EURASIAN JOURNAL OF LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LINGUISTIC STUDIES
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EURASIAN JOURNAL OF LANGUAGE
TEACHING AND LINGUISTIC STUDIES
ISSN: (Online): 2757-8232
Eurasian Journal of Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 1(1),
14-29; 2021
A Study on the reflection levels of pre-service EFL teachers
Arif Sarıçobana , Özkan Kırmızıb 1
a
Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey
b
,Karabuk University, Karabuk, Turkey
APA Citation:
Sarıçoban, A., & Kırmızı, Ö.. (2021). A Study on the reflection levels of pre-service EFL teachers. Eurasian Journal of Language Teaching
and Linguistic Studies, 1(1), 14-29.
Article Type: Research Article
Submission Date:01/02/2021
Acceptance Date:07/02/2021
Publication Date: 19/02/2021
Abstract
The term “reflection” was introduced into educational literature by John Dewey in 1933, and since then it has
received remarkable interest from scholars. It is crucial because it tends to reflect the multi-faceted nature of the
teaching profession. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to measure the reflection levels of pre-service
EFL teachers so that necessary action can be taken. In order to collect data, the Reflection Levels Questionnaire,
developed by Larrivee (2008), was utilized. This questionnaire aims to assess teachers’ level of reflective practice
on the basis of four levels, which are pre-reflection, surface reflection, pedagogical reflection, and critical
reflection. The study was conducted with 70 pre-service EFL teachers. The results indicate that pre-service EFL
teachers have a moderate level of reflection in terms of the four sub-dimensions.
© 2021 EAJLTLS and the Authors - Published by EAJLTLS.
Keywords: Reflection, instructional beliefs, EFL teachers, critical reflection, pedagogical reflection
1. Introduction
An essential component of teachers’ thinking and teacher education programs, reflection allows pre-
service teachers to monitor and assess their experiences and develop conceptual frameworks to enhance
their awareness, beliefs and assumptions. Since quality provision is one of the most important pursuits
of educational institutions all over the world today, the demand for reflective educators is high
(Krishnaratne, White, & Carpenter, 2013). It is viewed as an essential ingredient to support teachers and
enable them to remain well-informed of effective practice (Grossman, 2009; Brookfield, 2017).
According to Soomro (2018), academic and professional contexts are essential in providing rehearsal
for reflection. The contemporary approach in teacher educations is to view pre-service teachers as
“active, thinking decision makers” (Borg, 2003, p. 81) instead of receivers or imparters of knowledge.
And the postmodern way of thinking seems to endorse this view (Moradkhani et al., 2017). Pre-service
teachers are expected to “theorize from their practice and practice what they theorize”.
1
Corresponding author:
E-mail address: ozkankirmizi@karabuk.edu.tr. Sarıçoban & Kırmızı / Eurasian Journal of Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 1(1) (2021) 14–29 15 Scholars in the field of language education continuously develop themselves in their careers and out this knowledge they can draw a big part of their knowledge requirements of language teacher education (Richards & Farrell, 2005). According to recent research, that is what makes up the reflective practice (Farrell, 2018). Language teachers, pre-service or in-service, need to make sense of reflective practice by taking responsibility of taking care of their professional practice by asking themselves questions like what they are doing or how they should do it (Farrell, 2015a). It was John Dewey (1933) who first came up with the term “reflective practice”. Dewey (1933), nine decades ago, was trying to address the meaning-making process through which learners broaden their perspectives on how they internalize their experiences. Dewey (1933) believed that effective reflection practice requires a systematic, meticulous, and organized thinking style. This is possible through retrospective study of past events, by forming assumptions about them, and constructing an individual mental framework regarding their future teaching in relation to their own ideas and attitudes. In recent times, the contributions of learners, teachers and larger socio-political context to the complex foreign language learning/teaching process have also been problematized in academic studies (Gao, 2008; Zhang & Said, 2014) as opposed to the mere emphasis on language teaching theories or methods. With this recognition, the reflective teaching in foreign language education has come to fore (Kumaravadivelu, 2006; Ryder, 2012). 