Evaluating Children With Fractures for Child Physical Abuse - Ohio AAP
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FROM THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF PEDIATRICS
Guidance for the Clinician in
Rendering Pediatric Care
CLINICAL REPORT
Evaluating Children With Fractures for Child Physical
Abuse
Emalee G. Flaherty, MD, Jeannette M. Perez-Rossello, MD,
Michael A. Levine, MD, William L. Hennrikus, MD, and the abstract
AMERICAN ACADEMY OF PEDIATRICS COMMITTEE ON CHILD
Fractures are common injuries caused by child abuse. Although the
ABUSE AND NEGLECT, SECTION ON RADIOLOGY, SECTION ON
ENDOCRINOLOGY, and SECTION ON ORTHOPAEDICS, and the consequences of failing to diagnose an abusive injury in a child
SOCIETY FOR PEDIATRIC RADIOLOGY can be grave, incorrectly diagnosing child abuse in a child whose frac-
KEY WORD tures have another etiology can be distressing for a family. The aim of
fractures this report is to review recent advances in the understanding of frac-
ture specificity, the mechanism of fractures, and other medical dis-
ABBREVIATIONS
CML—classic metaphyseal lesions eases that predispose to fractures in infants and children. This
CPR—cardiopulmonary resuscitation clinical report will aid physicians in developing an evidence-based dif-
CT—computed tomography ferential diagnosis and performing the appropriate evaluation when
OI—osteogenesis imperfect
assessing a child with fractures. Pediatrics 2014;133:e477–e489
This document is copyrighted and is property of the American
Academy of Pediatrics and its Board of Directors. All authors
have filed conflict of interest statements with the American
Academy of Pediatrics. Any conflicts have been resolved through INTRODUCTION
a process approved by the Board of Directors. The American
Academy of Pediatrics has neither solicited nor accepted any Fractures are the second most common injury caused by child physical
commercial involvement in the development of the content of
abuse; bruises are the most common injury.1 Failure to identify an
this publication.
injury caused by child abuse and to intervene appropriately may
The guidance in this report does not indicate an exclusive
course of treatment or serve as a standard of medical care. place a child at risk for further abuse, with potentially permanent
Variations, taking into account individual circumstances, may be consequences for the child.2–4 Physical abuse may not be considered
appropriate. in the physician’s differential diagnosis of childhood injury because
the caregiver may have intentionally altered the history to conceal the
abuse.5 As a result, when fractures are initially evaluated, a diagnosis
of child abuse may be missed.3 In children younger than 3 years, as
many as 20% of fractures caused by abuse may be misdiagnosed
initially as noninflicted or as attributable to other causes.3 In addition,
fractures may be missed because radiography is performed before
changes are obvious or the radiographic images are misread or
misinterpreted.2 However, incorrectly diagnosing physical abuse in a child
with noninflicted fractures has serious consequences for the child and
www.pediatrics.org/cgi/doi/10.1542/peds.2013-3793 family. To identify child abuse as the cause of fractures, the physician
doi:10.1542/peds.2013-3793 must take into consideration the history, the age of the child, the location
All clinical reports from the American Academy of Pediatrics and type of fracture, the mechanism that causes the particular type of
automatically expire 5 years after publication unless reaffirmed, fracture, and the presence of other injuries while also considering other
revised, or retired at or before that time.
possible causes.
PEDIATRICS (ISSN Numbers: Print, 0031-4005; Online, 1098-4275).
Copyright © 2014 by the American Academy of Pediatrics
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS OF FRACTURES
Trauma: Child Abuse Versus Noninflicted Injuries
Fractures are a common childhood injury and account for between 8%
and 12% of all pediatric injuries.6–8 In infants and toddlers, physical
PEDIATRICS Volume 133, Number 2, February 2014 e477
Downloaded from by guest on October 13, 2016abuse is the cause of 12% to 20% of Fracture Specificity for Abuse in infants who have increased bone
fractures.9 Although unintentional fragility.23–25
Fractures With High Specificity for
fractures are much more common Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)
Abuse
than fractures caused by child abuse, has been proposed as a cause of rib
the physician needs to remain aware As shown in Table 1, certain fractures
fractures, but conventional CPR with 2
of the possibility of inflicted injury. have high specificity for or strong as-
fingers of 1 hand rarely causes frac-
Although some fracture types are sociation with child abuse, particularly
in infants, whereas others may have tures in children.26,27 Recent recom-
highly suggestive of physical abuse, mendations that CPR be performed
no pattern can exclude child abuse.10,11 less specificity.21 Rib fractures in
infants, especially those situated post- using 2 hands encircling the rib cage
Specifically, it is important to recog- have raised concerns that this tech-
nize that any fracture, even fractures eromedially, and the classic meta-
physeal lesions of long bones, have nique might cause rib fractures. An
that are commonly noninflicted inju- analysis of infants who were discov-
ries, can be caused by child abuse. high specificity for child abuse. Frac-
tures of the scapula, spinous process, ered during autopsy to have rib frac-
Certain details that can help the tures and had received 2-handed
physician determine whether a frac- and sternum also have high specificity
for abuse but are uncommon. chest compressions antemortem
ture was caused by abuse rather suggested that 2-handed CPR is as-
than unintentional injury include the Rib fractures are highly suggestive of
sociated with anterior-lateral rib
history, the child’s age and de- child abuse. Most abusive rib fractures
fractures of the third to sixth ribs.28
velopmental stage, the type and lo- result from anterior-posterior com-
In this small study, no posterior rib
cation of the fracture, the age of the pression of the chest. For this reason,
fractures were observed. The frac-
fracture, and an understanding of the rib fractures are frequently found in
tures in these infants were always
mechanism that causes the particu- infants who are held around the chest,
multiple, uniformly involved the
lar type of fracture. The presence of squeezed, and shaken. Rib fractures
fourth rib, and were sometimes bi-
multiple fractures, fractures of dif- have high probability of being caused
lateral. Additional research is needed
ferent ages or stages of healing, de- by abuse.15,17,21 The positive predictive
to examine the relationship between
lay in obtaining medical treatment, value of rib fractures for child abuse in
the 2-handed CPR technique and rib
and the presence of other injuries children younger than 3 years was
fractures.
