Evidence Snapshot 2022 - Unhealthy food and drink marketing in Aotearoa New Zealand: Squarespace
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junkfoodfree.org Unhealthy food and drink marketing in Aotearoa New Zealand: Evidence Snapshot 2022
2 EVIDENCE SNAPSHOT 2022
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EVIDENCE SNAPSHOT 2022
Table of contents
Executive Summary 4
Unhealthy food and drink marketing in Aotearoa New Zealand:
Evidence Snapshot 2022 6
What is the issue? 7
Children and families are bombarded by unhealthy food and drink advertising 7
New Zealanders want change 7
The Children and Young People’s Advertising Code 8
What is the health and societal impact? 9
The health of NZ children 9
The societal impact: societal costs of excess weight 10
Why focus on children? 11
What is unhealthy food marketing and how does it work? 12
What is marketing? 12
What is unhealthy food and drink marketing? 13
How does marketing work? 14
What is the evidence in Aotearoa New Zealand? 16
NZ children see unhealthy food and drink marketing in many places
throughout the day 16
Children’s snacking behaviours 16
Product packaging 16
Outdoor advertising 17
Digital marketing 18
Television 20
Brands 20
Sponsorship 22
Policy implementation 22
What are the views of children, parents and caregivers? 23
What action is needed? 25
What principles should guide action? 25
What is the opposition? 26
Lessons from international best practice 28
What global action has been agreed? 28
What has been achieved internationally? 28
Problems with the current Children and Young People’s Advertising Code 30
What action is recommended for New Zealand? 31
Conclusion 32
Thank you 33
References 34
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EVIDENCE SNAPSHOT 2022
Executive Summary
Welcome to the 3rd edition of the evidence snapshot, an update
of the 2018 version to include additional recent evidence.
In the three years since, the evidence base
for protecting our children from unhealthy
food and drink marketing has grown stronger, Effective legislative policy that
however the updated Advertising Standards protects children from unhealthy
Authority Children and Young People’s food and drink marketing is
(CYPA) Code still offers little to no protection required.
to children.
This legislation should:
In line with te Tiriti o Waitangi and the United
Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, • protect children up to 18 years
every child has the right to grow up in an of age
environment that allows them to be healthy, no • cover all current and future types
matter where they live. However environments of marketing to which children
that promote and normalise unhealthy food are exposed
and drink over healthier options, as well as
factors such as poverty and food insecurity, • be based on a well-recognised
mean that for many children, eating healthy scientific nutrient- or food-based
foods is difficult. classification system such as
the World Health Organization’s
Children in Aotearoa New Zealand (hereafter Nutrient Profile Model to identify
NZ) are exposed to excessive levels of which products can and cannot
powerful unhealthy food and drink marketing be marketed
every day. It affects their food preferences and
eating behaviour, leading to a variety of health • be monitored, evaluated and
problems including increased dental caries, enforced by an independent body.
attention difficulties, emotional problems, and
increased body size. This can set children up
for a lifetime of adverse health-related and
social consequences and intergenerational
effects. We must put children before food
industry profits and act now to protect the
health and wellbeing of all children in NZ.
6
EVIDENCE SNAPSHOT 2022
Unhealthy food and
drink marketing in
Aotearoa New Zealand:
Evidence Snapshot 2022
7
EVIDENCE SNAPSHOT 2022
What is the issue?
Children and families are bombarded by Children living in more disadvantaged suburbs
unhealthy food and drink advertising have greater exposure to unhealthy food outlets
Every child deserves the opportunity to be healthy and marketing than children living in less deprived
and to live, play and learn in an environment neighbourhoods in NZ and around the world17,18,19.
free from unhealthy food and drink marketing As more than half of Māori whānau (families) live
regardless of where they live. NZ children in deprived neighbourhoods20, Māori children are
are surrounded by unhealthy food and drink exposed to around twice as much unhealthy food
advertising in their homes, on their way to and and drink marketing than non-Māori21. This is an
from school, in their classrooms and when out example of the Government failing to uphold the
and about in their neighbourhoods . They1,2 Ōritetanga (Equity) article of te Tiriti o Waitangi.
are exposed to unhealthy food and drink
New Zealanders want change
marketing over 68 times a day – this is more
There is strong public support for change to the
than twice the amount of advertising they see
current situation. In 2021, two out of three New
for healthy products3.
Zealanders were supportive of tougher rules
Unhealthy food and drinks are typically on unhealthy food and drinks marketing22. The
ultra-processed, energy dense and high in salt, majority (78%) agree that children are exposed to
sugar and unhealthy fats and lack many of the key too many advertisements for unhealthy food and
nutrients children need to thrive 4. These foods drinks, and that this is contributing to obesity23.
are highly profitable to food manufacturers . 5
Our children agree too. According to them,
Children are lucrative consumers for industry they’re frequently exposed to food and drink
as they have a large influence over household marketing and persuaded to make purchases
spending and go on to become lifetime they know to be harmful to their health24. When
consumers 6–13
. The power of marketing to children asked, many children agreed that junk food
is such that the term ‘pester power’ has been should not be advertised to children. Nearly
coined to describe children’s frequent purchasing two thirds of children consulted said they would
requests to their parents and caregivers14. change something about food marketing if they
Unhealthy food and drink manufacturers use were Prime Minister for a day; the most common
powerful marketing techniques to influence suggestions included making food advertising
children’s eating behaviours, shaping what truthful, providing nutrition information, removing
children want and ask their parents to purchase . 6,7 billboards and signs, and increasing promotion of
Their tactics are effective, with up to $17 of healthy food24.
