Generating Teaching Effectiveness: The Role of Job-Embedded Professional Learning in Teacher Evaluation
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Generating Teaching Effectiveness:
M AY 2 0 1 2
The Role of Job-Embedded
Professional Learning in
Teacher Evaluation
Research & Policy BriefA Research & Policy Brief Generating Teaching Effectiveness: The Role of Job-Embedded Professional Learning in Teacher Evaluation May 2012 Jane G. Coggshall, Ph.D., National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality Claudette Rasmussen, Great Lakes East Comprehensive Center Amy Colton, Ph.D., Learning Forward of Michigan Jessica Milton, National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality Catherine Jacques, National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality
CONTENTS
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Federal Policy on Teacher Evaluation and Professional Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Research on How Teachers Learn Best . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Job-Embedded Professional Learning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Learner-Centered Professional Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Knowledge-Centered Professional Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Community-Centered Professional Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Assessment-Centered Professional Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Professional Learning in Teacher Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Evaluation Promotes Learning Through Shared Understanding of Effective Teaching . . . . . . . . . 7
Evaluation Promotes Learning Through Evidence-Based Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Evaluation Promotes Learning Through the Assessment of Professional Learning and
Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Essential Conditions for Professional Learning in Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Practical Examples of Evaluation Systems That Promote Professional Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26Research & Policy Brief 1
INTRODUCTION FEDERAL POLICY ON
State and district leaders across the country TEACHER EVALUATION
are working intensely to respond to legislation
calling for revised teacher evaluation systems AND PROFESSIONAL
that incorporate multiple measures of student
learning and teacher practice. Whether through
LEARNING
strengthened accountability or more formative The $4.5 billion federal grant program, Race to
support, the primary goal of this work is the the Top, set in motion a host of state and local
continuous improvement of teaching and policies, requiring educators to develop and
learning. To meet this goal, teacher evaluation implement rigorous teacher evaluation systems
systems need to be designed and implemented that assess teacher effectiveness using
with teacher learning and development at student learning as at least one of the multiple
their core, rather than appended later as an measures. The intent of such evaluation
afterthought. Professional development is systems is to help fulfill the Obama
regularly associated with the “results” of administration’s priority of ensuring great
evaluation, instead of recognized as an integral teachers and leaders in our nation’s schools by
part of the evaluation process itself. Thus, casting light on the wide variation in teacher
the power of evaluation to generate greater effectiveness within and between schools and
teaching effectiveness is severely diminished. to help school leaders make better-warranted
personnel decisions (i.e., compensation,
The purpose of this Research & Policy Brief
promotion, tenure, and dismissal decisions)
is to support the thinking and efforts of state
based on teacher performance data.
and district leaders who are designing and
implementing evaluation systems that not only Lost in the clamor generated by these policies
measure teaching effectiveness but generate is the equal weight that Race to the Top
it. The brief begins by describing the federal developers placed on requiring grantees to
policy changes that animate this work. It then use evaluation to inform decisions regarding
highlights the research on how teachers learn “developing teachers and principals, including
best, specifically how teachers learn from by providing relevant coaching, induction, and/
evaluation to generate increased teaching or professional development” (U.S. Department
effectiveness. It also provides guidance on of Education, 2010, Sec. D[2]iv[a]) as well as
how to assess teachers’ engagement in other personnel decisions. Moreover, it required
learning1 and collaboration to incentivize that winning states ensure that participating
teachers’ participation in job-embedded districts “conduct annual evaluations of
professional learning as well as to recognize teachers and principals that include timely and
and account for teachers’ commitment to constructive feedback [and] as part of such
continuous improvement. Finally, the brief evaluation provide teachers and principals with
concludes with a description of the essential data on student growth for their students,
conditions for this important work. classes, and schools” (U.S. Department of
Education, 2010, Sec. D[2]iii).
1
In this brief, we refer to these activities as job-embedded professional learning rather than job-embedded professional development as we have
in other TQ Center resources to underscore that a shift is taking place in how experts and practitioners think about the kinds of activities that shape
and improve teacher knowledge and practice. For a longer discussion of the differences, see Coggshall (2012).2 Research & Policy Brief
Recognition of the need for evidence-based and support systems that: will be used for
feedback on teacher practice to enhance continual improvement of instruction; … [and]
teacher learning and effectiveness is also a provide clear, timely, and useful feedback,
common thread among the state policies that including feedback that identifies needs and
arose in response to Race to the Top. For guides professional development….” It further
example, in Louisiana, state code mandates specifies that states adopt guidelines for these
that each teacher, in collaboration with his or systems and districts develop and implement
her evaluator, develop a professional growth systems that are consistent with those
plan that is designed to assist teachers guidelines (U.S. Department of Education,
in meeting the Louisiana standards for 2012, pp. 18–19). So far, 37 states and the
effectiveness (HB 1033[Act 54], Sec. 3902[2] District of Columbia have applied for a waiver,
[a]). In Massachusetts, regulations specify that indicating their intent to meet the previously
the districts’ teacher evaluation cycles include outlined specifications.
goal setting and the development of an
Although the federal and state policies and
educator plan based on teacher evaluation
associated guidance continue to refer to
results that would provide them with feedback
teacher learning as “professional development”
for improvement, professional growth, and
rather than “job-embedded professional
leadership (603 CMR 35.00).
learning,” the spirit of the policies is clearly
Moreover, the $4 billion School Improvement directed toward harnessing teacher evaluation
Grant (SIG) program specifies that job-embedded for the continuous improvement of teaching
professional development be “aligned with the effectiveness through the provision of evidence-
school’s comprehensive instructional program based feedback to teachers.