suspicious for abuse (eg, coexisting 95% in one retrospective study.22 Other
injuries to the skin, internal organs, less common causes of rib fractures in Classic metaphyseal lesions (CMLs)
or central nervous system) should infants include significant trauma also have high specificity for child
alert the physician to possible child sustained during childbirth or a motor abuse when they occur during the
abuse. vehicle crash as well as minor trauma first year of life.21,29 CMLs are the
most common long bone fracture
found in infants who die with evi-
Child’s Age and Development TABLE 1 Specificity of radiologic findings in dence of inflicted injury.30 CMLs are
infants and toddlers19 planar fractures through the pri-
The physician should consider the
child’s age and level of development. High specificitya mary spongiosa of the metaphysis.
Approximately 80% of all fractures CMLs These fractures are caused when
Rib fractures, especially posteromedial torsional and tractional shearing
caused by child abuse occur in chil- Scapular fractures
dren younger than 18 months,12 and Spinous process fractures
strains are applied across the met-
approximately one-quarter of fractures Sternal fractures aphysis, as may occur with vigorous
Moderate specificity pulling or twisting of an infant’s ex-
in children younger than 1 year are Multiple fractures, especially bilateral
caused by child abuse.1,9,13–15 Physical Fractures of different ages
tremity.31 Fractures resembling
abuse is more likely to be the cause of Epiphyseal separations CMLs radiographically have been
femoral fractures and humeral frac- Vertebral body fractures and subluxations reported after breech delivery32 and
Digital fractures
tures in children who are not yet as a result of treatment of club-
Complex skull fractures
walking compared with children who Common, but low specificity foot.33
are ambulatory,15–18 and the percent- Subperiosteal new bone formation Depending on the projection of the
Clavicular fractures
age of fractures caused by abuse Long-bone shaft fractures radiograph, CMLs can have the ap-
declines sharply after the child begins Linear skull fractures pearance of a corner or a bucket-
to walk.9,19,20 a
Highest specificity applies in infants. handle fracture. Acute injuries can
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be difficult to visualize radiographi- to the bone, whereas spiral fractures down several steps and landing with 1
cally. CMLs commonly heal without are caused by torsion or twisting of leg folded or twisted underneath
subperiosteal new bone formation or a long bone along its long axis. Obli- a child can lead to excessive torsional
marginal sclerosis. They can heal que fractures are caused by a combi- loading of the femur and a spiral
quickly and be undetectable on plain nation of bending and torsion loads.37 fracture.46 In ambulatory children,
radiographs in 4 to 8 weeks.31 Torus or buckle fractures are the re- noninflicted femoral fractures have
sult of compression from axial loading been described in children who fell
Fractures With Moderate Specificity along the length of the bone. Although while running or who fell and landed
for Abuse earlier studies suggested that spiral in a split-leg position.43
Although many children who have fractures should always raise suspi- A fracture of the humeral shaft in a child
been abused will have only a single cion for child abuse,12 more recent younger than 18 months has a high
fracture,34 the presence of multiple studies do not show that any partic- likelihood of having been caused by
fractures, fractures of different ages ular fracture pattern can distinguish abuse.15,49,50 In contrast, supracondylar
and/or stages of healing, and com- between abuse and nonabuse with fractures in ambulatory children are
plex skull fractures have moderate absolute certainty.16,38 usually noninflicted injuries resulting
specificity for physical abuse. In ad- Falls are common in childhood.39 Short from short falls.15
dition, epiphyseal separations, verte- falls can cause fractures, but they Physicians should also be aware of
bral body fractures, and digital rarely result in additional significant a particular mechanism reported to
fractures have moderate specificity injury (eg, neurologic injury).11,40–42 In produce a noninflicted spiral-oblique
for abuse. The presence of multiple a retrospective study of short falls, fracture of the humerus in 1 case
fractures or fractures of different parents reported that 40% of the report.51 When the young infant was
ages can be signs of bone fragility children before 2 years of age had rolled from the prone position to the
but should also evoke consideration suffered at least 1 fall from a height of supine while the child’s arm is ex-
of child abuse. Besides the predictive between 6 inches and 4 feet. Approx- tended, the torsion and stress placed
value of the particular pattern of imately one-quarter of these children on the extended arm appeared to
fractures, many other factors, such suffered an injury; bruises were the cause a spiral-oblique fracture of the
as the history and the child’s age, most common injury observed.43 midshaft of the humerus.
