supplementary Fig. S1B).
above, it was important to note that Hsp70 inhibitors from This result is consistent with previous reports that JG-98 acti-
multiple chemical series showed similar responses, giving confi- vates caspase cleavage (14). To further probe this idea, we
dence in the role of that target. It is well known that treatment with overexpressed the Bcl-2 family member, Bcl-xL, a mitochondrial
Hsp90 inhibitors leads to degradation of Hsp90 clients, such as antiapoptotic protein, in MDA-MB-231 cells. These cells are
Akt, Raf-1, and Cdk4, and that the kinetics of that process parallels considered type II cells that undergo apoptosis through cas-
cell death (28, 29). To see whether these same clients were pase-8 and the mitochondrial pathway (30), so high Bcl-xL
involved in Hsp70-mediated cell proliferation, we performed levels would be expected to block JG-98–mediated cell death.
Western blots on JG-98–treated lysates. Surprisingly, we found Importantly, we also performed parallel studies in leukemia-
that it took approximately 12 to 24 hours for the levels of Akt, Raf- derived Jurkat cells, because it is known that overexpression of
1, and Cdk4 to be reduced (Fig. 1D), which is relatively late into Bcl-xL only incompletely inhibits RIP1-depedent cell death in
the response. This result suggested that the mechanism(s) of MDA-MB-231 cells (27). Surprisingly, we found that overex-
Hsp70 inhibitors might not be simply explained by "Hsp90-like" pression of Bcl-xL did not impede cytotoxicity in response to JG-
effects in these cells. 98 in either cell type (Fig. 2A and B). As controls, we confirmed
that Bcl-xL overexpression partially suppressed cell death in
Inhibitors of Hsp70 induce apoptosis, independent of response to the control molecules, 17-DMAG, bortezomib, or
Bcl-xL status etoposide, in either MDA-MB-231 (see Fig. 2A) or Jurkat
To better understand the response to Hsp70 inhibition, we (see Fig. 2B) cells. To understand the impact of Bcl-xL over-
then asked whether treated MDA-MB-231 cells underwent expression on the potency of the compounds, we performed
60 Mol Cancer Res; 16(1) January 2018 Molecular Cancer Research
Downloaded from mcr.aacrjournals.org on March 8, 2021. © 2018 American Association for Cancer Research.Published OnlineFirst September 28, 2017; DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.MCR-17-0408
Hsp70 Inhibition Activates Cell Death
The mechanism of cell death did not seem to be affected,
because treatment of the Bcl-xL–overexpressing cells with JG-
98 led to morphologic features that were still consistent with
apoptosis (Supplementary Fig. S2A). On the basis of the mito-
chondrial retention of COX IV in treated MDA-MB-231 cells,
this apoptotic activity also seemed to occur without global
disruption of mitochondria (Supplementary Fig. S2B). Thus,
inhibition of Hsp70 appeared to initiate a mitochondrial death
pathway that was independent of Bcl-2 family status.
When caspase-mediated apoptosis is blocked, Hsp70 inhibitors
trigger an alternative, necroptosis pathway
The caspase inhibitor, z-VAD.fmk, is known to partially
suppress cell death in response to Hsp90 inhibitors (31).
However, we found that this compound did not block prolif-
eration induced by JG-98 (Fig. 3A). Rather, we observed that
51% 13% cells pretreated with z-VAD.fmk before addition of
JG-98 displayed a swollen cytoplasm containing numerous
granules (Fig. 3B). This morphology was not observed in the
absence of v-VAD.fmk. The swollen cytoplasm feature is rem-
iniscent of necrotic cell death, suggesting that JG-98 might be
activating an alternative pathway if apoptosis was blocked.
Consistent with this idea, we observed nuclear fragmentation
in only 4% 1% of cells that were pretreated with z-VAD.fmk
prior to JG-98, compared with 40% 16% in the absence of z-
VAD.fmk (Fig. 3C). To further explore whether JG-98 might be
activating an alternative death pathway, we profiled the peptide
fragments produced from proteolysis in cells treated with JG-98,
using a recently described mass spectrometry–based method
termed "N-terminal degradomics" (Fig. 4A; ref. 32). Briefly, this
method profiles the neopeptide termini that are produced
by proteolysis during cell death. Treatment of Jurkat cells with
JG-98 produced a fragment profile consistent with caspase
activation, as judged by the prominent aspartate in the P1
position (Fig. 4B and C; Supplementary Table S1). As expected,
treatment with z-VAD.fmk nearly completely blocked this sig-
nature. Moreover, when z-VAD.fmk was used as a cotreatment
with JG-98, it also suppressed the caspase response (Fig. 4B and
C), with the peptide profile resembling the untreated cells.