revenue generated for every dollar of advertising Notably, the NZ Government declared in
spent15. These corporate financial gains are September 2021 its commitment to restricting
linked to excess consumption of unhealthy food advertising of unhealthy food to children, as part
and drinks; evidence shows that sophisticated of a transition pathway to healthy and sustainable
marketing campaigns are associated with food systems and contribution to achieving the
overweight and obesity rates16. United Nations Sustainable Development Goals25.8
EVIDENCE SNAPSHOT 2022
The Children and Young People’s 2. Truthful presentation—including that food and
Advertising Code beverage advertisements must not mislead as
Currently, in NZ, food marketing is self-regulated to the potential physical, social or mental health
under voluntary codes developed by an industry benefits from consumption of the product; and
body, the Advertising Standards Authority (ASA). 3. Sponsorship advertising—sponsorship
The ASA Children and Young People’s (CYPA) advertisements must not show any ‘occasional’
Code was released in 201726. The CYPA Code food or beverage product or its packaging,
applies to all advertisements that target children or depict consumption of ‘occasional’ food or
or young people, whether contained in children’s beverage products26.
or young people’s media or otherwise, but does
This current self-regulatory approach to protect
not apply to product packaging, bona fide news,
children from harmful food and drink marketing
reviews, editorial and broadcast programmes26.
practices is not working27. The Government’s
The Code has three principles, including specific
response falls far behind international best
rules relating to food and drinks advertising:
practice for food policy and healthy food
1. Social responsibility—including that food environments28—other countries such as Chile,
and beverage advertisements for ‘occasional’ Mexico and United Kingdom are already taking
(i.e. unhealthy) food or beverage products must strong legislative action to regulate unhealthy
not target children (with a special duty of care food and drink marketing.
applied to young people), portion sizes shown
should be appropriate, and promotional offers
of interest to children and young people must
not create a sense of urgency to purchase or
encourage excessive consumption;9
EVIDENCE SNAPSHOT 2022
What is the health and societal impact?
Marketing of unhealthy food and drinks harms Children who develop and live with obesity are
children’s growth and development29 by shaping around five times more likely to have obesity
children’s dietary preferences and encouraging as adults49, and are more likely to develop
the repeated purchase and consumption of non-communicable diseases like diabetes and
foods that do not meet nutritional guidelines 7,9,30
. cardiovascular diseases at a younger age35. In
Children need nutritious food as they have limited addition, if children have obesity, their obesity
stomach capacity and are growing rapidly31. and disease risk factors later in life are likely to be
Energy-dense, highly-processed diets are often more severe50 and negatively influence the health
nutrient-poor, increasing the risk of suboptimal of their children, as children learn by modelling
nutrient intake for growth and development. preferences and food intake of their parents51.
There are many negative impacts to health and
Poor nutrition sets children up for a lifetime of
wellbeing that stem from unhealthy food and drink
health and wellbeing related problems. All of this
that occur regardless of the body size of the child.
causes ongoing and avoidable costs for the child,
Foods that are high in sugar, salt and unhealthy
whānau and the health system52,53. New Zealand’s
fats have been shown to contribute to increased
children’s health and wellbeing needs to improve.
rates of oral health problems including dental
We want to provide healthy food for our children
caries32, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder33,
but being surrounded by unhealthy food products
and increased suicidality, depressive disorders and
and marketing for such foods undermines efforts
sleep disturbances34.
to ensure our children have a nutritious diet.
Unhealthy food and drink consumption (in Moreover, inequities in exposure to unhealthy food
particular fast food, sugary beverages, and large and beverage marketing and therefore childhood
portion sizes) also contributes to excess weight dietary behaviours contribute to lifelong health
(i.e. overweight or obesity) in children due to their inequities54. Reviews of large international studies
association with high energy (calorie) content have shown behavioural interventions that address
and excessive caloric intake35. Children who child body size are mostly ineffective, and wider
have obesity are more likely to have: high blood environmental modification is needed to normalise
pressure and high cholesterol (risk factors for healthy eating55. A healthy food environment is
cardiovascular disease); increased risk of impaired imperative to support children to grow, thrive and
glucose tolerance, insulin resistance and type 2 live healthy lives.
diabetes; breathing problems, such as asthma or
sleep apnoea; joint problems, musculoskeletal
The health of NZ children
discomfort and increased fractures36; and fatty Current statistics on NZ children’s health indicate
liver disease, gallstones, and heartburn 37–44
. the importance of addressing the problem of
Childhood obesity is also linked to psychological poor nutrition.
problems such as anxiety and depression, low Dental caries. In 2014/15, 40.9% of five-year-old
self-esteem and lower self-reported quality of life, children who lived in Auckland and Northland
social problems such as bullying and stigma, and had early childhood dental caries56. Additionally
to negatively affected school performance45–48 . in 2020/21, 10.1% of NZ children had had teeth
removed due to decay in their lifetime57.10
Adolescents who consume one cup of unhealthy The societal impact: societal costs of
EVIDENCE SNAPSHOT 2022
drinks (fruit juice, energy drinks, fizzy drinks, sport excess weight
and vitamin water) per day are consistently more As described above, food preferences are
likely to report oral health issues58 . There are large developed during childhood and track into
inequities in these statistics with Māori and Pacific adulthood, impacting on children’s long-term
children disproportionately represented in rates of health49. Children who are overweight are more
dental caries59,60. likely to become overweight adults64. There is also
Dietary intake. Fruit and vegetables are an a long-term societal cost to allowing unhealthy
important source of vitamins, minerals and energy, food and drink marketing to continue to pollute
fibre and carbohydrate for children and they help our neighbourhoods, homes and children’s
maintain healthy body weight and reduce the risk learning environments.
of chronic diseases . Previous NZ dietary surveys
31
Sapere Research Group52 was commissioned by
showed that unhealthy food and drink intake Hāpai Te Hauora to compile research and data
displaces children’s consumption of healthy food to provide an estimate of the current per annum
and drinks31. In 2020/21, less than half (41.9%) of cost to NZ society of excess weight. The report
NZ children were meeting the vegetable intake indicates these costs to be between NZ$4 billion
guidelines (2-3+ serves of vegetables) and 70.2% and NZ$11 billion. These costs comprise two
were meeting the fruit intake guidelines (2 serves components:
of fruit)57. Additionally, since 2011/12 vegetable
consumption has significantly decreased by 1. The direct costs are the health care costs
16.3% in NZ children. Of concern, NZ children of excess weight. These are estimated to be
consume five unhealthy snacks per day, to an NZD$2 billion per annum, with the range being
average of three healthier snacks . Furthermore,
61 between NZ$1.5 to NZ$2 billion per annum.