1.1. Theoretical background As was stated, the term “reflective practice” is credited to John Dewey (1933). According to Dewey, reflection represents a meaning-making process by which pre-service teachers empower their understanding of their experiences. Dewey suggested that to become reflective, systematicity, rigorousness, and a disciplined approach to thinking are pre-requisites, which requires retrospection, forming personal judgements and thus forming future awareness as to teaching practices. The term reflection is defined differently by various researchers. According to Milrood (1999, p. 10), for example, reflection is "the process of mirroring the environment non-judgmentally or critically for the purpose of decision-making.” In this definition, the expression “…. critically for the purpose of decision-making” indicate that teacher agency and autonomy are important. Bolton (2010) views reflection as “an in-depth consideration of events or situations: the people involved, what they experience, and how they felt about it” (p. 19). Farrell (2015a: 15) views reflective practice as “a compass of sorts to guide teachers when they may be seeking direction as to what they are doing in the classrooms”. In a similar manner, this definition includes the expression “… seeking direction as to what they are doing in the classrooms” which again indicates that through effective reflection teachers can decide on their future actions. Basically, reflection can be viewed as the ability to present and cope with problems posed by the practice of teaching and self to be more aware of various options in the face of problems that may emerge during teaching and then contextualizing such problems so that they could discover actions to improve the situation (Schon, 1983). Shon points out two terms: (a) reflection on action and (b) reflection in action. The former one takes place after the practice is over while the latte occurs in the course of teaching. Today, most researchers view reflection as a crucial component of teachers’ mental lives (Barnhart & van Es, 2015; Darling-Hammond & Snyder, 2000). As is indicated by Taiten et al. (2016), rather than emerging in steps and procedures, reflection should be viewed as an integral part of teachers’ experiences, must be conducted to meet classroom procedures, facilitate solving problems, and provide a holistic approach for teachers. It is a process whereby teachers, particularly pre-service teachers, make sense of their profession so that they can connect experiences and ideas, thus developing professionally (Hayden, Moore- Russo, & Marino, 2013).
. Sarıçoban & Kırmızı / Eurasian Journal of Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 1(1) (2021) 14–29 16 1.2. Literature review Reflection is a hot topic in EFL teacher education literature. In the first place, it must be noted that experiences are influential in pre-service teachers’ learning processes, thereby providing a link between newly acquired knowledge to former experiences (Hudson et al., 2010). Therefore, pre-service EFL teachers should be provided with as much opportunities as possible to enhance pre-service EFL teachers’ reflection. Körkkö et al. (2016) worked on the relation between professional development and reflection. Their results indicated that pre-service teachers benefitted from the feedback provided to them in practicum process, providing them encouragement to develop practical theories and to learn how theory is put into practice. They also reported improvement in their reflection levels. Such insights imply that pre-service EFL teacher education programs enhance professional development. Kimmelmann and Lang (2019) studied how effective cooperative learning principles are in teacher education and discovered that pre- service teachers benefit in many ways through cooperative learning. This exemplifies how dialogic teaching in pre-service EFL teachers can be. In another study, Akcan (2016) studied the reflection levels of pre-service teacher with a view to investigating pre-service teachers’ reflections from the perspective of their teacher education programs. The findings demonstrated that lesson delivery, managing behaviour, unmotivated students, and students with learning disabilities were the main sources of difficulty. Taiten et al. (2016) examined reflection processes of three pre-service EFL teachers during their practicum process through unstructured stimulated recall technique and found that both teacher educators and mentors are supposed to acknowledge the significance of teaching practicum at the very onset. Based on a holistic approach, Farell and Kennedy (2019) found evidence for the holistic approach of Farell, based on the well-known themes of approachability, art-oriented conceptions, and curiosity. Another curious study was conducted by Moradkhania and Shirazizadeh (2017). They studied the role of contextual factors in relation to teacher reflectivity, the contexts