These results support the idea that treatment with JG-98
initiates caspase-mediated apoptosis, but that the cells die by
an alternative, necroptosis, pathway when caspases are inhib-
ited. Perhaps more broadly, these findings also show that
Figure 2. necroptosis occurs in the absence of dramatic proteolysis, a
Hsp70 inhibitor activity is independent of Bcl status. A, Overexpression of Bcl-xL feature of this alternative cell death pathway that had not
does not block JG-98 cytotoxicity. MDA-MB-231 cells were treated for 24 hours previously been described.
with JG-98 (10 mmol/L), 17-DMAG (10 mmol/L), bortezomib (40 nmol/L), or
etoposide (20 mmol/L). MTT results are the mean average of triplicates, and Hsp70 limits RIP1 activation by stabilizing E3 ligases
error bars represent SEM. , P < 0.05. B, Jurkat cells overexpressing Bcl-xL were
RIP1 is an important signaling regulator that directs cells into
treated with indicated compounds for 24 hours. Viability was determined by
Trypan blue staining. Results are the average of two experiments performed in
either the apoptotic or necroptotic cascades (27, 33). Because
triplicate. Error, SEM. , P < 0.01. C, Bcl-xL overexpression provides partial JG-98 appeared to initiate both pathways, we hypothesized that
resistance to compounds, except JG-98. MDA-MB-231 cells were treated for 72 RIP1 might be important in Hsp70-mediated cell survival.
hours and cell growth determined by MTT assays. Results are the average of two To test this idea, we treated Jurkat cells lacking RIP1. Strikingly,
independent experiments performed in triplicate. Error, SEM. JG-98 was not cytotoxic in RIP1 knockout Jurkat cells (Fig. 5A).
Similarly, necrostatin-1, an inhibitor of RIP10 s kinase activity
(34), protected MDA-MB-231 cells from treatment with JG-98
dose dependence studies in MDA-MB-231 cells and calculated (Fig. 5B). Conversely, treatment with 17-DMAG, bortezomib,
EC50 values. Consistent with the single-concentration data, we or etoposide was not affected by loss of RIP1 protein or RIP1
found that overexpression of Bcl-xL did not alter the EC50 for activity (see Fig. 5A and B). Thus, cell death by JG-98 appeared
JG-98 (Fig. 2C); whereas the EC50s of 17-DMAG, bortezomib, to be uniquely dependent on RIP1 kinase activity. RIP1 is
and etoposide were significantly increased (2.5- to 5.7-fold). constitutively ubiquitinated by the E3 ubiquitin ligases XIAP,
www.aacrjournals.org Mol Cancer Res; 16(1) January 2018 61
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Srinivasan et al.
Figure 3.
Inhibition of caspases with z-VAD-fmk does not block JG-980 s activity. A, Inhibition of caspases by z-VAD.fmk does not suppress the activity of JG-98. Results are the
average of three independent experiments performed in quintuplicate. Error bars, SEM. Cells were pretreated with z-VAD.fmk (40 mmol/L) for 1 hour prior
to addition of compounds (same concentrations as in A and MTT assays performed after 24 hours. , P < 0.01. ns, not significant. Error, SEM. B, Cells were treated
as in A and visualized using an Olympus IX83 Inverted Microscope. Black arrows, apoptotic cells; white arrows, necrotic cells. C, Hoechst 33258 staining of
MDA-MB-231 cells pretreated with z-VAD.fmk (40 mmol/L) for 1 hour prior to addition of JG-98 (10 mmol/L) for 24 hours. Cells pre-treated with z-VAD.fmk show no
nuclear fragmentation (white arrows), even after coadministration of JG-98. Scale bar, 10 mm.
c-IAP1, c-IAP2, and cFLIPS/L (35). Ubiquitination of RIP1 is Blocking caspase-mediated apoptosis and necroptosis prevents
linked to turnover of the kinase, but also to nondegradation cell death in response to Hsp70 inhibitors
pathways that modulate RIP1 activity (36). Indeed, ubiquitina- Next, we wondered whether blocking necroptosis would make
tion of RIP1 is thought to protect against necroptosis (37). cells resistant to JG-98. However, we found that inhibition of this
Hsp70 is known to protect a number of proteins from degra- pathway by NSA did not block JG-98 effects on proliferation (Fig.