almost a third (32.3%) of children were consuming For comparison, the health care cost of
fizzy drink at least once a week and more than diabetes alone has been previously estimated
half (54.0%) were consuming fast food at least to be NZ$1 billion 65.
once a week57. Māori and Pacific children and 2. The indirect costs measure productivity losses
children living in the most deprived areas are and reduction in gross domestic product (GDP)
disproportionately more likely to have suboptimal and are conservatively estimated to be at least
fruit and vegetable intake and consume fizzy $2 billion, with high-level figures from global
drinks and fast food more frequently57. analysis placing the NZ estimate at $7 billion to
Excess weight. Childhood obesity is reaching $9 billion per annum52.
alarming proportions in many countries and poses There are also intangible costs which take
an urgent and serious challenge 62. One in three the broadest perspective and include pain,
children (30.8%) aged 2-14 years old in NZ live stress, physical limitations, and loss of life as
with overweight or obesity57. This is the second a result of excess weight. These do not easily
highest child overweight and obesity rate across translate into dollar terms. These costs are
all Organization for Economic Co-operation and however considerable, with estimates as high
Development (OECD) countries63. These statistics as NZ$26 billion calculated using the value of a
hide socioeconomic inequities—Pacific children statistical life (VOSL), reflecting a monetisation of
are 3.7 times more likely, and Māori children disability adjusted life years (DALYs) as determined
1.7 times more likely, to live with obesity than by the Global Burden of Disease study63. These
other children57. intangible costs, in particular the non-health
impact, have been investigated previously in more
detail by the NZ Institute for Economic Research66.
Non-health impacts to people with obesity
include but are not limited to: lower educational
achievement, lower wages, limited occupational
attainment, having barriers to employment, being
subjected to stereotyping and discrimination, low
self-esteem, higher risk of mental illness, and lower
socio-economic status52,66.11
EVIDENCE SNAPSHOT 2022
Why focus on children?
Children are an important target market for of which NZ was one of the first countries to ratify
food and drink manufacturers because they in 1993, requires the Government to uphold article
wield considerable purchasing power both 24 which states “that children have the right to
directly (e.g. with pocket money) and indirectly the enjoyment of the highest standard of health”71.
(e.g. influencing their parents’ purchases) .
6–12,14,67
This has been interpreted by the UN Committee
They are a future – as well as current – market, on the Rights of the Child in its General Comments
and hence manufacturers invest significant as requiring governments to regulate the harmful
resources into building positive relationships marketing of unhealthy food and beverages.
between children and their brands so that they Article 17 of the UNCRC encourages governments
purchase their products now and into the future. to develop “appropriate guidelines for the
protection of the child from information and
Psychological differences between adults and
material injurious to his or her well-being”, and
children make children more vulnerable to
Article 32 further stipulates that children have the
marketing messages. Adults are more likely to
right to “protection from economic exploitation”71.
critically evaluate marketing claims whereas
Given the harmful impact of unhealthy food and
children (especially those younger than 12 years)
beverage marketing on health and well-being,
are more likely to accept marketing messages as
introducing laws to protect children from exposure
truthful, accurate and unbiased 68,69. Adolescents
to unhealthy food and beverage marketing is one
also require protection, as evidence shows they
way the Government can fulfil their obligations
continue to be negatively affected by unhealthy
under the Convention72,73.
food and drink marketing 68–70.
This evidence snapshot defines a child as “every
There is also a child’s rights-based argument to
human being below the age of eighteen years”,
protect children from harmful unhealthy food
consistent with the definition in the UNCRC71.
and beverage marketing. The United Nations
Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC),
...children have the right to
the enjoyment of the highest
standard of health.7112
EVIDENCE SNAPSHOT 2022
What is unhealthy food marketing
and how does it work?
What is marketing? increasing number of channels and methods79–81;
Marketing is defined by Kotler and colleagues and efforts to regulate advertising to children
as “the process by which companies engage (deemed a vulnerable audience) remains a
customers, build strong customer relationships, controversial topic due to the pervasive influence
and create customer value in order to capture of the food and drink industry that does not want
value from customers in return” . From an
74 to lose a valuable source of income82–84.
industry perspective, according to the American Marketing focuses on four key elements – product,
Marketing Association (2021) latest definitional price, place and promotion – all of which are
work, marketing is defined as “the activity, experienced by people who are defined by
set of institutions, and processes for creating, markets as ‘consumers’ (see Figure 1)85. That is,
communicating, delivering, and exchanging the product itself (e.g. a sugary drink), its price
offerings that have value for customers, clients, (the cost to the consumer), the place it is available
partners, and society at large”75. (e.g. dairy, supermarket, vending machine) and
The World Health Organization (WHO) has promotion (including the medium, e.g. digital
defined marketing as: “Any form of commercial media, street signs, and the message). This
communication or message that is designed to, evidence snapshot focuses on promotion. Issues
or has the effect of, increasing the recognition, of product (e.g. product reformulation), price
appeal and/or consumption of particular products (e.g. sugary drinks tax to reduce consumption)
and services. It comprises anything that acts to and place (e.g. should unhealthy food be sold
advertise or otherwise promote a product or at school) are outside the scope of the paper.
service” . This is the definition applied throughout
76 The focus of this report includes promotion of
this evidence snapshot. products as well as brand promotion (a common
strategy of food marketers, e.g. promotions are
The negative social and psychological impact for McDonald’s, not a specific menu item such as a
of marketing on children remains a cause for ‘happy meal’).
concern. Dr Darren Powell from the University of
Auckland studies the commercial exploitation of Figure 1. The five components of marketing
children through all forms of marketing. Powell Source: Borden 85
argues that all marketing to children is harmful
because it “encourages forms of consumption
P P
that are potentially harmful for the whole child,
the planet, and children’s futures”77. Powell’s
work reinforces the importance of including all
PRODUCT PRICE
brand communications in government regulation
of unhealthy marketing to children due to the
impact marketing has on children’s identities as P
PEOPLE
consumers and the follow-on impacts this can
have on how children form their identities on
important issues such as gender, sexuality, age,
culture, ethnicity, and class77,78 . Children are being
P
PLACE
P
PROMOTION
exposed to brand communications through an13
What is unhealthy food and drink marketing?