and designed with school staff” for teachers in
turnaround and transformation schools (SEA
Priorities in Awarding School Improvement
Grants, 2010, p. 66366). SIG guidance RESEARCH ON HOW
documents emphasize job-embedded
professional development that focuses on
TEACHERS LEARN BEST
“understanding what and how students are Practice, of course, should be guided by
learning and on how to address students’ research as well as policy. Unfortunately,
learning needs, including reviewing student research on how teachers learn and the best
work and achievement data and collaboratively ways to educate them is a relatively young field,
planning, testing, and adjusting instructional which has developed in distressing isolation
strategies, formative assessments, and from research on teaching itself (Grossman &
materials based on such data”(U.S. Department McDonald, 2008). As such, we have relatively
of Education, 2011, p. 30). little theoretical grounding and less empirical
evidence of how teacher practice develops
In addition, the U.S. Department of Education’s along a continuum from novice to proficient to
Elementary and Secondary Education Act expert. In an attempt to begin to fill this gap,
waiver program provides flexibility for states Ball and Cohen (1999) propose a practice-
that commit to “develop, adopt, pilot, and based theory of professional learning that
implement, with the involvement of teachers argues essentially, that knowledge about
and principals, teacher and principal evaluation teaching must be learned in practiceResearch & Policy Brief 3
because “teaching occurs in particulars— is now being applied to performance in
particular students interacting with particular other areas such as surgery (Ericsson, 2007),
teachers over particular ideas in particular leadership (Ericsson, Prietula, & Cokely, 2007),
circumstances” (p. 10). Teachers, they argue, and teaching (Bronkhorst, Meijer, Koster, &
need to be able to learn to (p. 11): Vermunt, 2011; Dunn & Shriner, 1999;
yy “Size up a situation from moment to Marzano, 2011b).
moment,” learning what students are doing
Dunn and Shriner (1999) identified teaching
and thinking and how instruction is being
activities that meet Ericsson et al.’s (1993)
understood as classes unfold.
criteria2 for deliberate practice. These activities
yy Use this knowledge to improve their can include planning and preparation as well
practice, examining their instruction with as those that involve analyzing student
“care and some detachment, to challenge
performance and understanding through the
their own thinking, and to draw reasonable
use of assessments, graded written work and
conclusions.”
projects, or informal observations of student
yy “Operate experimentally,” making behavior. Joyce and Showers (2002) also
predictions about how students may discuss the need for guided practice of
respond to instruction, implementing the particular skills, either in simulated settings
instruction, collecting and analyzing or actual classrooms, to produce desired
evidence of the impact of the instruction,
changes in instruction:
and revising instruction based on that
analysis. How much practice is needed depends,
of course, on the complexity of the skill.
Through this iterative process of learning
To bring a teaching model of medium
from practice, teaching improves. However,
complexity under control requires 20 or
as research on the development of expert
25 trials in the classroom over a period of
performance indicates, individuals improve
about 8–10 weeks. Simpler skills, or those
through routine experience and practice but
more similar to previously developed ones,
only up to a point (Ericsson, 2006; Ericsson,
will require less practice to develop and
Krampe, & Tesch-Römer, 1993). The development
consolidate than those that are more
of expert practice depends instead on many
complex or different from the teacher’s
hours of deliberate practice and what
current repertoire. (p. 74)
psychologists call “high-fidelity feedback.” As
Ericsson (2006) notes, “Deliberate practice Coaches can help design deliberate practice
presents performers with tasks that are tasks that focus on critical aspects of
initially outside their current realm of reliable practice and provide high-fidelity feedback
performance, yet can be mastered within hours by showing the learner relevant, timely, and
of practice by concentrating on critical aspects authentic evidence of the quality of his or her
and by gradually refining performance through performance. Teachers also must be given the
repetitions after feedback” (p. 694). Although time and support to reflect on that feedback;
Ericsson’s theories are based primarily Schön (1983) notes that teachers learn more
on studies of the development of expert from reflecting on their experiences than from
performance in sports, music, and chess, their engagement in the experiences.
the concept of the utility of deliberate practice
* These criteria, according to Dunn and Shriner (1999) include: “(a) teachers should perceive the behaviors as highly relevant to improving teaching
effectiveness, (b) they should acknowledge that considerable effort is required to initiate and maintain the behaviors over time; (c) they should
perform the behaviors frequently, and (d) they need not find the behaviors highly enjoyable in themselves” (p. 634).4 Research & Policy Brief
Moreover, Joyce and Showers (2002) Since How People Learn was published,
emphasize that teachers need to persist in the growing research base that focuses
practicing new skills. They argue, “In learning a specifically on the effectiveness of teacher
new skill, pushing oneself through the awkward professional development programs and
first trials is essential. In initial trials (when delivery methods continues to support these
performance is awkward and effectiveness conclusions. A growing consensus among
appears to decrease rather than increase) … researchers and practitioners suggests that
persistence seems to differentiate successful the most effective teacher learning activities
from unsuccessful learners” (p. 80). (i.e., those that improve instruction and, in
turn, student achievement) involve forms
In the book, How People Learn: Brain, Mind, of job-embedded professional learning. For
Experience, and School, the National Research a review including examples, see Croft,
Council describes a typology of learning Coggshall, Dolan, & Powers (2010).
environments that may support practice-based
teacher learning including deliberate practice
(Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). Based
on case studies of teacher learning, the council JOB-EMBEDDED
concludes that teachers learn better when
environments are more: PROFESSIONAL
yy Learner-centered. Learning environments LEARNING
that build on the individual strengths,
interests, and needs of the learners (in this Research has shown that one-time workshops
case, teachers) better enable them to learn; that are typically outside the context of a school
this also may be termed personalized or seldom align with ongoing practice and do not
differentiated learning environments. reliably lead to improvements in teaching and
yy Knowledge-centered. Learning learning (Loucks-Horsley & Matsumoto, 1999).