dation, so it seems possible that it may normally stabilize RIP1 6A). Furthermore, the proteolytic fragment signature of these
itself or the E3 ligases. To test this idea, we treated MDA-MB- treated cells suggested that they may still die by caspase-mediated
231 cells with JG-98 and examined the levels of RIP1 and its E3 apoptosis (see Fig. 4D). Then, to understand if blocking both
ligases by Western blots. Although inhibition of Hsp70 did not apoptosis and necroptosis might limit JG-98 mediated activity, we
significantly impact RIP1 protein levels under these conditions, pretreated MDA-MB-231 (Fig. 6B) or Jurkat cells (Fig. 6C) with
it induced a striking loss of XIAP, c-IAP1/2, and cFLIPS/L (Fig. both z-VAD.fmk and NSA. We found that the combination
5C). To test whether this pathway might be linked to JG-98 partially blocked JG-98–mediated cell death. Importantly, a dis-
treatment, we examined the kinetics by which the levels of c- tinct Hsp70 inhibitor, VER-155008, also required cotreatment
IAP, XIAP, and cFLIPS/L are reduced. Indeed, loss of the E3 with both z-VAD-fmk and NSA to protect against activity in
ubiquitin ligases closely paralleled the kinetics of cell death, MDA-MB-231 cells (Supplementary Fig. S4A). To explore this
with cFLIPS levels diminished within 1 to 3 hours and the levels phenomenon more broadly, we tested JG-98 in combination with
of the other ligases beginning to decrease between 6 and 12 v-VAD.fmk or z-VAD.fmk plus NSA in cancer cells derived from a
hours (Fig. 5D). This result sharply contrasts with the delay in variety of tissues. Consistent with the results from the MDA-MB-
Hsp90 client destabilization that we observed earlier (see Fig. 1B), 231 and Jurkat cells, z-VAD.fmk alone was unable to protect cells
suggesting that Hsp70 regulation of RIP1 may be more closely derived from breast (MCF7, SK-BR-3, T-47D), lung (A549) or
linked to activity in these cells. To understand the mechanism of colon (HT-29; Supplementary Fig. S4B), while cervical-derived
turnover, we deleted the RING domain from XIAP (XIAPDRING) and HeLa cells were partially protected (EC50 increased 2-fold). Next,
compared its stability with full-length XIAP (XIAPFL) in the pres- we used the combination of z-VAD.fmk and NSA and found that
ence of JG-98 in MDA-MB-231 cells (Supplementary Fig. S3A). both were required to protect MDA-MB-231, MCF7, SK-BR-3, and
XIAP is known to degrade by self-ubiquitination through this Jurkat cells. Interestingly, A549, T47-D, and HT-29 cells were not
domain (38, 39). We found that XIAPDRING was resistant to fully protected by this combination, and the effect of JG-98 may
treatment with JG-98 (Supplementary Fig. S3B), consistent with have even been mildly exacerbated (see Supplementary Fig. S4B).
activation of its normal turnover pathway through the ubiquitin These results suggest that Hsp70 may play additional roles in
proteasome system. Finally, we wanted to test whether Hsp70 some cell types, perhaps through additional mechanisms such as
inhibitors from different structural classes also trigger loss of the E3 lysosomal cell death (40).
ligases. These types of experiments are important for confirming
on-target activity because, as mentioned above, the different inhi- Hsp70 blocks oligomerization and activation of RIP1
bitors have distinct chemical structures, and they bind different Finally, we wanted to explore additional, possible mechanisms
allosteric sites on the chaperone (15). Indeed, we found that by which Hsp70 could inhibit RIP1 activation. One major role for
treatment with JG-84, VER-155008, or MAL3-101 also destabilized RIP1 is as a central scaffold in the TNF-receptor 1 (TNF-R1)
c-IAP1 in MDA-MB-231 cells, while a structurally-related negative complex (33). It has been shown that autocrine TNF–producing
control, JG-258, had no effect (Supplementary Fig. S3C). cells, such as MDA-MB-231, are sensitive to small-molecule
62 Mol Cancer Res; 16(1) January 2018 Molecular Cancer Research
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Hsp70 Inhibition Activates Cell Death
Figure 4.