EVIDENCE SNAPSHOT 2022
Unhealthy food and drink marketing is the In addition to more ‘traditional’ marketing
marketing of energy-dense and nutrient-poor channels (e.g. television advertising, outdoor
food and drinks, i.e. high in unhealthy fats, salt, advertising, packaging), a range of emerging
and sugars (HFSS); such products are often marketing media methods are now being used
(but not always) ultra-processed. Examples to promote unhealthy food and drink products
of foods not recommended to be marketed to including online advertising, product placement
children include confectionery (e.g. lollies), and branding, integrated marketing and user-
sweet snack food (e.g. biscuits), most savoury generated marketing (see Table 1 for details).
snacks (e.g. crisps), sugary breakfast cereals,
and sugar-sweetened drinks including juices4,86.
Table 1: Emerging techniques to market food and beverages to children
Source: Adapted from World Health Organization Europe 87
On search engines
On social networking sites
Placement of On news sites, music sites and blogs
online advertising Around or in TV-on-demand
Around or in films, media and all video content viewed online
Around or in online and downloadable games, music and other media
Product placement in scheduled TV and radio programmes, films, computer games,
downloadable “apps” (downloadable software applications)
Branded books such as counting books for pre-schoolers
Product placement
Branded toys such as the fast food store as a playhouse
and branding Branded computer games
Interactive company-owned web sites, for example with puzzles and games
Branding on sports teams and advertising at sports and cultural events
Word-of-mouth and personal recommendation by consumers, sometimes in return for payment
Viral marketing
or reward, and increasingly encouraged in social networking sites
Sponsorship of TV and radio programmes, music videos
Celebrity product endorsement
Sponsorship Sponsorship of community and school events and contests
Corporate gifts of educational materials and equipment
Corporate support of health campaigns, sports clubs, school meals
Promotional e-mails
Direct marketing Promotional sales by telephone, text messaging to mobile phones
Promotion and sampling schemes in schools
Branding and advertising embedded in video games and interactive fantasy worlds, available
“Advergaming” online or for downloading (the users may provide their contact details to marketers in return for
multiplayer interactive gaming and opportunities for rewards.)
Packaging vouchers with links to discounts on videos, films, music
Point of sale and
Packaging codes with links to online games, social networking sites or downloadable apps
product promotion Vending machine codes with links to online immediate discounts
Linking film, toy and food products and new media, such as a breakfast cereal with on-pack
Integrated promotion of a brand-promoting game played on a web site, with matching Facebook page and
marketing Twitter messaging (the game can be played interactively with other people worldwide and is
downloadable as an app to play on a smartphone.)
Includes two-way marketing and market-shaping activities (for example, TV advertisements invite
Interactive and
viewers to vote for different flavours of a brand which then get produced and marketed; or the
user-generated
company launches a competition to create a video commercial which individuals put on YouTube
marketing for viral distribution.)14
How does marketing work?
EVIDENCE SNAPSHOT 2022
Marketing works by repeatedly exposing people Kelly et al.13 propose a pathway of effects model
to powerful messages about products and brands to describe the domino effect that marketing of
using a range of marketing methods. The aim is to food and beverages can have on children and
reach as many people as possible, as frequently the resulting impact on their weight (Figure 3).
as possible, to build product and brand loyalty. This model outlines the impact of exposure and
The methods use powerful creative content, its influences on awareness of brands usually
design and execution to get the message across. seen and the implicit preference for these familiar
Exposure refers to the reach and frequency of brands. Children are exposed to direct cues
marketing messages, whereas power describes such as outdoor advertisement and sales; the
the creative content, design, and execution of consumption of these advertised foods can be
marketing messages. It is this combination of initiated through children’s ‘pester power’ with
exposure and power that drives food preferences, parents and caregivers, or through their own
food purchases or requests for food purchase and, direct purchases13. However, the advertised food is
ultimately, consumption (as explained in Figure 2). often high in energy with low nutrient values and
consumption can imbalance the energy consumed
As discussed above, children are particularly
and energy used, if there is no compensation for
vulnerable to marketing. For those under four
the energy consumed. Sustained consumption of
years old it’s seen as entertainment, and the
these unhealthy products can lead to weight gain
purpose of advertising is not recognised by
and diet-related illnesses13.
those less than eight years old 68,69. By the age
of 10-12, the persuasive intent is understood but
not the sales tactics. Adolescents also require
protection, as evidence shows they continue to be
negatively affected by unhealthy food and drink
marketing 68–70.