encompassing private and state institutions. The results indicated more reflectivity on the part of teachers in private institutions, and more active involvement. However, the two groups did not differ in terms of higher levels of reflection (metacognitive and critical reflection). The study concluded that the significant factors in teacher reflectivity were knowledge of reflection, institutional demands, teachers’ attitude toward teaching, availability of resources, and collegial support. Demissie (2015) studied the role of forming professional communities in which teachers talked about their problems and solutions and found that such practices foster teachers’ reflective thinking. Emphasizing the role of research, Impedovo and Malik (2016) figured out that master programs that offer action research are particularly beneficial for teachers’ reflection. Farrell’s (2015b) metanalysis found that both pre-service and in-service teachers were interested in reflecting on their practices and thought that they benefitted from reflecting on various aspects of their practice. In another study in teacher education, Parsons and Stephenson (2005) worked on the way pre-service teachers established the capacity to reflect on their practice through collaboration and found that one key element in developing pre-service EFL teachers’ reflection is social interaction. Watanebe (2016) focused on in-service teacher education and indicated teacher reflection increases as teachers take part in teacher training programs. Overall, having been introduced to education literature in 1933 by Dewey, it can be said that the term reflection is a crucial aspect of teachers’ lives, both in-service and pre-service as it enables teachers to have an effective, purposeful and stable thinking process. It is indicated that teachers benefit from reflective procedures. First of all, it can be said that when teachers are encouraged to reflect critically
. Sarıçoban & Kırmızı / Eurasian Journal of Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 1(1) (2021) 14–29 17
on their practices, they improve their self-awareness and critical thinking skills (Farrell, 2011; Kabilan,
2007; Farrell, 2013). Through effective reflection, it was indicated that they also have a chance to
monitor their performance (Farrell, 2015b). Last but not the least, through reflection teachers find grand
opportunities for innovative instructional strategies (Messmann & Mulder, 2015). What is more, as was
indicated by Moradkhania and Shirazizadeh (2017), teachers can make use of reflective strategies to
solve their problems. Moreover, While the term reflection is a hot spot in teacher education, including
EFL teacher education, empirical evidence is needed to see whether all teacher equally adopt reflection
(Marcos, García-Rodrí- guez, and Tillema 2013). As such, reflection should receive more attention in
teacher education literature, and it should be a viable area of research. Studies are needed to further
understand EFL teachers, either pre-service or in-service, reflection levels.
The aim of the present study is to measure reflection levels of pre-service EFL teachers. Gender and
grade differences are also sought after in the context of the study. Therefore, the study aims at answering
the following research questions:
1. What are the perceived levels of reflection of pre-service EFL learners in terms of pre-reflection,
surface reflection, pedagogical reflection, and critical reflection?
2. Do male and female pre-service teachers differ in terms of their perceived levels of pre-reflection,
surface reflection, pedagogical reflection, and critical reflection?
3. Are there statistically significant differences between 1st grade and 4th grade pre-service EFL teachers
in terms of pre-reflection, surface reflection, pedagogical reflection, and critical reflection?
2. Method
2.1. Data collection tool
Reflection Levels Questionnaire: In order to measure, EFL teachers’ reflection levels, a questionnaire,
developed by Larrivee (2008), was used. This questionnaire aims to assess teachers’ level of reflective
practice on the basis of four levels, which are pre-reflection, surface reflection, pedagogical reflection,
and critical reflection.
Table 1. Sub-dimensions of reflection
Level of reflection Characteristics
Pre-reflection Pre-reflection implies that teachers react to classroom situations in pre-set ways, not
attempting to question them, not changing their teaching style in relation to students’
feedback.
Surface reflection Surface reflection implies that teachers aim to accomplish pre-determined goals by
means of simple methods and strategies
Pedagogical reflection Pedagogical reflection implies that teachers reflect on the theories and teaching
methods, the instructional target, and the praxis between theory and practice. They try
to combine theory and practice.