environments that focus on discipline- Job-embedded professional learning, on the
specific content knowledge for teaching, other hand, refers to teacher learning that
rather than focusing on generic pedagogical (Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 1995; Hawley
approaches (i.e., cooperative learning & Valli, 1999; Hirsh, 2009):
groups). Learning opportunities should help yy Is grounded in day-to-day teaching practice.
teachers understand their subject matter
yy Occurs regularly.
more deeply and flexibly, including how to
teach the particular subject matter well yy Consists of teachers analyzing students’
(which may involve learning about learning and finding solutions to immediate
cooperative grouping strategies). problems of practice.
yy Community-centered. Learning yy Is aligned with student standards, school
environments that involve norms such curricula, and school improvement goals.
as collaboration, learning, and inquiry
As such, job-embedded professional learning
also support teacher learning.
is more likely to be learner centered,
yy Assessment-centered. Learning knowledge centered, community centered,
environments that provide opportunities and assessment centered than other forms
for teachers to test their understanding of professional development.
by trying out new approaches and receiving
feedback to better enable teacher learning.Research & Policy Brief 5
Learner-Centered Darling-Hammond, & Adamson, 2010). To
achieve positive change in educator practice,
Professional Learning teachers need opportunities to observe, model,
High-quality, job-embedded professional learning and practice new and effective strategies in
is likely to be learner-centered to support content instruction. Furthermore, reflective,
teachers’ active engagement in sustained ongoing professional inquiry provides insight into
professional learning activities that are the concrete challenges involved in teaching and
specifically designed and intended to improve learning specific subject matter (Garet et al.,
instructional effectiveness based on formative 2001; Saxe, Gearhart, & Nasir, 2001).
feedback (Bronkhorst et al., 2011; Palmer,
Stough, Burdenski, & Gonzales, 2005). To
Community-Centered
promote deliberate practice in teaching,
teachers need to learn how to analyze and Professional Learning
reflect on their students’ learning and the High-quality, job-embedded professional learning
changes they may need to make to improve is most often community-centered. As adult
the impact of their instruction. Continuous learners, educators need opportunities to
professional learning should be connected to collaborate with and learn from other
specific challenges teachers experience in their knowledgeable teachers and school colleagues
classroom and intentionally integrated into the in meaningful and concrete ways. Teacher
workday and relationships of educators. Through evaluation can be a tool for identifying effective
this approach, collective responsibility and teachers within a school who can serve as
shared leadership for improved professional teacher leaders capable of sharing their practice
and student learning can be achieved (Darling- and facilitating professional learning.
Hammond, Wei, Andree, Richardson, &
Orphanos, 2009; Desimone, Porter, Garet, One structure for collaboration, professional
Yoon, & Birman, 2002; Putnam & Borko, 2000). learning communities or site-based teams,
provides supportive interactions for teachers to
assume a variety of leadership roles and
Knowledge-Centered encourage professional communication about
Professional Learning student learning, shared values, innovative
ideas, and instructional practice (Louis,
High-quality, job-embedded professional learning
Dretzke, & Wahlstrom, 2010). Emerging
is likely to be knowledge-centered because in the
research has shown that when professional
analysis of student learning, teachers refine
learning communities have a common focus on
their understanding of the content and how their
student learning and purposeful sharing of
students understand the content. Research
instructional practice, teachers adopt
findings associate positive change in educator
pedagogical practices that improve student
practice with professional learning activities that
learning experiences (Louis et al., 2010; Louis
focus not only on curriculum content but the
& Marks, 1998; Miller, Goddard, Goddard,
teaching and learning of that content (Blank &
Larsen, & Jacob, 2010; Saunders,
de las Alas, 2009). Creating rigorous learning
Goldenberg, & Gallimore, 2009). Recent
experiences for a diverse student population
studies indicate that teacher collaboration
requires teachers to deepen their understanding
increases collective efficacy, improves
of the specific curriculum content they teach and
attitudes toward teaching, and fosters a greater
acquire the technical and pedagogical skills they
understanding of students (Miller et al., 2010).
need to teach that content effectively (Garet,
Porter, Desimone, Birman, & Yoon, 2001; Wei,6 Research & Policy Brief
Assessment-Centered Based on what is known about teacher learning
and evaluation, the wind turbine in Figure 1
Professional Learning depicts the three primary ways teacher
Finally, high-quality, job-embedded professional evaluation has the potential to generate
learning is likely to be assessment-centered. teaching effectiveness. Well-designed and
Key principles of teacher assessment include well-implemented aligned evaluation systems:
providing opportunities for feedback and revision yy Help teachers and school leaders develop a
and ensuring that what is assessed is congruent common understanding of the contours of
with a teacher’s learning goals (Bransford et al., effective practice and what the expectations
2000). The ability to analyze both the process are for their performance.
and impact of one’s instruction and make yy Provide sufficient evidence-based feedback
modifications based on that analysis is not only to teachers to help them reflect on and
an essential aspect of instruction (Raudenbush, improve their practice.
2008) but an important part of learning and yy Measure and account for teachers’ learning
improvement (Ball & Cohen, 1999; Learning and collaboration.