Figure 2. Marketing works through exposure and power
Source: World Health Organization76
Marketing of food and non-alcoholic beverages to children
POWER
EXPOSURE
The creative content,
The reach and
EXPOSURE POWER design and execution
frequency of the
of the marketing
marketing message
message
Impact on:
Food preferences • Purchase requests • Consumption patterns15
Figure 3. Pathways of effect: logic model of unhealthy food promotion effects on children
EVIDENCE SNAPSHOT 2022
Source: Kelly et al.13
Physiological influences:
epigenetic phenomena and addiction to high-energy and high-fat foods
POST-
ATTITUDES & PURCHASE
AWARENESS PURCHASE CONSUMPTION CONSUMPTION
PREFERENCES INTENT
EFFECTS
Awareness Product
(recall and purchase (brand
Consumption
recognition Normalisation Immediate switching within
of purchased/
of promotions of promoted intention to product range Weight gain
advertised
and brands) products purchase AND between and diet-related
foods
product disease
2 categories)
5 8 9 10
Exposure to
cues for
purchase at the
No consumption
point-of-sale Parents grant
Implicit of excess energy Sustained energy
(including purchase
memory trace intake from imbalance
availability, requests energy dense through over
placement,
promoted foods consumption of
1 outdoor ads)
(vs regular diet energy dense
7 in the absence of foods/drinks
food promotion) (No evidence
Direct pathway Preference (No evidence available)
for promoted available)
Increased
products and to
pester power
model observed
Sophisticated behaviours
repetitive, and
integrated marketing, 4 6
predominantly
for unhealthy
foods/drinksa Association
of brands
with positive
Indirect pathway attributes and
brand equity Repeated exposures to
marketing amplifying
3
the effects chain
Contextual influences:
food price, taste and availability, and peer and social influences
Note: Stars indicate that studies are available to assess response indicators (see Kelly et al.13).
a
Assessed in studies measuring extent and nature of exposure to marketing.
There is no standardised international definition nutrition; appeals to taste/texture; appeals to
of what marketing elements appeal to children, coolness or novelty; games or activities on the
but a study by Mulligan et al in 2021 88 of Canadian package; toys or prizes; coupons, contests,
children’s perceptions and preferences of or giveaways; interesting product name; and
product packaging found that key elements interesting font/lettering 88 . However, even
included: child-appealing visual/graphic design; when marketing does not use child-appealing
unconventional colour, flavour, or shape of the strategies, children and young people are
product; appeals to fun; appeals to health/ vulnerable to its effect68,69.16
EVIDENCE SNAPSHOT 2022
What is the evidence in
Aotearoa New Zealand?
NZ children see unhealthy food marketing over 68 times a day across multiple
and drink marketing in many places settings, excluding images in food stores (as
throughout the day these were too numerous)3. The overall findings
World-leading NZ research, Kids’Cam, recorded of Kids’Cam are consistent with previous studies
the food marketing in the everyday lives of in NZ and overseas that have found unhealthy
168 twelve year old children in 2014/2015. The food marketing to be ubiquitous in children’s
study included near equal numbers of Māori, environments9,93,94,96–100 with sugary drinks, fast
Pacific and NZ European children and thus has food, confectionery and snack foods the most
equal explanatory power for each ethnic group. commonly encountered unhealthy
Study participants wore automatic cameras that foods marketed89–94.
took photos every seven seconds of the world
Children’s snacking behaviours
in which they live, thus enabling the first ever
Snacking is the eating of food and beverages
study of the food marketing present in children’s
between meals, and high rates of snacking
daily lives89. Previously, research has relied on
on highly processed, high salt, sugar or fat
children’s memory of what they see and audits
(unhealthy) foods is a concern for people’s
of the advertising in their community. The
health and wellbeing. Unhealthy marketing in
advertisements were classified as recommended
public spaces and access to unhealthy foods
(core) or not recommended (non-core) to be
influence children’s snacking behaviours. Another
marketed to children based on the WHO Regional
analysis of the Kids’Cam data found that children
Office for Europe Nutrient Profiling Model.
eat five unhealthy snacks a day, compared to
The Kids’Cam data has been comprehensively three healthy snacks61. The research shows the
analysed. The initial publication of results2 nutritional quality of these snacks is impacted
showed most unhealthy exposures occurred at by the location of consumption. When in public
home (33%), in public spaces (30%) and at settings, children are consuming 15 times more
school (19%). Food packaging was the unhealthy than healthy snacks. Even though there
predominant marketing medium (74% for ‘core’ are some school-based nutrition policies, children
and 64% for ‘non-core’ foods), followed by signs are still consuming 2.4 times more unhealthy
(e.g. billboards, posters on shop fronts, snacks than healthy snacks in schools61.
sandwich boards on the street, 21% ‘core’ and 28%
‘non-core’). The rest of the exposure was in-store, Product packaging
in print media, on screen, and on merchandise. Product packaging was the predominant
Children attending higher decile schools (schools marketing medium to which children were
with more children from higher socio-economic exposed in the Kid’sCam research. Product
backgrounds) were exposed to more healthy packaging is a particularly effective marketing
food marketing, and Māori children were exposed medium as it is commonly used to attract
to more food marketing of both types (healthy attention, provide information and product
and unhealthy) than NZ European or Pacific attributes and to encourage point-of-sale
children (though not statistically significant)2. purchases101. On-pack promotions including the
Further analysis of the Kids’Cam study found use of cartoon and movie characters, celebrity
that NZ children were exposed to unhealthy food endorsements, colour and typography, are all17
Children eat five unhealthy
EVIDENCE SNAPSHOT 2022
snacks a day, compared to
three healthy snacks61.
widely used to target children and their parents school children say that moving about in their
30,101,102
. Further, photographs of the product, neighbourhood, particularly on the to-and-
premiums and competitions, and nutrient and from-school trip is important to them for social
health claims are also widely used on product interactions107. This is especially significant
packaging. Evidence suggests that promotions for children’s exposure, as there is a high
appear more frequently on product packaging for concentration of unhealthy food outlets near
unhealthy foods than on healthier food products, schools108 . Children also say that they go to the
thus making unhealthy foods more appealing102. shops to eat junk food/drink on their way to/from
school107, and going to the shops with friends
Unhealthy food marketing on product packaging
and family is an important activity to do in their
dominates in dairies and service stations,
neighbourhoods109.
according to further analysis from Kids’Cam.