must be considered when de- The femur, humerus, and tibia are the Linear skull fractures of the parietal
termining whether the injury was most common long bones to be in- bone are the most common skull
inflicted. jured by child abuse.1,34 Femoral fracture among young children, usu-
fractures in the nonambulatory child ally children younger than 1 year.13 A
Common Fractures With Low are more likely caused by child short fall from several feet onto
Specificity for Child Abuse abuse, whereas these fractures in a hard surface can cause a linear,
Long bone fractures (other than CMLs), ambulatory children are most com- nondiastatic skull fracture.19,52 The
linear skull fractures, clavicle fractures, monly noninflicted.10,16,43–45 majority of linear skull fractures are
and isolated findings of subperiosteal Certain femur fractures may occur as not inflicted.53 By contrast, complex or
new bone formation have low speci- a result of a noninflicted injury in young bilateral skull fractures are typical of
ficity for child abuse. In contrast, the children. Several studies have demon- nonaccidental trauma.
single long bone diaphyseal fracture is strated that a short fall to the knee may
the most common fracture pattern produce a torus or impacted transverse Syndromes, Metabolic Disorders,
identified in abused children.1,13,34 fracture of the distal femoral meta- Systemic Disease
An understanding of the extent and diaphysis.46,47 Oblique distal femur met- Preexisting medical conditions and
type of load that is necessary to cause aphyseal fractures have been reported bone disease may make a child’s
a particular long bone fracture can in children playing in a stationary ac- bones more vulnerable to fracture.
help to determine whether a specific tivity center, such as an Exersaucer Some conditions may manifest skele-
fracture is consistent with the injury (Evenflo, Picqua, OH).48 tal changes, such as metaphyseal ir-
described by the caregiver.35,36 Trans- In both ambulatory and nonambulatory regularity and subperiosteal new
verse fractures of the long bones are children, under some circumstances, bone formation. These entities should
caused by the application of a bending falls on a stairway can cause a spiral be considered in the differential di-
load in a direction that is perpendicular femoral fracture. For example, a fall agnosis of childhood fractures.
PEDIATRICS Volume 133, Number 2, February 2014 e479
Downloaded from by guest on October 13, 2016Osteogenesis Imperfecta long bones. It is unusual to have mul- Although osteopenia of prematurity
Osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) is a het- tiple long bone fractures or rib frac- may make the infant more vulnerable
erogeneous family of diseases, usually tures, particularly in infancy, without to fracture, preterm infants are also at
caused by heterozygous mutations of other clinical and radiographic evi- an increased risk of abuse.68
the genes COL1A1 and COL1A2,54 but dence of OI.57,58
mutations in these and other genes OI has been misdiagnosed as child Vitamin D Deficiency Rickets
can cause autosomal recessive forms abuse.59 On the other hand, OI is often
Suboptimal vitamin D concentrations
of OI. The COL1A1 and COL1A2 genes suggested as the cause of fractures in
and rickets have been proposed as
encode the chains of type I collagen, children who have been abused. If
causes of fractures in infants.69 Vitamin
which forms the structural framework fractures continue to occur when
D insufficiency in otherwise healthy
of bone. Although it is a genetic dis- a child is placed in a protective envi-
infants and toddlers is common. Ap-
order, many children have de novo ronment, a more thorough evaluation
proximately 40% of infants and tod-
mutations or autosomal-recessive dis- for an underlying bone disease is
dlers aged 8 to 24 months in an urban
ease and no family history of bone needed. Child abuse is more common
clinic had laboratory evidence of vita-
fragility. In addition, the presentation of than OI,60 and children with OI and
min D insufficiency (serum concen-
the disease within affected members other metabolic or genetic conditions
trations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D of ≤30
of the same family can be quite vari- may also be abused.61,62
ng/mL).70 Prolonged breastfeeding
able. Phenotypic expression of the
without vitamin D supplementation
disease depends on the nature of the Preterm Birth was a critical factor that placed these
mutation, its relative abundance at-
Preterm infants have decreased bone infants at risk, although increased skin
tributable to mosaicism, and its ex-
mineralization at birth, but after the pigmentation and/or lack of sunlight
pression in target tissues.55 Some
first year of life, bone density nor- exposure may also have contributed.
types of OI involve reduced production
malizes.63,64 Osteopenia of prematurity Rickets is characterized by de-
of collagen, and the symptoms resolve
has been well described as a compli- mineralization, loss of the zone of
or lessen after puberty.56 Table 2 lists
cation in low birth weight infants.65 provisional calcification, widening
the various signs and symptoms that
Infants born at less than 28 weeks’ and irregularity of the physis, and
can be present in a case of OI.