Forward, 2011; National Board for Professional Generating Teaching Effectiveness:
Teaching Standards, 1987). TheResiding at the hub ofProfessional
Role of Job-Embedded this system, job-embedded
Learning in Teacher Evaluation
professional learning supports teacher learning
To learn and improve instruction, teachers throughout the evaluation process.
need to apply and adapt new ways of
teaching in the classroom, “testing” them to
see whether they work. Feedback on whether or Figure 1. Generating Teaching Effectiveness: The
Role of Job-Embedded Professional Learning in
not instructional practices are working can
Teacher Evaluation
come in the form of student learning data,
Practice
the teachers’ own observations of student
engagement, observations from a peer or a
Effective
coach, a video-taped record of the practice,
rstanding of
discussion within a professional learning
ility Pro
community, or the results of a formal ab fes
unt Shared Unde
si
o
evaluation. Considering the various forms of
c
on
Ac
al
Gro
instructional feedback available, teacher
wth
analysis and reflection should be a shared and Job-
Embedded
collaborative effort. Professional
Learning
n
ratio Evi
llabo den
ing & Co ce-
f Learn Ba
sed
ures o
Meas Fee
dba
PROFESSIONAL ck
LEARNING IN
Aligned Evaluation System
TEACHER EVALUATION
Well-designed and well-implemented aligned
evaluation systems, as described in Goe,
Biggers, and Croft (2012), provide assessment- Generating Teaching
Effectiveness
centered environments that have the potential
to help teachers learn and improve. Because
these evaluation systems are so new, empirical
evidence on how they work to improve practice
is slim.Research & Policy Brief 7
The following subsections provide a review to effective teaching. Professional teaching
of the research and practice on the following standards and frameworks, such as the InTASC
three ways that evaluation can increase Standards, the National Board for Professional
teaching effectiveness: Teaching Standards, or Charlotte Danielson’s
yy Establish a shared understanding of Framework for Teaching, seek to clearly
effective practice. describe teaching excellence in all of its facets
and complexity and provide high but achievable
yy Produce evidence-based feedback.
goals for teacher practice. Moreover, standards
yy Assess learning and collaboration.
provide a common language for teachers and
This brief contains descriptions of one state- leaders to talk about instruction so that all
level and two district-level efforts to design and stakeholders have a shared understanding
implement teacher evaluation systems that seek of what effective practice is and looks like
to put job-embedded professional learning at the (Danielson, 2011a; Sartain, Steoelinga, &
core: The Teacher Evaluation and Development Brown, 2011).
(TED) System for Districts in New York State,
In turn, high-quality evaluation systems
the Montgomery County Public Schools
use multiple measures (e.g., classroom
(MCPS) Teacher Professional Growth System
observation rubrics, assessments of student
(TPGS), and the District of Columbia Public
learning, student survey results) to capture
Schools (DCPS) IMPACT evaluation system.
the extent to which teachers meet the
standards and their students meet their
Evaluation Promotes Learning learning goals. These measures and
associated metrics ideally further clarify
Through Shared Understanding the goals for teaching and help teachers
of Effective Teaching understand the steps to achieve those goals.
Well-designed and well-implemented aligned Many sets of teaching standards include
evaluation systems (i.e., those that enhance standards regarding teachers’ professional
teaching and learning) have professional responsibilities and the expectation that
teaching standards (which are aligned with teachers engage in professional learning,
student learning standards) that describe the including learning from the results of their
performances, knowledge, and dispositions practice and collaborating with their colleagues
that comprise excellence in teaching (Goe, to increase their effectiveness. Table 1 contains
Holdheide, & Miller, 2011; Goe et al., 2012). some examples of these standards.
These standards identify what is valued in a
school system and the factors that contribute8 Research & Policy Brief
Table 1. Teaching Standards: Professional Learning Examples From Existing Frameworks
InTASC Model Core Teaching Standards (CCSSO)
Standard 9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice. The teacher engages in ongoing professional learning
and uses evidence to continually evaluate his/her practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and actions
on others (learners, families, other professionals, and the community), and adapts practice to meet the needs of
each learner.
Standard 10: Leadership and Collaboration. The teacher seeks appropriate leadership roles and opportunities
to take responsibility for student learning, to collaborate with learners, families, colleagues, other school
professionals, and community members to ensure learner growth, and to advance the profession.
Source: Council of Chief State School Officers, 2011, pp. 18–19
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards Five Core Propositions
Proposition 4: Teachers Think Systematically About Their Practice and Learn From Experience.
yy NBCTs model what it means to be an educated person – they read, they question, they create and they are
willing to try new things.
yy They are familiar with learning theories and instructional strategies and stay abreast of current issues in
American education.
yy They critically examine their practice on a regular basis to deepen knowledge, expand their repertoire of
skills, and incorporate new findings into their practice.
Proposition 5: Teachers Are Members of Learning Communities.
yy NBCTs collaborate with others to improve student learning.
yy They are leaders and actively know how to seek and build partnerships with community groups and
businesses.
yy They work with other professionals on instructional policy, curriculum development, and staff development.
yy They can evaluate school progress and the allocation of resources in order to meet state and local
education objectives.
yy They know how to work collaboratively with parents to engage them productively in the work of the school.
Source: National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, 1987
Teaching as Leadership Framework (Teach For America)
Continuously Increase Effectiveness. Reflecting constantly on the pace of student progress toward the goals,
highly effective teachers seek to improve their instructional practices to maximize student learning.
yy Gauge progress and gaps.
yy Identify contributing student actions.
yy Identify contributing teacher actions.
yy Identify underlying factors.
yy Access relevant meaningful learning experiences.
yy Adjust course.
Source: Teach For America, n.d.Research & Policy Brief 9
Charlotte Danielson’s Framework for Teaching
4a. Reflecting on Teaching
Distinguished Practice: Teacher makes a thoughtful and accurate assessment of a lesson’s effectiveness
and the extent to which it achieved its instructional outcomes, citing many specific examples from the
lesson and weighing the relative strengths of each. Drawing on an extensive repertoire of skills, teacher
offers specific alternative actions, complete with the probable success of different courses of action (p. 75).