Children who visited dairies and service stations The Kids’Cam research suggests children were
were exposed to eight unhealthy product exposed to approximately seven unhealthy
packages in each visit, six times more than for outdoor food advertisements on their way
healthy food product packages 103
. However, to or from school each week, not including
evidence suggests that using warning labels advertisements in food outlets21. A national study
and plain packaging can reduce the likelihood found that two -thirds (65%) of food advertised
that children and young people purchase sugar- within 500m of NZ schools was for unhealthy
sweetened beverages 104
. food110. Another NZ study of outdoor food
marketing (e.g. billboards, bus shelters, posters,
Outdoor advertising signage) using Google Street View (GSV) for
Children in NZ access a wide range of destinations a walkable distance of 800m from 19 primary
during their usual everyday activities in which and intermediate Auckland schools, found that
they are exposed to outdoor advertising. These children were exposed to a significantly greater
destinations can be grouped into settings that number of unhealthy advertising than other
span across: education, retail, health, public advertising of foods and beverages1. Huang et
transport, social and cultural and recreation105. al (2020) investigated advertising on bus stops,
Children are exposed to more outdoor advertising using GSV, within 500m of all schools within the
for unhealthy food and beverages compared Tāmaki Makaurau, Auckland region. Of the total
to advertising for healthy food and beverages1. advertisements at these bus shelters, the majority
Children in the Kids’Cam research were exposed of advertisements were for non-food items or
to 7.4 unhealthy food advertisements for every services (64.3%). Of the advertisements that were
hour they spent in outdoor public spaces such for food and/or beverages, half were for unhealthy
as shopping centres, residential areas and foods (50.2%). One in eight (12.8%) of all bus stop
sports facilities106. advertisements within 500m of Auckland schools
promoted unhealthy dietary options111.
Children are exposed to unhealthy food
advertisements in their own neighbourhoods, Exposure to unhealthy advertising is not evenly
when they travel to and from school and when distributed across ethnicities. Māori children
they play outside with their friends . Primary
1 are exposed to unhealthy outdoor advertising
1.5 times more than children of NZ European18
EVIDENCE SNAPSHOT 2022
ethnicity and to fast food advertising at almost would be reduced by 50%106. However, research
double the rate of NZ European children . 21
involving children indicates that a number of other
Results of a 2015 NZ survey of food retail outlets destinations, often located outside children’s
reported a higher density of outlets in the areas neighbourhood ‘buffer’ (often defined as a 500m
of high socioeconomic deprivation (NZDep2013 radius around schools and home) that children
deciles 9 and 10) . The findings of this and
107
may visit regularly (such as cultural and religious
previous NZ research suggest that outdoor food venues), also need to be considered when looking
advertising is primarily found on, or at, retail at exposure to unhealthy environments because of
outlets1,19,91,112. The higher number of unhealthy their importance to children105.
food advertising exposures among Māori
participants may thus be partially explained by
Digital marketing
a higher density of food retail outlets in higher Increasingly life is lived online. It is where people
deprivation neighbourhoods in which Māori are work, learn and play, interact and socialise, and
overrepresented 1,19,21
. create their identities113. Food marketing online
(digital marketing) may have an even greater
In summary, children are exposed to a large
impact than traditional media 67 and is increasingly
amount of unhealthy food and drink marketing
targeting children who are less able to recognise
in their neighbourhoods. Liu et al.106 report
its persuasive intent7,114,115. NZ children aged six to
that implementing outdoor unhealthy food
fourteen years engage with the internet regularly,
marketing bans within 400m of schools, play
with 82% of children interacting with internet
grounds, and residential areas were estimated
content daily116. Online advertising occurs through
to reduce children’s exposure by 26.9%, 33%,
several different channels, including promotions
and 27%, respectively. With a ban covering all
on websites, social media, email, and marketing
these locations combined, children’s exposure
via mobile devices through text messages,19
applications (apps), and branded games generate revenue through marketing. They sell
EVIDENCE SNAPSHOT 2022
‘advergames’ (advertising or brands incorporated users’ information to third parties120. Companies
into a game). Since 2014, social media use by can target and tailor their marketing specifically
children has continued to rise, with a third of NZ to users based on their previous interactions
children aged six to 14 years using social media116. with a brand to maximise marketing impact67.
YouTube, TikTok, Instagram and Snapchat are their The interactive nature of these advertisements
most popular platforms used daily, with 57% of facilitates repeated and extended exposure to
children using TikTok every day . 116
branding and food products, building brand
loyalty and influencing children’s purchases and
Digital marketing, including for HFSS (high fat,
purchase requests30,97,121,122. The introduction
salt and sugar) foods, is reported by brands
of smartphones and related technology has
and marketers themselves not only to be very
substantially increased the amount of time
successful but also to further amplify the effects
children spend engaging with the internet and
of HFSS food marketing in ‘traditional’ media,
different forms of digital media97. Social media
enhancing advertisement attention and recall,
is an important medium for food marketers in
brand awareness, attitudes and purchase intent
NZ, and promotional strategies and premium
and product sales117.
offers are frequently used, many of which have
Digital marketing can be categorised as ‘paid’, particular appeal to children according to recent
‘owned’ and ‘earned’ 118 . ‘Paid’ is where content is NZ research119,123.
disseminated through paid advertising channels,
A 2019/2020 study of company (owned)
for example advertisements on webpages,
Facebook pages and YouTube channels for the
social media ads, as well as content created by
most popular packaged food, fast food, and
influencers. ‘Owned’ is situated within company
non-alcoholic beverage brands/companies in NZ
property, for example posted by companies
found significant promotion of unhealthy food and
on their own websites and social media pages.
drinks. Eighty-five per cent of company Facebook
‘Earned’ is user-generated dissemination and
posts and YouTube videos featuring food or drinks
interaction, e.g. mentions, shares, reposts and
were unhealthy. Thirty per cent of YouTube videos
product reviews. Most studies monitoring
with unhealthy food products, and one-quarter
digital food and beverage marketing focus
of Facebook posts with unhealthy food products,
on owned media, as paid advertising is often
used promotional power strategies (for example,
individually-targeted using complex algorithms,
featuring animated characters, celebrities, athletes
and increasingly uses independent influencers,
or sports teams, cultural or historical events, or
and earned advertising generated organically
positioning products as ‘for kids’ or families) or
by third-parties (for example, by user-generated
premium offers (such as vouchers, discounts,
viral sharing of posts) is difficult to identify
prizes and giveaways, or limited-time offers).
and capture118 .