gestation or who weigh less than 1500 fraying and cupping of the meta-
The diagnosis of OI is often suggested g at birth are particularly vulnerable. physis.71 Despite the high prevalence
by a family history of fractures, short Osteopenia of prematurity is multi- of vitamin D insufficiency in infants
stature, blue sclera, poor dentition, factorial. Infants are also at risk if and toddlers, rickets is uncommon.72
and radiographic evidence of low bone they receive prolonged (for 4 or more
density or osteopenia. The fractures weeks) total parenteral nutrition, have The claim that vitamin D deficiency or
are most commonly transverse in bronchopulmonary dysplasia, and/or insufficiency causes skeletal lesions
nature, occurring in the shafts of the have received a prolonged course of that lead to the incorrect diagnosis of
diuretics or steroids.66 Osteopenia child abuse in infants is not sup-
TABLE 2 Characteristics of Osteogenesis
commonly presents between 6 and 12 ported in the literature. A systematic
Imperfecta weeks of life. Osteopenia of pre- clinical, laboratory, and radiologic
maturity can be ameliorated if infants assessment should exclude that
Fragile bones with few, some, or many of the
following findings: are monitored closely and receive the possibility.73–75 Schilling et al found
Poor linear growth nutritional and mineral supplementa- no difference in serum concen-
Macrocephaly tion initiated in the NICU.
Triangular-shaped face
trations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in
Blue sclerae Fractures associated with osteopenia of young children with fractures suspi-
Hearing impairment as a result of otosclerosis prematurity usually occur in the first cious for abuse and noninflicted
Hypoplastic, translucent, carious, late-erupting,
or discolored teeth
year of life.67 Rib fractures are typically fractures.76 Vitamin D insufficiency
Easy bruisability encountered incidentally, whereas long was not associated with multiple
Inguinal and/or umbilical hernias bone fractures commonly present with fractures, in particular rib fractures
Limb deformities swelling of the extremity. Osteopenia of or CMLs, the high specificity indica-
Hyperextensible joints
Scoliosis and/or kyphosis prematurity can be associated with tors of abuse. Perez-Rossello et al
Wormian bones of the skull rickets, and in such cases, meta- studied radiographs of 40 healthy
Demineralized bones physeal irregularities may be present. older infants and toddlers with
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vitamin D insufficiency and deficiency inflicted and noninflicted fractures oc- months of age, because fetal copper
and concluded that radiographic ra- curring in these children. At the same stores are sufficient for this length
chitic changes were uncommon and time, children with disabilities are at an of time. In addition, human milk and
very mild. In this population, the increased risk of being maltreated.82–84 formula contain sufficient copper to
reported fracture prevalence was When multiple or recurrent fractures prevent deficiency. Psychomotor re-
zero.72 occur in a disabled child, a trial change tardation, hypotonia, hypopigmentation,
In a study of 45 young children with in caregivers may be indicated to de- pallor, and a sideroblastic anemia are
radiographic evidence of rickets, termine whether the fractures can be some of the characteristic findings of
investigators found that fractures oc- prevented. This is an extreme in- copper deficiency in infants. Radiologic
curred only in those infants and tod- tervention and should be reserved for changes that should lead to further
dlers who were mobile.77 Fractures unusual circumstances.63 evaluation for possible deficiency
were seen in 17.5% of the children, include cupping and fraying of the
and these children were 8 to 19 Scurvy metaphyses, sickle-shaped metaphyseal
months of age. The fractures involved spurs, significant demineralization, and
Scurvy is caused by insufficient intake
long bones, anterior-lateral and lat- subperiosteal new bone formation.
of vitamin C, which is important for the
eral ribs, and metatarsal and meta- synthesis of collagen. Although rare
physeal regions. The metaphyseal today because formula, human milk, Menkes Disease
fractures occurred closer to the di- fruits, and vegetables contain vitamin Menkes disease, also known as
aphysis in the background of florid C, scurvy may develop in older infants Menkes kinky hair syndrome, is a rare
metaphyseal rachitic changes and and children given exclusively cow congenital defect of copper metabo-
did not resemble the juxtaphyseal milk without vitamin supplementation lism.90 Menkes disease is an X-linked
corner or bucket handle pattern of and in children who eat no foods recessive condition and occurs only in
the CML. In infant fatalities in which containing vitamin C.85–87 Although boys. Although it has many of the
abuse is suspected, rachitic changes scurvy can result in metaphyseal features of dietary copper deficiency,
appear to be rare histologically.78 changes similar to those seen with anemia is not associated with Menkes
child abuse, other characteristic bone disease. Metaphyseal fragmentation
Osteomyelitis changes, including osteopenia, in- and subperiosteal new bone forma-
Osteomyelitis in infants can present as creased sclerosis of the zones of tion may be observed on radiographs,
multiple metaphyseal irregularities provisional calcification, dense epiph- and the findings may be difficult to
potentially resembling CMLs.79 Typically, yseal rings, and extensive calcification distinguish from fractures caused by
the lesions become progressively lytic of subperiosteal and soft tissue hem- abuse.91 Other signs of Menkes dis-
and sclerotic with substantial sub- orrhages, will point to the diagnosis ease include sparse, kinky hair, cal-
periosteal new bone formation. Other of scurvy. varial wormian bones, anterior rib
signs of infection are often present, flaring, failure to thrive, and de-
such as fever, increased erythrocyte Copper Deficiency velopmental delay. A characteristic
sedimentation rate, elevated C-reactive finding is tortuous cerebral vessels.