Critical reflection Critical reflection implies that teachers take into consideration ethical and social
aspects of their classroom actions.
The reliability analysis of the questionnaire indicated that it is highly reliable (,852). The values for sub-
dimensions also indicate a high level of reliability, as presented in Table 2.. Sarıçoban & Kırmızı / Eurasian Journal of Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 1(1) (2021) 14–29 18
Table 2. Reliability analysis
item number of items Cronbach’s alpha
Pre-reflection 14 ,709
Surface reflection 12 ,732
Pedagogical reflection 13 ,858
Critical reflection 14 ,817
Total 53 ,852
2.2. Participants
Table 3 present the descriptive statistics about the participants. As we can understand from the table, the
total number of the participants is 71. Of these, 55 are female and 16 are male participants. The number
of participants in 1. grade is 37, and the number of participants for 4th grade is 32. Only 1 participant are
found in 2nd and 3rd grade.
Table 3. The participants.
grade Total
1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 grade
female 32 1 1 21 55
gender
male 5 0 0 11 16
Total 37 1 1 32 71
3. Findings
In this section, findings are presented descriptively. Descriptive findings pertaining to four sub-
dimensions, pre-reflection, surface reflection, pedagogical reflection, and critical reflection, are
presented. The average scores were presented in tables. Items that are above that average were
considered “agree”, items that are close to the average score were considered as “partially agree” and
items that are lower than the average score were considered as “disagree”.
3.1. Pre-reflection
A careful analysis of Table 4 indicates that the participants would serve in line with pre-determined
standards without making adaptation based on students’ responses (M=3,0857), they would take much
of their time in classroom management, control and student compliance (M=3,4203), and would view
student and classroom circumstances taking place out of their control (M=3,0714). Pre-service teachers
also reported that they would be rather simplistic and unidimensional in discussing problems
(M=3,1571), would not see beyond immediate demands of a teaching episode (M=2,8732), would view
students and others responsible for potential problems (M=3,2817), and finally would see themselves as
a victim of circumstances (M=3,1549). The participants also partially agreed that they perform in a
survival mode, reacting automatically without consideration of alternative responses (M=2,7571).
Survival mode implies that they would not do much to reflect on their practices.
On the other hand, the participants do not think that they would not support beliefs and assertions with
evidence from experience, theory or research (M=2.49), were willing to take things for granted
(M=2,3857), and dismiss students’ perspectives without due consideration (M=2,2958).. Sarıçoban & Kırmızı / Eurasian Journal of Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 1(1) (2021) 14–29 19
Table 4. Descriptive statistics about pre-reflection
When I become a teacher, … N Min Max Mean Result
I would perform in a survival mode, reacting automatically without Partially
70 1,00 5,00 2,7571
consideration of alternative responses. agree
2. I would function based on pre-set standards of operation without
70 1,00 5,00 3,0857 Agree
adapting or restructuring based on students’ responses.
3. I would not support beliefs and assertions with evidence from
71 1,00 5,00 2,4930 Disagree
experience, theory or research.
4. I would be willing to take things for granted without questioning. 70 1,00 5,00 2,3857 Disagree
5. I would be preoccupied with classroom management, control and
69 1,00 5,00 3,4203 Agree
student compliance.
6. I would ignore the interdependence between teacher and students’
71 1,00 5,00 2,3380 Disagree
actions.
7. I would view student and classroom circumstances as beyond my
70 1,00 5,00 3,0714 Agree
control.
8. I would dismiss students’ perspectives without due consideration. 71 1,00 5,00 2,2958 Disagree
9. I would see no need for thoughtfully connecting teaching actions with
71 1,00 4,00 2,2254 Disagree
student learning or behaviour.