Proteolytic signature of cells treated with JG-98 supports activation of both an apoptotic and alternative cell death pathway. A, Schematic overview of the proteolytic
profiling study (aka "N-terminal degradomics"). B, Overview of the peptide fragments produced in response to compound treatments. More than 45% of the
substrates identified after JG-98 treatment feature a P1 ¼ D, suggesting the activation of caspases. In general, there was minimal proteolysis in untreated
cells or cells treated with JG-98 and z-VAD. Aminobutyric acid (Abu). C, Logo plots show that JG-98 activated apoptosis in Jurkat cells, and NSA is unable to block this
activity. However, z-VAD reversed the proteolytic profile to one that approximated untreated cells. D, The caspase activation profile (P1 ¼ D peptides)
was similar between cells treated with JG-98 or JG-98 plus NSA, while the pattern of peptides (P1 ¼ all) was similar between JG98 þ zVAD and untreated cells.
Experiments repeated in biological duplicate and technical triplicate.
mimetics of the Smac/DIABLO protein and that this cytotox- inhibits the formation of amyloids formed from diverse pro-
icity proceeds through TNF-R1 (27). We investigated this pos- teins, such as amyloid beta, huntingtin, and tau (42). Thus, it
sibility for JG-98 and found that a neutralizing antibody against seemed logical that Hsp70 might counteract conversion of RIP1
TNF-R1 (Enbrel) blocked cell death by a Smac mimetic (SM), into its amyloid state, such that treatment with JG-98 might
but that it was unable to prevent JG-98–induced cell death (Fig. relieve this suppression. To test this idea, we treated MDA-MB-
7A). Thus, JG-98 appears to act independently of TNF-R1, but 231 cells with JG-98 or the combination of JG-98 and z-VAD.
with a mechanism distinct from Smac mimetics. A cytosolic fmk (to induce necroptosis) and looked for stable, high molec-
death complex containing RIP1, termed the ripoptosome, has ular mass oligomers of RIP1. We found that treatment with
been also shown to direct both apoptosis and necroptosis (27). JG-98 promoted conversion of RIP1 to the oligomeric state,
A key event in formation of the ripoptosome is binding of RIP1 concurrent with depletion of its binding partner, RIP3 (Fig.
to caspase-8. To determine whether treatment with JG-98 7C). Similar effects were observed with the other Hsp70 inhi-
triggered this event, we immunoprecipitated caspase-8 and bitors, JG-84 and VER-155008 (Supplementary Fig. S5). Again,
performed Western blots with a RIP1 antibody. Although Smac this mechanism was distinct from that used by SM-164, which
mimetic gave the expected result, JG-98 did not promote the had no effect on RIP1 oligomerization in this system (see Fig.
interaction (Fig. 7B), suggesting that JG-98 does not trigger 7D). Furthermore, RIP1 oligomerization did require kinase
formation of the ripoptosome. Finally, we tested whether activity in this context, as Nec-1 could block the process.
Hsp70 might play a role in RIP1 oligomerization. It has recently Importantly, treatment with 17-DMAG or bortezomib did not
been reported that RIP1 and RIP3 forms stable, oligomeric, impact RIP1 oligomerization (Fig. 7D). Together, these results
amyloid-like structures that are required for necroptosis (41), suggested that Hsp70 plays a key role in suppressing RIP1
which appear as stable, high molecular mass bands on SDS- activation, possibly through effects on the stability of its E3
PAGE. At the same time, it is well known that Hsp70 broadly ligases and on its self-association.
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Srinivasan et al.
Figure 5.
JG-98 activity occurs through a RIP1-dependent process. A, RIP1 KO Jurkat cells are resistant to JG-98. Viability was determined by Trypan blue exclusion. Cells were
treated for 24 hours with JG-98 (10 mmol/L), 17-DMAG (10 mmol/L), bortezomib (40 nmol/L), etoposide (20 mmol/L). Results are the average of three independent
experiments performed in triplicate. ns, not significant; P < 0.05. B, JG-98 activity requires RIP1 kinase. MDA-MB-231 cells were pretreated with 20 mmol/L
necrostatin-1 for 1 hour prior to addition of compounds. Viability was determined by three independent MTT assays performed in quintuplicate. Error, SEM. ns, not
significant; , P < 0.0001. C, JG-98 induces degradation of RIP1 modulators. MDA-MB-231 cells were treated for 24 hours. Results represent experiments
performed in triplicate. D, RIP1 regulators are rapidly degraded in response to JG-98. MDA-MB-231 cells were treated with JG-98 (10 mmol/L). Results are
representative of duplicates.