Copper plays a role in cartilage for-
protein concentration, and elevated Intracranial hemorrhage can occur in
mation. Copper deficiency is a rare
white blood cell count. Menkes disease but has not been
condition that may be complicated by
reported in infants with copper de-
bone fractures. Preterm infants are
Fractures Secondary to ficiency.
born with lower stores of copper than
Demineralization From Disuse term infants, because copper is ac-
Any child with a severe disability that cumulated at a faster rate during the Systemic Disease
limits or prevents ambulation can be at last trimester.88 Copper insufficiency Chronic renal disease affects bone
risk for fractures secondary to disuse may be observed in children with metabolism because children with
demineralization, even with normal severe nutritional disorders, for ex- chronic renal disease may develop
handling.80,81 The fractures are usually ample, liver failure or short gut syn- a metabolic acidosis that interferes
diaphyseal rather than CMLs. Often, drome.89 This deficiency is not likely with vitamin D metabolism. Chronic
these fractures occur during physical to be observed in full-term children renal disease can cause renal osteo-
therapy and range-of-motion exercises. younger than 6 months of age or dystrophy resulting in the same ra-
It can be difficult to distinguish between preterm infants younger than 2.5 diographic changes as nutritional
PEDIATRICS Volume 133, Number 2, February 2014 e481
Downloaded from by guest on October 13, 2016rickets. Because chronic liver disease for infants. He relied on the mother’s some swelling, pain, or other signs,
(eg, biliary atresia) interferes with vi- history of decreased fetal movements such as decreased use of the ex-
tamin D metabolism, such children may and provided no independent mea- tremity, suggesting a fracture.100,101
be at an increased risk of fractures. surements of those movements. Pala- Some children, however, will have
Fanconi syndrome, hypophosphatasia, cios and Rodriguez found no evidence minimal external signs of injury.102
hypophosphatemic (vitamin D resistant) that oligohydramnios affects bone mass The absence of any history of injury,
rickets, hyperparathyroidism, and renal of the fetus, probably because fetal a vague description of the event,
tubular acidosis also cause clinical movement is only restricted in the last a delay in seeking care, the absence
variants of rickets. trimester of pregnancy by oligohy- of an explanation for an injury par-
dramnios and because the mechanical ticularly in a nonambulatory child, or
loading on the bones stimulating bone an inconsistent explanation should
Temporary Brittle Bone Disease
formation is conserved.99 increase the physician’s concern that
Hypothesis
an injury was caused by child abuse
Physicians should be aware of alter- (see Table 3).13,16
native diagnoses that are unsupported Medical Evaluation
by research but are sometimes sug- Past Medical History
History of Present Illness
gested when an infant has unexplained The past medical history is important
fractures. In 1993, Paterson proposed It is essential to obtain a detailed his-
tory to determine how an injury oc- and should include details about the
that some infants may be born with mother’s pregnancy. If the child was
bones that are temporarily more curred. If an injury in a nonverbal child
was witnessed, the caregiver should be born preterm, the infant’s bone min-
fragile or vulnerable to fracture in the eral content may be reduced, and the
context of normal handling, which he able to provide details about the child’s
infant may be at risk for fracture. A
called “temporary brittle bone dis- activity and position before an injury
history of total parental nutrition,
ease.”92 Paterson suggested that and the child’s final position and loca-
tion after the injury occurred.46 Verbal hepatobiliary disease, diuretic ther-
some trace element deficiency, such apy, hypercalciuria, or corticosteroids
as copper or a transient collagen im- children with concerning fractures
should be interviewed apart from may make the bones of a low birth
maturity, caused the disease but pro- weight infant even more vulnerable to
vided no scientific data that confirmed caregivers and ideally by a professional
who is skilled in forensic interviewing. fracture. In addition, chronic diseases,
his hypotheses and offered no specific such as renal insufficiency or meta-
test that confirmed temporary brittle A comparison of the histories provided bolic acidosis, malabsorption, cere-
bone disease.61 Subsequent studies did by caregivers of children with non- bral palsy or other neuromuscular
not support his hypotheses, and his inflicted femoral fractures and by disorders, genetic diseases that affect
case analysis has been refuted.57,93–95 caregivers of children whose injuries skeletal development, or any illness
Miller hypothesized that temporary were caused by abuse is instructive. that limits mobility, may affect bone
brittle bone disease is a result of fetal When an injury was caused by abuse, strength. A thorough dietary history
immobilization or intrauterine con- the caregiver provided either no his- and history of medications that can
finement that leads to transient bone tory of an injury or related a history of
loss or osteopenia.96,97 In support of a low-energy event. By contrast, 29% of
his hypothesis, he reported that 95% the caregivers of children with non- TABLE 3 When Is a Fracture Suspicious for
Child Abuse?