4d. Participating in a Professional Community
Distinguished Practice: Teacher’s relationships with colleagues are characterized by mutual support and
cooperation, with the teacher taking initiative in assuming leadership among the faculty. Teacher volunteers to
participate in school events and district projects making a substantial contribution, and assuming a leadership
role in at least one aspect of school or district life (p. 87).
4e. Growing and Developing Professionally
Distinguished Practice: Teacher seeks out opportunities for professional development and makes a
systematic effort to conduct action research. Teacher seeks out feedback on teaching from both supervisors
and colleagues. Teacher initiates important activities to contribute to the profession (p. 91).
Source: Danielson, 2011b
Robert Marzano’s Causal Teacher Evaluation Model
Domain 4: Collegiality and Professionalism
Promoting a Positive Environment
1. Promoting positive interactions about colleagues
2. Promoting positive interactions about students and parents
Promoting Exchange of Ideas and Strategies
1. Seeking mentorship for areas of need or interest
2. Mentoring other teachers and sharing ideas and strategies
Source: Marzano, 2011a, p. 4
District of Columbia Public Schools
Commitment to the School Community
CSC5 Teacher consistently collaborates with colleagues to improve student achievement in an
effective manner.
Teacher extends impact by proactively seeking out collaborative opportunities with other teachers and/or by
dedicating a truly exceptional amount of time and energy towards promoting effective instructional collaboration.
Source: District of Columbia Public Schools, 2011a, pp. 46–4710 Research & Policy Brief
New York State Teaching Standards
Standard VI: Professional Responsibilities and Collaboration
Teachers demonstrate professional responsibility and engage relevant stakeholders to maximize
student growth, development, and learning.
Element VI.2: Teachers engage and collaborate with colleagues and the community to develop and sustain
a common culture that supports high expectations for student learning.
Performance Indicators:
a. Teachers support and promote the shared school and district vision and mission to support school
improvement.
b. Teachers participate actively as part of an instructional team.
c. Teachers share information and best practices with colleagues to improve practice.
d. Teachers demonstrate an understanding of the school as an organization within a historical, cultural,
political, and social context.
e. Teachers collaborate with others both within and outside the school to support student growth,
development, and learning.
f. Teachers collaborate with the larger community to access and share learning resources.
Standard VII: Professional Growth
Teachers set informed goals and strive for continuous professional growth.
Element VII.1: Teachers reflect on their practice to improve instructional effectiveness and guide
professional growth.
Performance Indicators:
a. Teachers examine and analyze formal and informal evidence of student learning.
b. Teachers recognize the effect of their prior experiences and possible biases on their practice.
c. Teachers use acquired information to identify personal strengths and weaknesses and to plan professional
growth.
Element VII.2: Teachers set goals for, and engage in, ongoing professional development needed to
continuously improve teaching competencies.
Performance Indicators:
a. Teachers set goals to enhance personal strengths and address personal weaknesses in teaching practice.
b. Teachers engage in opportunities for professional growth and development.
Element VII.3: Teachers communicate and collaborate with students, colleagues, other professionals, and
the community to improve practice.
Performance Indicators:
a. Teachers demonstrate a willingness to give and receive constructive feedback to improve professional
practice.
b. Teachers participate actively as part of an instructional team to improve professional practice.
c. Teachers receive, reflect, and act on constructive feedback from others in an effort to improve their own
professional practice.
Element VII.4: Teachers remain current in their knowledge of content and pedagogy by utilizing professional
resources.
Performance Indicators:
a. Teachers benefit from, contribute to, or become members of appropriate professional organizations.
b. Teachers access and use professional literature and other professional development opportunities to
increase their understanding of teaching and learning. Teachers expand their knowledge of currentResearch & Policy Brief 11
Montgomery County Public Schools
Standard V: Teachers are committed to continuous improvement and professional development.
Performance Criteria:
a. The teacher continually reflects upon his/her practice in promoting student learning and adjusts
instruction accordingly.
b. The teacher draws upon educational research and research-based strategies in planning instructional
content and delivery.
c. The teacher is an active member of professional learning communities.
Source: Montgomery County Public Schools, 2011, p. A-8
Job-Embedded Professional Learning One way for teachers to begin learning the
to Support Shared Understandings expectations, standards, and metrics of the
of Effectiveness evaluation system is for them to use the
standards and evaluation rubrics in a self-
One way to harness the power of an aligned assessment, in which they describe the extent
evaluation system is to provide adequate and to which they believe their current teaching
effective job-embedded professional learning practice meets or exceeds those standards.
opportunities for teachers to learn the standards If done thoughtfully, teachers can familiarize
and metrics that make up the system. Learning themselves with the goals of the evaluation.
the standards can be a challenge, yet the entire Teacher self-assessment is often the first step
evaluation process hinges on all stakeholders in an evaluation cycle or process. For example,
having a thorough understanding of the in the North Carolina Teacher Evaluation
standards. Some of the more commonly used Process, teachers are asked to complete a
frameworks for classroom observations include self-assessment using the system rubric at the
multiple domains and indicators within those beginning of the year. Evaluators do not collect
domains. For example, the Danielson Framework the self-assessment, but it is used in the
for Teaching has 4 domains with 22 components development of a teachers’ professional
and 76 elements across those domains. The development plan and is discussed during
Marzano teacher evaluation framework has preobservation and postobservation
4 domains and 60 indicators. The InTASC conferences (Mid-continent Research for
standards, which are used as a basis for many Education and Learning, 2009). (See also the
state certification systems, have 10 standards Practical Example of the TED System on page
with a total of 75 example performance 22 for its approach to teacher self-reflection).