ment of Hsp70 inhibitors by multiple research groups. By anal-
Discussion ogy, the clients of Hsp90 were revealed after the serendipitous
Knockdown of Hsp70 has been shown to reduce proliferation discovery of geldanamycin and the development of its more
and enhance sensitivity to chemotherapy in multiple cancer potent analogues, such as 17-DMAG (46). Thus, given recent
models (1–4). Because Hsp70 itself is not an oncogene, it was advances in Hsp70 inhibitor discovery, it seemed timely to ask
presumed that it acts through a "nononcogene addiction" mech- whether Hsp70 might have its own clients. Here, we used a suite of
anism, in which the chaperone stabilizes a subset of oncogenes to Hsp70 inhibitors with different binding sites and mechanisms to
protect against cell death (6, 43). Hsp90 is known to play a similar explore Hsp700 s prosurvival function. We focused on MDA-MB-
functional role (12), yet more is known about the mechanisms by 231 and Jurkat cells, because of existing genetic data on the
which that chaperone creates a nononcogene addiction. Specif- importance of Hsp70 in these cells, but it is important to stress
ically, Hsp90 is known to directly bind and stabilize a subset of that Hsp70 may play additional roles in other cells (see Supple-
prosurvival clients, including Akt, Her-2, Raf-1, and Cdk4 (44). mentary Fig. S4B).
Although individual clients of Hsp70 have been suggested (6–8) Our results suggest an unexpected model in which Hsp70
and some shared clients seem likely (45), we wondered whether protects against cell death through suppressing RIP1 activation.
these two chaperones might also have distinct clients. This ques- In part, this mechanism appears to involve Hsp70-mediated
tion became possible to address, thanks to the recent develop- stabilization of the E3 ubiquitin ligases of RIP1, such as c-IAPs
64 Mol Cancer Res; 16(1) January 2018 Molecular Cancer Research
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Hsp70 Inhibition Activates Cell Death
Figure 6.
JG-98 activity requires both apoptosis
and necroptosis. A, Inhibition of
necroptosis alone does not restore
growth of cells treated with JG-98.
Cells were pretreated with NSA (20
mmol/L) for 1 hour prior to addition of
compounds. Error, SEM. B, Inhibition
of both apoptosis and necroptosis is
necessary to fully suppress JG-98
activity. Cells were pretreated with
both 40 mmol/L z-VAD.fmk and 20
mmol/L NSA for 1 hour prior to addition
of compounds. Cell growth was
determined by three independent
MTT assays performed in
quintuplicate. , P < 0.05; , P < 0.01;
, P < 0.001; ns, not significant. C,
Jurkat cells were pretreated with
z-VAD.fmk (40 mmol/L), NSA, both,
or necrostatin-1 for 1 hour prior to
addition of JG-98 (10 mmol/L).
Inactivation of both apoptosis and
necroptosis was necessary to prevent
activity. Cell viability was determined
by Trypan blue exclusion. Results are
the average of three independent
experiments performed in triplicate.
and XIAP (see Fig. 5). Importantly, we found that the kinetics of key upstream "hub" of multiple cell death pathways. Indeed, our
cell death correlate better with loss of these E3 ligases than with results suggest that, at least in MDA-MB-231 and Jurkat cells, this
the turnover of the classical Hsp90 clients, such as Raf-1. This mechanism might be particularly important because RIP1 knock-
result could be particularly important for the future of Hsp70 down or cotreatment with necrostatin was sufficient to completely
inhibitor development, as these E3 ligases might be biomarkers suppress JG-980 s activity. However, many important mysteries
for Hsp70 engagement. Again, an analogy to Hsp90 is illuminat- remain. For example, we observed that cell death in response to
ing because loss of the Hsp90 clients, such as Raf-1 and Akt, is Hsp70 inhibitor was independent of Bcl-xL, and it was coupled
often used to estimate engagement of that target. Another mech- with an unusual relationship to cytochrome c release. Further-
anism of Hsp70-mediated cell survival appeared to involve sup- more, it has been shown that RIP1 itself is a client of Hsp90 (48)
pression of RIP1/3 amyloid formation. Specifically, we found that and that Hsp90 inhibitors can impact necroptosis in fibrosarcoma
treatment with JG-98 or other Hsp70 inhibitors relieved this cells (49). Thus, it seems compelling to envision that Hsp90 and
suppression and allowed RIP1 oligomers to form (see Fig. 7). In Hsp70 may cooperate in suppressing the RIP1 pathway, in a
retrospect, this finding might have been expected, based on the currently unknown way. It is even possible that combinations
widespread role of Hsp70 in preventing amyloid formation (47). of Hsp70 and Hsp90 inhibitors could be synergistic in this setting.