Ten per cent of Facebook posts of unhealthy
A 2020 NZ study of the websites of the 64 most food and beverages used promotional techniques
popular food and beverage companies revealed specifically targeting children, young people and/
that 81% of these websites featured marketing or families119.
of unhealthy products. Thirty-five per cent of
The AdHealth study looked at the exposure
these websites featuring unhealthy products used
of NZ Facebook users aged 16-18 to ‘paid’
promotional strategies positioning their products
food advertisements. The study found that of
as ‘for kids’, and 19% featured company-owned
advertisements containing food, 98% of them
cartoon characters or licensed characters that
contained unhealthy food and drinks, 34% of these
are potentially appealing to children; a further
adverts contained promotional characters, and
13% used family-oriented messaging appealing to
32% contained premium offers. On average, the
parents of younger children. Websites featuring
users were exposed to 4.8 unhealthy food or drink
unhealthy products also had designated kids’
adverts per hour spent on Facebook124.
sections, ‘advergaming’, and direct messaging
to children119. COVID-19 has introduced new challenges with
online marketing. Current research has found that
Social media platforms (e.g. Facebook) and other
during level 3 and 4 lockdowns in NZ, companies
virtual environments (e.g. online games, content
tailored their marketing via social media to target
streaming) are commercial entities designed to
vulnerable groups during this uncertain time125,126.20
The term ‘COVID-washing’ refers to unhealthy by Chang & Liu129 as “a name, term, sign, symbol,
EVIDENCE SNAPSHOT 2022
commodities companies leveraging the pandemic design or combination of these, that identifies
for marketing purposes126. This method was used the goods or services of one seller or group of
by 14 out of the 20 unhealthy food and beverage sellers and differentiates them from those of the
companies monitored by Gerritsen et al (2021) competition” (p. 1688). It is an important feature
for marketing of unhealthy foods items during the used in advertisements to engage children and
first COVID-19 lockdown in NZ 126. These companies young people in developing brand awareness
used digital marketing strategies to introduce and brand loyalty at an early age130. From early
brand-related lockdown games and activities that childhood, the majority of children can recognise
suggest consumption helps with handling the multiple brands, with the identification of
situation. They also promoted over-consumption brands and products transforming into purchase
and targeted children .
126
requests130. Currently, marketing to children is
permitted in NZ under the voluntary CYPA Code
Television (discussed in greater detail later in this evidence
Television has been a dominant medium for snapshot) as long as specific unhealthy products
marketing to children, but with the use of digital are not advertised26. We therefore apply the term
and on-demand viewing services this marketing ‘brand marketing’ to refer to advertisements that
type is changing. National surveys of NZ children include elements of branding but not showing any
aged 6-14 reported in-home television viewing specific products.
decreasing from 74% in 2014127 to 48% in 2020116
Studies of unhealthy food and drinks marketing
yet, as noted earlier, 82% of children interacted
have found that, even when specific products are
with internet content daily116. Two-thirds of the
not shown, children are likely to associate these
food and beverage advertisements that children
brands with unhealthy food, and this increases
in NZ see on TV are for unhealthy products128 .
their intention to consume their unhealthy
The most recent NZ research conducted in 2018
products131 as well as building long-term brand
reveals that children are exposed to an average
loyalty for such products132.
of 9.5 unhealthy food advertisements for every
hour they watch television on weekdays, and an In the 2018 study of unhealthy food and drink
average of 7.3 unhealthy food ads per hour on marketing on television reported earlier, in
weekends. This exposure increases to 12 unhealthy addition to the 682 unhealthy food/drink ads
food advertisements per hour in their peak aired per weekday, and 527 unhealthy food/
weekday viewing times, and 9.5 per hour in peak drink ads aired per weekend day (as classified
weekend viewing times (defined as the five hours using the WHO-EU nutrient profile model), an
when most children aged 5-13 are watching TV) . 128
average of 44 brand-only food and drink company
advertisements were aired on any given day.
The on-demand nature of contemporary television
On weekdays, 51% of these brand-only ads were
means that advertisements often appear
for supermarket and grocery chains, 18% were
periodically and when viewing is paused. Often
for packaged food companies, 16% were for
the viewing of a programme cannot commence
fast food chains, and 9% were for non-alcoholic
until after advertisements have been watched in
beverage companies. On weekends, supermarkets
full and advertisements still occur periodically
represented 74% of brand-only advertisements,
throughout the programme and when viewing
followed by packaged food companies (20%), fast
is paused (this is currently the case for TVNZ on
food (5%), and beverage companies (1%). During
Demand and YouTube). Therefore, it is important
children’s peak weekday viewing times (defined
that in addition to traditional advertisements,
as the five hours when the greatest number of
such as breaks on free-to-air television, that
children are watching), they were exposed to
associated on-demand streaming is also included
2.2 food brand ads per hour, in addition to the
in restrictions of unhealthy marketing of food and
12 unhealthy product-specific ads per hour (under
drink to children.
WHO-EU nutrient profile model) reported earlier.
Brands During weekend peak viewing times, they were
Manufacturers invest significant money in building exposed to an average 1.9 food brand ads per
positive relationships between children and their hour in addition to 9.5 unhealthy product-specific
brands so that they purchase their products now ads per hour119.
and into the future. ‘Branding’ has been defined21
EVIDENCE SNAPSHOT 2022
Research shows that changing
the marketing environment to one
where nutritious foods are promoted
and junk foods are absent would
normalise and reinforce healthy
dietary patterns135.