of 21 infants with multiple unexplained inflicted injuries provided some high-
fractures had decreased fetal move- energy explanation, such as a motor • No history of injury
vehicle collision or that the child fell • History of injury not plausible—mechanism
ments, according to their mothers.97,98 described not consistent with the type of
Although he used bone densitometry in from a height.16 Most of the low- fracture, the energy load needed to cause the
each patient as a basis for his con- energy mechanisms provided for the fracture, or the severity of the injury
noninflicted injuries involved falls in- • Inconsistent histories or changing histories
clusions, none of the patients had had provided by caregiver
bone densitometry performed at the cluding stair falls and siblings landing
• Fracture in a nonambulatory child
time of the fracture. The testing was on the femur during play.16,46 • Fracture of high specificity for child abuse (eg,
performed 8 to 21 weeks later, and no The child’s response to the event may rib fractures)
• Multiple fractures
infants were tested before 5 months of also provide important clues about • Fractures of different ages
age. In addition, bone densitometry the etiology. The majority of children • Other injuries suspicious for child abuse
standards have not been established with long bone fractures will have • Delay in seeking care for an injury
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predispose to fractures are impor- neck, or trunk should raise suspicion type I collagen and may identify the
tant. The physician should inquire for child abuse.105,106 The child should mutation to guide testing of other
about previous injuries including be examined for other injuries caused family members.107 Some of the less
bruises and determine the child’s de- by child abuse, in addition to signs of common forms of OI are OI types IIB
velopmental abilities, because chil- other medical conditions associated and VII, CRTAP; OI type VI, FKBP10; OI
dren who are not yet mobile are much with bone fragility. Blue sclerae are type VIII, LEPRE1; OI type IX, PPIB; OI type
more likely to have fractures caused seen in certain types of OI. Sparse, X, SERPINH1; OI type XI, SP7; OI type XII,
by abuse. kinky hair is associated with Menkes SERPINF1; and OI type XIII, BMP1. DNA
disease. Dentinogenesis imperfecta is sequencing can be performed using
Family History occasionally identified in older chil- genomic DNA isolated from peripheral
A family history of multiple fractures, dren with OI. blood mononuclear cells or even sa-
early-onset hearing loss, abnormally liva, whereas the biochemical analysis
developed dentition, blue sclera, and of type I collagen requires a skin bi-
Laboratory Evaluation
short stature should suggest the opsy. Doing both DNA analysis and
The clinical evaluation should guide skin biopsy is not indicated in most
possibility of OI.
the laboratory evaluation. In children cases. Consultation with a pediatric
with fractures suspicious for abuse, geneticist may be helpful in deciding
Social History serum calcium, phosphorus, and al- which children to test and which test
The physician should obtain a com- kaline phosphatase should be reviewed, to order.108
plete psychosocial history, including although alkaline phosphatase may be
asking who lives in the home and who elevated with healing fractures. The
has provided care for the child. The physician should consider checking Imaging Approach
history should inquire about intimate serum concentrations of parathyroid Children younger than 2 years with
partner violence, substance abuse hormone and 25-hydroxyvitamin D, as fractures suspicious for child abuse
including drugs and alcohol, mental well as urinary calcium excretion (eg, should have a radiographic skeletal
illness, and previous involvement with random urinary calcium/creatinine survey to look for other bone injuries
child protective services and/or law ratio) in all young children with or osseous abnormalities.109 Addi-
enforcement. fractures concerning for abuse, but tional fractures are identified in ap-
these levels should certainly be proximately 10% of skeletal surveys,
Physical Examination assessed if there is radiographic ev- with higher yields in infants.110 Skeletal
The child should have a comprehensive idence of osteopenia or metabolic surveys may be appropriate in some
physical examination, and the growth bone disease. Screening for abdomi- children between ages 2 and 5 years,
chart should be carefully reviewed. nal trauma with liver function studies depending on the clinical suspicion
Abnormal weight may suggest neglect as well as amylase and lipase con- of abuse. If specific clinical findings
or endocrine or metabolic disorders. centration should be performed when indicate an injury at a particular
Any signs or symptoms of fractures, severe or multiple injuries are iden- site, imaging of that area should
such as swelling, limitation of motion, tified. A urinalysis should be per- be obtained regardless of the child’s
and point tenderness should be formed to screen for occult blood. age.