indicators, 56 indicators of essential knowledge,
and 43 indicators of critical dispositions across Goal setting using the standards is another
those 10 standards. Whatever comprehensive helpful tool for understanding the expectations.
framework is used, it will take time for those Teachers, usually in collaboration with their
new to the system to learn it because they will principal, may choose two or three standards
be unlikely to have learned it in their teacher on which to focus their improvement efforts
preparation programs. throughout the year. Even when a complex
framework is well articulated, teachers may12 Research & Policy Brief
need support to break the performance the lesson (here they are)—what kinds of
standard down further into tasks that they can questions did you ask? Where might you place
practice deliberately and for which they can yourself on the rubric regarding the use of
receive feedback for improvement. One effective questioning techniques?”
approach is for teachers to video record their
Providing feedback in this way changes the
teaching practice as part of their self-
nature of the conversation from a “telling”
assessment, response to feedback, or work
of one’s practice to an evidence-based
toward meeting professional practice goals.
professional conversation in which the teacher
Teachers who observe their own practice are
has the opportunity to reflect on and self-
able to set goals based on their actual
assess his or her practice. This kind of learner-
performance and directly connect the
centered conversation is more likely to lead to
standards to their everyday work.
improvement in practice. As Garmston and
Wellman (2009) argue, dialogue between an
Evaluation Promotes Learning evaluator and a teacher is ideally reflective and
Through Evidence-Based leads to shared meaning and understanding.
Feedback However, even in a well-designed evaluation
system, the feedback that teachers receive
Well-designed and well-implemented aligned
can vary. As a study of a pilot evaluation
evaluation systems that generate teaching
system in Chicago revealed, although teachers
effectiveness ensure that teachers receive
and principals reported that the new evaluation
sufficient, timely, and accurate evidence-based
system led them to have conversations that
feedback on their practice to make positive
were more focused on important matters of
changes. Feedback is formative and highly
instruction than their previous non-standards-
focused with the potential to shape teaching
based system, the researchers found that
(Goe et al., 2012; Hill & Herlihy, 2011).
the feedback conversations tended to be
In most teacher evaluation systems, the dominated by the principal. Only 10 percent
opportunity for feedback tends to occur as of the questions principals asked of teachers
the evaluator, usually a principal or teacher reflected high expectations for teachers or
leader, and a teacher engage in professional required deep reflection about instructional
conversations during a preobservation or practice (Sartain et al., 2011). Rarely did
postobservation conference that is part of a the principal or teacher push each other’s
formal evaluation process. These conversations interpretations of the situation.
typically focus on teaching with respect to
Nevertheless, basing the conversations on
the evaluator’s assessment of the teacher’s
evidence collected during the observation
practice using the evaluation standards and
helped reduce subjectivity and improved
tools. The evidence the principal collects during
teachers’ ability to reflect on their practice:
an observation (e.g., the number of students
who were doodling in their notebooks, the One administrator explained that having
questions the teacher asked, or the percentage evidence made “it easier to talk about
of time the students spent in non-accountable the good and the bad.” Evidence-based
talk) is the basis for these conversations. For observations also helped to remove some
example, rather than the principal telling the of the emotion from the evaluation process.
teacher, “You only asked lower-order thinking When talking to teachers who were unhappy
questions,” the principals can say, “I wrote with their ratings, or who had received
down all the questions you asked during Unsatisfactory ratings, one administratorResearch & Policy Brief 13
said, “You will have enough evidence to evaluators on deliberate practice of skills,
support what you’re saying.” Evidence- which can lead to the development of expert
based feedback during postconferences performance (Ericsson, 2006). Thus, teachers
gave teachers “the opportunity to look at need other opportunities for job-embedded
themselves and what their performance truly professional learning and feedback.
looked like.” (Sartain et al., 2011, p. 23)
Although the evidence-based feedback teachers
Teachers need to be supported by their receive through the evaluation process from
principals or other instructional leaders in their principal or evaluator can be a powerful
analyzing and reflecting on their own practice learning experience, evaluators are not the
and learning from feedback. Supporting only ones who can provide feedback. More
teachers in this way is not a simple skill frequent and thus potentially more educative
for principals or teacher leaders to learn. evidence-based feedback can come from
Evaluator training tends to focus on how to peers in a professional learning community,
collect appropriate evidence and make reliable from a trained coach or mentor, and from a
and valid judgments or ratings about the collaborative examination and reflection on
quality of teaching based on the evidence student work.
against the standard, rather than on how to
“Elbow coaching,” an approach in which coaches
engage in professional conversations that
teach elbow-to-elbow with the teacher in the
facilitate teacher learning from the evidence
classroom, is an emerging method for providing
and those judgments (Hill & Herlihy, 2011).
the immediate feedback that teachers need to
Focusing on data collection and ratings is
improve their practice. In this model, the coach
difficult enough (e.g., Bill & Melinda Gates
models a practice or teaches five minutes or
Foundation, 2012), but focusing exclusively on
so of a lesson, so the teacher can see excellent
those factors limits the power of evaluation to
practice in action (Johnson, 2012) and
generate greater teaching effectiveness.
immediately try it as he or she resumes teaching
More evaluation systems are beginning to provide the class. As Johnson notes, this “real-time,
training for their evaluators and instructional bite-sized” feedback is potentially more powerful
leaders in how to embed evidence-based than coaching sessions in which “after
feedback in professional conversations that observing a lesson, a coach might say to the
support reflection and self-assessment (See teacher, ‘now what I would have done is ….’”
Practical Examples on the TED System, Such coaching has an additional benefit to
Montgomery County Public Schools’ System, students because they receive instruction
and the IMPACT System on pages 22–25 for directly from expert teachers and the student-
varied approaches to such training). teacher ratio is reduced by half (National
Institute for Excellence in Teaching, 2012).