The 2021 study of the healthiness of products Research shows that changing the marketing
and marketing strategies on the top NZ food and environment to one where nutritious foods are
beverage company Facebook pages and YouTube promoted and junk foods are absent would
channels also examined brand marketing119. In normalise and reinforce healthy dietary patterns135.
addition to their largely (85%) unhealthy product- However it is important that marketing for
specific posts, 12% of Facebook marketing posts ‘healthy’ products by unhealthy brands is also
and 22% of YouTube ads recorded were brand- prohibited as research clearly shows advertising
only. Out of all brand-only advertising recorded healthy products by unhealthy brands did not
on company Facebook pages, 51% were from drive children to make healthier choices but rather
fast food chains, 21% were from packaged food only increased demand for the unhealthy products
manufacturers, 21% were from supermarkets, and these companies are known for131.
7% were from beverage manufacturers that mainly
However, drawing regulatory distinctions between
sell sugar sweetened beverages and energy
which brands should and should not be allowed to
drinks. Out of all brand-only advertising recorded
engage in brand marketing (such as sponsorship)
on company YouTube channels, 54% were from
is a key challenge. Regulatory distinctions that
supermarkets, 40% were from fast food chains,
can be perceived or interpreted as ‘arbitrary’ may
and 6% were from beverage manufacturers119.
leave governments vulnerable to legal challenges
Children see brand marketing in their homes (on under international trade and investment
screens and products), in their schools (inside the agreements136. Barr21 suggested determining
classroom, at school events and at meal-times), whether a food brand is healthy or unhealthy by
when playing sport (at sports clubs and venues) assessing the nutrient profile of its product lines
and in their neighbourhoods (on the street and and establishing thresholds for the proportion of
in places children visit as part of a usual day). products that would be classified as ‘unhealthy’
The role of brand marketing in these locations based on a nutrient profile model. Further
is to enhance the social acceptability of the research is required to explore the feasibility and
brand and their products to children, thereby impacts of restricting food brand marketing based
increasing children’s demand for their popular and on different thresholds in the NZ setting.
unhealthy133 products and increasing brand loyalty,
supporting children to consume these products
Sponsorship
into adulthood134. Despite it not advertising Sports sponsorship
specific unhealthy products, brand marketing Unhealthy food and beverage brands and
only serves to increase demand for the unhealthy companies sponsor popular televised sport
products the brand is known for. with large audiences that include children,
e.g. Gatorade has sponsored the All Blacks and22
KFC has sponsored Super Rugby. An Australian School sponsorship
EVIDENCE SNAPSHOT 2022
study of children aged 5 – 12 years found that
Companies also market their products within
three quarters of children could recall correctly
schools77, and many of these are food and
the shirt sponsors of rugby/league sporting
beverage companies, who provide sponsorship of
teams137. In sport sponsorship brand marketing is
fundraisers, educational initiatives, and nutrition
usually displayed continuously, thereby blurring
campaigns. For instance:
the distinction between what is considered
advertising content and what is entertainment138 . • Fundraisers often use unhealthy food e.g.
Sponsorships are favoured by unhealthy food Cadbury chocolate, Tip Top ice cream, Dad’s
and drink companies (alongside gambling, pies, juices, Whittaker’s chocolate, thereby
tobacco and alcohol) because consumers view heightening their visibility
sponsorships less sceptically than they do • Hell Pizza provides pizzas as a reward for
traditional marketing139. In sports sponsorship, the borrowing seven books.
sponsor becomes associated with a favourable
attitude towards the sporting team and consumer • Nestlé and Coca Cola provide free nutrition
perception of the brand is enhanced 140,141
. teaching resources
Children are also exposed to brand sponsorship • Foodstuffs sponsorship of Food for Thought
marketing in sports that they play, including by (South Island)
food and drink companies and their brands. This type of marketing is contrary to the
A 2019 survey of club websites for the four most National Administration Guidelines (NAG 5)
popular sports among NZ children (football, which states that: “Each board of trustees is also
rugby, netball and basketball) in four NZ required to: promote healthy food and nutrition
regions found that 28% of all teams (national, for all students” 143.
regional, and local) had food or drinks corporate
Marketing to children in schools is particularly
sponsorship119. All of the national bodies for these
pervasive in that, like sports sponsorship, it is
sports had food or non-alcoholic drinks corporate
a type of brand marketing that is viewed less
sponsorship, likely representing the highest
sceptically by teachers, parents and children
category of sponsorship income for teams/
alike. Like sports sponsorship, by portraying their
corporate expenditure and greatest ‘marketing’
brand as being concerned for children’s education,
reach in terms of national exposure. Notably,
the perception of the brand is enhanced and the
21% of all food and drinks sponsors were fast
sponsor becomes associated with a favourable
food chains, and 13% of the clubs surveyed had
activity being undertaken e.g. fundraising,
fast food chain sports sponsorship119. However,
encouraging children to read, etc., and in some
only about 11% of all club sponsorships were food
cases a resource is provided e.g. a teaching guide.
or beverage-related; the authors concluded that
restricting which food and beverage can sponsor Policy implementation
children and young people’s sports teams would
Two assessments of NZ food environments and
reduce harmful brand marketing, but at the same
government’s policy response, in 2014-2017 144 and
time would not likely represent a devastating
2018-2021119, found that the level of implementation
loss of funding for these teams119. For example,
of policies to protect children from exposure to
the value of unhealthy food and beverage
unhealthy food and drink marketing in NZ was low
sponsorship could potentially be bought out, or
compared to international best practice. Experts
replaced by other sectors142. The few companies
consulted in the assessment called for regulation
that use additional marketing activities, including
of unhealthy marketing to children in all media as a
merchandise, create repeat exposure for their
national priority98.
brands, many of which target children, e.g. Burger
Fuel’s player-of-the-day certificates.
These findings suggest that children are exposed
to unhealthy food and drink marketing in sports
settings, and policies that restrict sponsorship of
sports (that children both watch and participate
in) by unhealthy food and beverage manufacturers
are needed to limit children’s exposure.You can also read