Although this mechanism has been best described in the neuro- Finally, this work may accelerate the search for drug candidates
degenerative disease literature, it seems logical that it would also that target Hsp70. On the basis of expression data, biochemical
play this part in cancer. studies and knockdowns, members of the Hsp70 family appear to
Hsp70 has been linked to a wide number of cell survival be compelling, potential drug targets (50, 51). However, progress
aspects. We hypothesize that some of these activities might be has been slowed by lack of mechanistic knowledge. Our results are
consolidated and understood through the functions on RIP1, a potentially important in that context because they suggest that IAP
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Srinivasan et al.
Figure 7.
Hsp70 limits RIP1/3 oligomerization. A, JG-98 toxicity does not depend on TNF signaling. MDA-MB-231 cells were pretreated with Enbrel (5 mg/mL) for 1 hour prior to
addition of compounds. Viability was determined by MTT assay. Results are the average of three independent experiments performed in quintuplicate. Error,
SEM. , P < 0.01. B, JG-98 does not induce formation of a RIP1–caspase-8 complex. MDA-MB-231 cells were treated for 24 hours with indicated compounds.
SM-164 was used at 100 nmol/L. C, Treatment with JG-98 (10 mmol/L) favored formation of a high molecular mass oligomer of RIP1 and a reduction of RIP3.
Cotreatment with z-VAD-fmk exacerbated this effect. Necrostatin could block the effects of JG-98. Results are representative of experiments performed
in triplicate. D, Treatment with 17-DMAG or bortezomib (BTZ) did not change RIP1 oligomerization.
family members may be biomarkers of Hsp70 inhibition. If that Authors' Contributions
finding is found to be robust across many cell types and by Conception and design: S.R. Srinivasan, L.C. Cesa, X. Li, J.E. Gestwicki
different groups, it would be expected to boost efforts to discover, Development of methodology: S.R. Srinivasan, H. Shao
optimize, and deploy clinical candidates to test the central Acquisition of data (provided animals, acquired and managed patients, pro-
vided facilities, etc.): S.R. Srinivasan, L.C. Cesa, X. Li, O. Julien, H. Shao, I. Maillard,
hypothesis of Hsp70 as an anticancer target. M. Zhuang, J. Chung
Analysis and interpretation of data (e.g., statistical analysis, biostatistics,
Disclosure of Potential Conflicts of Interest computational analysis): S.R. Srinivasan, L.C. Cesa, X. Li, O. Julien, M. Zhuang,
No potential conflicts of interest were disclosed. H. Shao, J.E. Gestwicki
66 Mol Cancer Res; 16(1) January 2018 Molecular Cancer Research
Downloaded from mcr.aacrjournals.org on March 8, 2021. © 2018 American Association for Cancer Research.Published OnlineFirst September 28, 2017; DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.MCR-17-0408
Hsp70 Inhibition Activates Cell Death
Writing, review, and/or revision of the manuscript: S.R. Srinivasan, L.C. Cesa, The authors would like to thank the members of the Gestwicki and Duckett
X. Li, H. Shao, C.S. Duckett, J.E. Gestwicki laboratories for assistance. MAL3-101 was supplied by Jeff Brodsky (U. Pittsburgh).
Administrative, technical, or material support (i.e., reporting or organizing
data, constructing databases): S.R. Srinivasan, The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the pay-
Study supervision: J.E. Gestwicki, J.A. Wells, C.S. Duckett ment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked advertise-
ment in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.
Acknowledgments
Funding for this work was provided by the NIH (NS059690) and the Received July 27, 2017; revised September 10, 2017; accepted September 22,
University of Michigan's Comprehensive Cancer Center (CA046592). 2017; published OnlineFirst September 28, 2017.
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Heat Shock Protein 70 (Hsp70) Suppresses RIP1-Dependent
Apoptotic and Necroptotic Cascades
Sharan R. Srinivasan, Laura C. Cesa, Xiaokai Li, et al.
Mol Cancer Res 2018;16:58-68. Published OnlineFirst September 28, 2017.
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