documented. The physician should do Serum copper, vitamin C, and ceru- The American College of Radiology has
a complete skin examination to look loplasmin concentrations should be developed specific practice guidelines
for bruises and other skin findings considered if the child is at risk for for skeletal surveys in children.111
because bruises are the most common scurvy or copper deficiency and has Twenty-one images are obtained, in-
injury caused by child abuse. The radiographic findings that include cluding frontal images of the appen-
majority of children with fractures do metaphyseal abnormalities. dicular skeleton, frontal and lateral
not have bruising associated with the If OI is suspected, sequence analysis views of the axial skeleton, and obli-
fracture; the presence or absence of of the COL1A1 and COL1A2 genes that que views of the chest. Oblique views
such bruising does not help to de- are associated with 90% of cases of of the chest have been shown to in-
termine which fractures are caused by OI as well as other genes associated crease the sensitivity, specificity, and
child abuse.103,104 Bruising in a child with less common autosomal- accuracy of the identification of rib
who is not yet cruising or bruising in recessive forms of OI may be more fractures.112 A full 4 skull series should
unusual locations, such as the ears, sensitive than biochemical tests of be obtained if there are concerns of
PEDIATRICS Volume 133, Number 2, February 2014 e483
Downloaded from by guest on October 13, 2016head injury. Computed tomography (CT) the specific clinical indicators of of equivocal or negative skeletal sur-
3-dimensional models are valuable abuse.109 veys when there is high clinical suspi-
adjuncts to the radiographs and have Because brain injuries are often occult, cion of abuse. If available, a 18F-NaF
the potential to replace the skull se- head imaging should be considered for positron emission tomography bone
ries.113 This has not been studied sys- any child younger than 1 year with scan has better contrast and spatial
tematically in this context, however. a fracture suspicious for abuse.121 Im- resolution than 99mTc-labeled methy-
Because lateral views of the extremities aging studies may help clarify whether lene diphosphonate.120
increase yield, some authors suggest the child has been abused, provide Although bone densitometry by dual-
that these views be included in the further support for a diagnosis of child energy x-ray absorptiometry is useful
imaging protocol.114 Fractures may be abuse, and identify other injuries that to predict bone fragility and fracture
missed if the guidelines are not fol- require treatment. Additional imaging risk in older adults, interpretation of
lowed or if the images are of poor may be needed if the child has signs or bone densitometry in children and
quality.115 A repeat skeletal survey symptoms of chest, abdominal, or neck adolescents is more problematic.126 In
should be performed approximately 2 injury. adults, bone densitometry is inter-
to 3 weeks after the initial skeletal Chest CT can identify rib fractures that preted using T scores, which describe
survey if child abuse is strongly sus- are not seen on chest radiographs.122 the number of SDs above or below the
pected.109,116 The follow-up examination CT is particularly useful in detecting average peak bone mass for a gender-
may identify fractures not seen on the anterior rib fractures and rib frac- and race-adjusted reference group of
initial skeletal survey, can clarify un- tures at all stages of healing—early normal subjects. Because peak bone
certain findings identified by the initial subacute, subacute, and old fractures. mass is not achieved until approxi-
skeletal survey, and improves both Although CT may be more sensitive in mately 30 years of age, in children,
sensitivity and specificity of the skeletal identifying these injuries, a chest CT z scores must be used to express bone
survey.116,117 In one study, 13 of 19 exposes the child to significantly more density, because z scores express the
fractures found on the follow-up ex- radiation than chest radiography. Ev- child’s bone mineral density as a func-
amination were not seen on the initial ery effort should be made to reduce tion of SDs above or below the average
series.116 The number of images on the children’s exposure to radiation while for an age- and gender-matched norm
follow-up examination may be limited at the same time considering the risk control population.127 In addition, be-
to 15 views by omitting the views of the to the child if abuse is not identi- cause bone size influences dual-energy
skull, pelvis, and lateral spine.118 x-ray absorptiometry, z scores must
fied.123 Therefore, selective application
Radiography may assist in assessing also be adjusted for height z scores.128
of this technique in certain clinical
the approximate time when an injury The International Society for Clinical
settings is appropriate.
occurred because long bone fractures Densitometry recommends that the
Other modalities may become available diagnosis of osteoporosis in childhood
heal following a particular sequence.119 in the future that will provide more
If the healing pattern is not consistent should not be made on the basis of low
accurate identification of skeletal inju- bone mass alone but should also in-
with the explanation provided, the ries. Whole-body short tau inverse re-
accuracy of the explanation should be clude a clinically significant history
covery imaging, a magnetic resonance of low-impact fracture. The recom-
questioned. imaging (MRI) technique, may identify mendations currently apply to chil-
Bone scintigraphy may be used to rib fractures not recognized on the dren 5 years and older, although
complement the skeletal survey but radiographic skeletal survey.124 In reference data are available for chil-
should not be the sole method of a study of 21 infants with suspected dren as young as 3 years.129,130 Un-
identifying fractures in infants. Al- abuse, whole-body MRI at 1.5-Tesla was fortunately, there are limited reference
though it has high overall sensitivity, it insensitive in the detection of CMLs data for the young, nonverbal child
lacks specificity for fracture detection and rib fractures. In some cases, who is most at risk for suffering frac-
and may fail to identify CMLs and skull whole-body MRI identified soft tissue tures caused by child abuse.