10. I would discuss problems simplistically or unidimensionally. 70 1,00 5,00 3,1571 Agree
11. I would not see beyond immediate demands of a teaching episode. 71 1,00 5,00 2,8732 Agree
12. I would attribute ownership of problems to students or others. 71 1,00 5,00 3,2817 Agree
13. I would fail to consider differing needs of learners. 70 1,00 5,00 2,4714 Disagree
14. I would see myself as a victim of circumstances. 71 1,00 5,00 3,1549 Agree
Total 63 2,7864
3.2. Surface reflection
Table 5 indicates that the participants believe that they would support beliefs only with evidence from
experience (M=3,1571), would provide limited space for students’ different learning styles (M=3,1014),
would make adjustments based on past experience (M=3,6087). What is more, pre-service EFL teachers
also think that they would provide some differentiated instruction to address students’ individual
differences (M=3,7015), and follow orders rather be innovative because they do not want to get in
trouble (M=3,0145). The participants also partially agreed that their teaching would be limited to
technical questions about teaching techniques (M=2,9429) and would question the utility of specific
teaching practices but not general policies or practices (M=29855).
On the other hand, the participants stated that they would not connect specific methods to underlying
theory (M=2,5571), would not react to student responses differentially (M=2,7000), would not adjust
teaching practices only to current situation without developing a long-term plan (M=2,6377), and would
not would implement solutions to problems that focus only on short-term results (M=2,5797).. Sarıçoban & Kırmızı / Eurasian Journal of Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 1(1) (2021) 14–29 20
Table 5. Descriptive statistics about surface reflection
When I become a teacher, … N Min Max M Result
1. My analysis of teaching practices would be limited to technical Partially
70 1,00 5,00 2,9429
questions about teaching techniques. agree
2. I would modify teaching strategies without challenging underlying
70 1,00 5,00 3,0143 Agree
assumptions about teaching and learning.
3. I would not connect specific methods to underlying theory 70 1,00 5,00 2,5571 Disagree
4. I would support beliefs only with evidence from experience. 70 1,00 5,00 3,1571 Agree
5. I would provide limited accommodations for students’ different learning
69 1,00 5,00 3,1014 Agree
styles.
6. I would react to student responses differentially but fail to recognize the
70 1,00 5,00 2,7000 Disagree
patterns.
7. I would adjust teaching practices only to current situation without
69 1,00 5,00 2,6377 Disagree
developing a long-term plan.
8. I would implement solutions to problems that focus only on short-term
69 1,00 5,00 2,5797 Disagree
results.
9. I would make adjustments based on past experience. 69 1,00 5,00 3,6087 Agree
10. I would question the utility of specific teaching practices but not Partially
69 1,00 5,00 2,9855
general policies or practices. agree
11. I would provide some differentiated instruction to address students’
67 2,00 5,00 3,7015 Agree
individual differences.
12. I would follow orders rather be innovative because I do not want to get
69 1,00 5,00 3,0145 Agree
in trouble.
Total 67 3,000
3.3. Pedagogical reflection
Table 6 presents the results pertaining to pedagogical reflection. A careful analysis of the table reveals
that the participants would try to bridge teaching practices and student learning (M=3,8406), would seek
methods to relate new concepts to students’ former knowledge (M=3,8406), and would find alternative
ways of presenting ideas and concepts to students (M=3,9559). They also stated that they would be able
to see the complexity of classroom dynamics (M=3,8971), would value students’ prior learning and
experiences (M=4,0000), and would believe that teaching process should be open to further investigation
(M=3,8209).
On the other hand, the participants disagreed that they would try to develop learning for all students
(M=3,7826), would be really interested in the effectiveness of teaching practices, leading to
experimentation and risk-taking (M= 3,7206), and would constructively criticize themselves
(M=3,6515). What is more, they disagreed that they would arrange methods and strategies according to
students’ relative performance (M=3,7794), analyze the impact of task structures, such as cooperative
learning groups, partner, peer or other groupings, on students’ learning (M=3,7941), and would value
continuous learning (M=3,6957).. Sarıçoban & Kırmızı / Eurasian Journal of Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 1(1) (2021) 14–29 21
Table 6. Descriptive pedagogical reflection
When I become a teacher, … N Min Max Mean Result
27. I would analyze relationship between teaching practices and student
69 1,00 5,00 3,8406 Agree
learning.