Job-Embedded Professional Learning Teachers in the TAP program are evaluated four
to Support Learning From Evidence- to six times per year, after which they engage in
Based Feedback a 40-minute postobservation conference during
which the teacher and instructional leader
The opportunities for observation and feedback
discuss “area of reinforcement” and one “area
in formal evaluation systems vary, occurring as
of refinement” tied to specific indicators on the
rarely as once every three years for tenured
TAP rubric (National Institute for Excellence in
teachers in some districts, to two or three times
Teaching, 2012). Still, TAP leaders recognize
per year in other districts, and as often as five
that to genuinely improve teaching, follow-up
times per year in a few districts (e.g., the District
coaching is needed to help teachers refine their
of Columbia). In short, teachers have limited
teaching practice in the targeted areas.
opportunities to receive feedback from14 Research & Policy Brief
Evaluation Promotes Learning colleagues in the following ways (Alter &
Coggshall, 2009):
Through the Assessment of
yy Analyzing the impact of their practice on
Professional Learning and student learning
Collaboration yy Engaging in reflection on their practice
Hill and Herlihy (2011) make a valid and yy Adapting their practice as a result of their
important point when they state, “the reform deep reflection
of the teacher evaluation system will see its yy Actively collaborating with colleagues in this
chief successes not through carrots and learning process
sticks, but through providing teachers with
information about their performance and In addition to taking these actions, teachers
means for improvement” (p. 5). However, one need to develop a disposition for ongoing
way to establish an expectation that teachers analysis of the impact of their instruction on
engage meaningfully in structured and student learning and the reflection on their
facilitated job-embedded professional learning practice in an effort to continuously increase
with the collective purpose of enhancing their effectiveness. As the research on teacher
student learning may be by measuring such learning implies, teachers need to develop a
engagement as part of teachers’ final habit of asking such questions as “How did my
evaluation “score.” instruction impact my students’ learning of this
content?” “What might I need to do next?” “How
Doing so in a way that promotes true learning might I improve upon this lesson in the future?”
rather than mere compliance will be a change “What more might I need to learn?” Then, they
for many evaluation systems. Despite the need need to adjust their practice based on what they
for teachers to learn in practice (as suggested have learned. These indicators of professional
by Ball & Cohen, 1999), as well as from learning are integral to achieving the levels of
deliberate practice (as suggested by Dunn & competency defined by established professional
Shriner, 1999 and Ericsson, 2006), most teaching standards (as shown in Table 1) and to
evaluation systems place little, if any, emphasis impact student learning.
on teachers’ responsibilities for professional
learning and collaboration. Even when such Sources of Evidence for
responsibilities are included as performance Measuring Learning
expectations (as shown in Table 1), the
collection and analysis of evidence of teachers’ There are several factors to consider when
continuous learning is rarely as rigorous as it selecting sources of evidence of teacher
is for other domains of practice. Including engagement in learning and collaboration. Goe
professional learning and collaboration in et al., and Croft (2012) offer five general
evaluation in a much more focused way could criteria to assist developers when making
provide the necessary impetus for districts to decisions about which measures to include in
establish collaborative cultures for continuous their evaluation systems (p. 6):
improvement and to institute the structures and yy “Measures are directly and explicitly aligned
supports necessary to support job-embedded with teaching standards. This alignment
professional learning. ensures that what is valued most is being
measured and what is expected is
Professionals take charge of their own growth unambiguous.
and development by constantly seeking to
yy “Measures include protocols and
strengthen teaching effectiveness and the
processes that teachers can examine
quality of their teaching and that of their
and comprehend. Evaluation that makesResearch & Policy Brief 15
sense to teachers will be more meaningful teacher’s strengths and weaknesses across
and have a greater impact. time and in different contexts. For example,
yy “Measures allow teachers to participate in evidence provided by the analysis of teacher
or co-construct the evaluation. Collecting artifacts also should be aligned with and
evidence on themselves encourages validated by different measures, such as the
reflection on practice and empowers conclusions and evidence provided in a
teachers to be proactive in their evaluation. classroom observation using a rubric (Clare
yy “Measures allow teachers opportunities & Aschbacher, 2001; Matsumura et al.,
to discuss the results with evaluators, 2006; New York State United Teachers,
administrators, colleagues, teacher 2011a, 2011b).
learning communities, mentors, and
Table 2 provides a summary of the measures
coaches. Active intellectual engagement
of professional learning and collaboration
leads to deeper learning.
that can be used in an evaluation system.
yy “Measures align with professional The following list of sources of evidence is
development offerings. The type of data
not intended to be exhaustive. Rather it
collected lends itself to informed
represents the sources most often cited in
professional development decisions.”
the literature and conducive to job-embedded
In addition to concerns about validity and professional learning (Danielson, 2011b; Goe
reliability, the selection of evidence also et al., 2008; Goe et al., 2011; Goe et al., 2012;
should be based on public credibility— Hillsborough County Public Schools, 2011;
teachers need to see the evidence as New York State United Teachers, 2011a,
reasonable and appropriate (Goe, Bell, 2011b; Peine, 2008). Examples from actual
& Little, 2008). The sources of evidence teacher evaluation systems are provided for
described in this section are potentially each source.
very credible. Each can be viewed and valued
as an integral element of the learning process
in which teachers are engaged. Each source
facilitates and evaluates at least one of the
skills of analysis, reflection, adaptation, and
ongoing collaboration, with some evaluating
more than one indicator.