fractures.109,119,120 Scintigraphy does edema and joint effusions that led to
have high sensitivity for identifying rib the identification of skeletal injuries
fractures, which can be difficult to with additional radiographs.125 Bone Evaluation of Siblings
detect before healing. In toddlers and scintigraphy with 18F-sodium fluoride Siblings, especially twins, and other
older children, the use of bone scin- positron emission tomography (18F-NaF young household members of children
tigraphy or skeletal survey depends on PET) bone scan may be useful in cases who have been physically abused
e484 FROM THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF PEDIATRICS
Downloaded from by guest on October 13, 2016FROM THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF PEDIATRICS
should be evaluated for maltreat- groups and across all racial and ethnic Emalee G. Flaherty, MD, FAAP
ment.131 In a study of 795 siblings in groups. Many of these diagnoses are John M. Leventhal, MD, FAAP
James L. Lukefahr, MD, FAAP
400 households of a child who had complex. If a physician is uncertain Robert D. Sege MD, PhD, FAAP
been abused or neglected, all sib- about how to evaluate an injury or if
lings in 37% of households and some they should suspect a fracture was LIAISONS
siblings in 20% of households had caused by child abuse, they should Harriet MacMillan, MD – American Academy of
suffered some form of maltreat- consult a child abuse pediatrician Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
Catherine M. Nolan, MSW, ACSW – Administration
ment.132 In this study, which included or multidisciplinary child abuse team for Children, Youth, and Families
all manifestations of maltreatment, to assist in the evaluation, particu- Linda Anne Valley, PhD – Centers for Disease
siblings were found to be more at larly if the child is nonambulatory Control and Prevention
risk for maltreatment if the index or younger than 1 year of age. 134 In
child suffered moderate or severe certain circumstances, the physician STAFF
maltreatment. In addition to a careful will need to consult an orthopedist, Tammy Piazza Hurley
evaluation, imaging should be consid- endocrinologist, geneticist, or other
ered for any siblings younger than 2 subspecialists. SECTION ON RADIOLOGY EXECUTIVE
years, especially if there are signs of COMMITTEE, 2012–2013
All US states, commonwealths, and
Christopher I. Cassady, MD, FAAP, Chairperson
abuse. territories have mandatory reporting Dorothy I. Bulas, MD, FAAP
requirements for physicians and John A. Cassese, MD, FAAP
DIAGNOSIS other health care providers when Amy R. Mehollin-Ray, MD, FAAP
Maria-Gisela Mercado-Deane, MD, FAAP
When evaluating a child with a frac- child abuse is suspected. Physicians
Sarah Sarvis Milla, MD, FAAP
ture, physicians must take a careful should be aware of and comply with
history of any injury event and the reporting requirements of their
STAFF
then determine whether the mechan- state. Typically, the standard for Vivian Thorne
ism described and the severity and making a report is when the reporter
timing are consistent with the injury “suspects” or “has reason to believe”
SECTION ON ENDOCRINOLOGY
identified (see Table 3).133 They must that a child has been abused or EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, 2012–2103
consider and evaluate for possible di- neglected. Sometimes determining Irene N. Sills, MD, FAAP, Chairperson
agnoses in addition to other signs or whether that “reasonable belief” or Clifford A. Bloch, MD, FAAP
symptoms of child abuse. A careful “reasonable suspicion” standard has Samuel J. Casella, MD, MSc, FAAP
Joyce M. Lee, MD, FAAP
evaluation for other injuries is im- been met can be nuanced and com- Jane Lockwood Lynch, MD, FAAP
portant because the presence of ad- plex. The physician should keep in Kupper A. Wintergerst, MD, FAAP
ditional injuries that are associated mind that incontrovertible proof of
with child abuse increases the likeli- abuse or neglect is not required by STAFF
hood that a particular fracture was state statutes, and there may be Laura Laskosz, MPH
inflicted.16,43 It is important to re- cases in which it is reasonable to
member that even if a child has an consult with a child abuse pediatri- SECTION ON ORTHOPEDICS EXECUTIVE
underlying disorder or disability that cian about whether a report should COMMITTEE, 2012–2013
be made. Richard M. Schwend, MD, FAAP, Chairperson
could increase the likelihood of J. Eric Gordon, MD, FAAP
a fracture, the child may also have Norman Y. Otsuka, MD, FAAP
been abused because children with LEAD AUTHOR Ellen M. Raney, MD, FAAP
disabilities and other special health Emalee G. Flaherty, MD, FAAP Brian A. Shaw, MD, FAAP
Brian G. Smith, MD, FAAP
care needs are at increased risk of
Lawrence Wells, MD, FAAP
child abuse.83,84 Physicians should Paul W. Esposito, MD, USBJD Liaison
COMMITTEE ON CHILD ABUSE AND
keep an open mind to the possibility of NEGLECT, 2012–2013
abuse and remember that child Cindy W. Christian, MD, FAAP, Chairperson STAFF
abuse occurs in all socioeconomic James E. Crawford-Jakubiak, MD, FAAP Niccole Alexander, MPP
PEDIATRICS Volume 133, Number 2, February 2014 e485
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