Finally, no one piece of evidence can provide
all of the information needed to accurately
measure teacher effectiveness (Goe et al.,
2012). Using multiple measures of teacher
learning and collaboration can provide a
safeguard against false positives (i.e.,
instances in which teachers are able to
demonstrate what they are capable of but
not necessarily what they do every day).
Triangulation adds rigor to the evaluation by
providing a more holistic picture of a16 Research & Policy Brief
Table 2. Measuring Professional Learning and Collaboration
Indicators of Teacher Sources of Evidence/ Assessment of the Examples of Measures in
Learning and Documentation Evidence (Measurement) Use in Teacher Evaluation
Collaboration
Teachers analyze the yyActivity logs yyRubrics with scoring yyNewport News Public
impact of their practice yyArtifact analysis criteria Schools
on student learning. yyClassroom observations, yyStandards-based yyHillsborough Teacher
yyTeachers analyze what including preobservation template for collecting Evaluation Instrument
students’ performances and postobservation evidence yyPittsburgh RISE Rubric
suggest about their conferences yyProtocols with scoring yyTeacher Education and
teaching. yyPortfolios criteria Development (TED)
yyTeachers analyze the yyMontgomery County
effect of their Public Schools Teacher
professional learning on Professional Growth Plan
student learning. (MCPS TPGS )
yyTeacher and Student
Advancement (TAP)
Teachers reflect on their yyArtifact analysis yyRubrics with scoring yyTED
practice. yyWritten reflections as criteria yyMCPS TPGS
yyTeachers consider what part of a professional yyStandards-based yyHillsborough Teacher
they might do next based portfolio of evidence template for collecting Evaluation
on their analysis. yyProfessional growth evidence yyTAP
yyTeachers consider how to plans
make adjustments to
future instruction based
on their analyses.
Teachers adapt practices yyActivity logs yyRubrics with scoring yyTED
based on their yyArtifact analysis criteria yyMCPS TPGS
reflections. yyObservations yyRubrics with scoring yyTAP
yyTeachers adjust their yyPortfolios with logs, criteria
practices to meet the commentary, and artifact yyStandards-based
learning needs of all analysis template for collecting
students. evidence
yyProfessional growth
plans
Teachers actively engage yyArtifact analysis yyFrequency scales (did yyDistrict of Columbia
in collaboration. yyPortfolios with logs and not find this for activity IMPACT
yyTeachers actively commentary logs) yyMCPS TPGS
participate on teams yyRubrics with scoring
yyActivity logs• yyNewport News Public
and/or in professional criteria
yyObservations of Schools
learning communities. professional learning yyTED
yyTeachers maintain communities, coaching yyTAP
positive relationships sessions
with colleagues.Research & Policy Brief 17
Activity Logs. An activity log of teachers’ be focused on populating the activity log and
professional learning experiences and diverted from teaching. Finally, the use of activity
their involvement as members of learning logs as evidence assumes that what teachers
communities or instructional teams is one report is accurate and not fabricated or
source of evidence used to measure teachers’ enhanced. Triangulating results with artifacts
analysis, reflection, and collaboration. Logs helps corroborate teachers’ self-reports.
provide structure for documenting teachers’
Artifact Analysis. An artifact typically refers to
commitment to significant, ongoing professional
a product resulting from teachers’ work such
learning. A teacher’s log often reflects multiple
as lesson or unit plans, teacher assignments,
years of professional learning to document his
student work samples, teacher-created
or her commitment to continuous improvement.
assessments, scoring rubrics, and video clips or
Teachers might have numerous professional
slideshows. The artifact is usually collected and
learning experiences in a year, so they need to
analyzed by the teacher, and both the artifact
be very discerning in selecting what to include.
and analysis are shared with the evaluator. The
Teachers’ activity logs typically include artifact analysis can be designed to provide
detailed descriptions of their significant evidence of professional learning in terms of
learning opportunities, an analysis of the analysis, reflection, and alignment with teaching
significance of the new learning on their standards. In MCPS’s Teacher Professional
practice, and a summary of the impact of Growth System, several artifacts are listed as
their new practice on their students’ learning. possible sources of data beyond classroom
In addition, teachers also may be asked to observations for the evaluation of each standard
provide artifacts as validation of their (See Practical Examples).
participation in the activities (e.g., letters
Although the analysis of artifacts can be
from administrators indicating participation,
conducted by the individual teacher, pairs or
study team minutes) and the impact on their
groups of teachers can work collaboratively
practice (e.g., a newly developed resource, a
to complete the analysis. Little’s (2003)
lesson plan). (A richer description of artifacts
review of school-based initiatives that include
is provided in the following subsection).
examination of student work found that
The Newport News (Virginia) Public Schools’ analyzing student work in groups cultivates
second-year teacher evaluation system, for professional communities that are willing and
example, requires teachers to describe the able to inquire into practice. Matsumara and
professional development in which they Pascal (2003) support collaborative
participated and explain how it helped them professional learning based on classroom
meet their established growth goals as well assignments and corresponding student work
as how their learning impacted their students’ samples. According to Goe et al. (2012),
learning. Similarly, the TED system and MCPS classroom artifacts are a promising measure
TPGS ask teachers to log their professional that supports professional learning and can
development activities (See Practical Examples). be used to evaluate teacher effectiveness.
Although activity logs provide evidence of factors To help ensure validity and reliability, artifact
that affect teaching and that an evaluator may analysis should be guided by a structured
not be able to observe, they require considerable protocol or template that has been tested by
time for teachers to keep frequent and detailed several users. Protocols guide conversations,
accounts of their professional learning. State providing educators with a schedule and
and district leaders considering activity logs as structure for engaging in dialogue and offering
part of an evaluation system also should be formative feedback based on the analysis of
aware of the potential for teachers’ attention to and reflection on artifacts. Protocols alsoYou can also read