28. I would strive to enhance learning for all students. 69 1,00 5,00 3,7826 Disagree
29. I would seek ways to connect new concepts to students’ prior
69 2,00 5,00 3,8406 Agree
knowledge.
30. I would have genuine curiosity about the effectiveness of teaching
68 2,00 5,00 3,7206 Disagree
practices, leading to experimentation and risk-taking.
31. I would engage in constructive criticism of one’s own teaching. 66 2,00 5,00 3,6515 Disagree
32. I would adjust methods and strategies based on students’ relative
68 1,00 5,00 3,7794 Disagree
performance.
33. I would analyze the impact of task structures, such as cooperative learning
68 1,00 5,00 3,7941 Disagree
groups, partner, peer or other groupings, on students’ learning.
34. I would have commitment to continuous learning and improved practice. 69 1,00 5,00 3,6957 Disagree
35. I would identify alternative ways of representing ideas and concepts to Agree
68 1,00 5,00 3,9559
students.
36. I would recognize the complexity of classroom dynamics. 68 2,00 5,00 3,8971 Agree
37. I would acknowledge what students bring to the learning process. 66 1,00 5,00 4,0000 Agree
38. I would consider students’ perspectives in decision making. 66 1,00 5,00 3,9394 Agree
39. I would see teaching practices as remaining open to further investigation. 67 1,00 5,00 3,8209 Agree
Total 64 3,8244
3.4. Critical reflection
Finally, descriptive statistics related to critical reflection are presented in Table 7. We can understand
from the table that the participants locate practice within the broader sociological, cultural, historical,
and political contexts (M=3,8182), would monitor themselves in the process of teaching (M=4,0000),
and would accept the social and political implications of their teaching (M=3,9231). They also reported
that they would promote socially responsible actions in the students (M=4,0588). The participants
partially agreed that they would address issues of equity and social justice that arise in and outside of
the classroom (M=3,6667), and challenge assumptions about students and expectations for students
(M=3,6567).
On the other hand, the participants seem to disagree with the following points. They think that they
would not consider the ethical consequences of classroom policies and practices (M=3,6308), would
challenge status quo norms and practices, especially with respect to power and control (M=3,5538), or
would call commonly-held beliefs into question (M=3,500). It seems that most novice teachers abstain
from taking initiative in terms of ethical issues or questioning the status quo norms. They also stated
that they would fail to be an active inquirer, both critiquing current conclusions and generating new
hypotheses (M=3,6119).. Sarıçoban & Kırmızı / Eurasian Journal of Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 1(1) (2021) 14–29 22
Table 7. Descriptive statistics about critical reflection
When I become a teacher, … N Min Max M Result
1. I would view practice within the broader sociological, cultural, historical,
66 1,00 5,00 3,8182 Agree
and political contexts.
2. I would consider the ethical ramifications of classroom policies and Disagree
65 1,00 5,00 3,6308
practices.
3. I would address issues of equity and social justice that arise in and outside Partially
66 1,00 5,00 3,6667
of the classroom. agree
4. I would challenge status quo norms and practices, especially with respect Disagree
65 2,00 5,00 3,5538
to power and control.
5. I would observe myself in the process of teaching. 67 1,00 5,00 4,0000 Agree
6. I would be aware of incongruence between beliefs and actions and takes
64 2,00 5,00 3,6094 Disagree
action to rectify.
7. I would acknowledge the social and political consequences of my
65 2,00 5,00 3,9231 Agree
teaching.
8. I would be an active inquirer, both critiquing current conclusions and Disagree
67 1,00 5,00 3,6119
generating new hypotheses.
9. I would challenge assumptions about students and expectations for Partially
67 1,00 5,00 3,6567
students. agree
10. I would suspend judgments to consider all options. 67 1,00 5,00 3,5224 Disagree
11. I would recognize assumptions and premises underlying beliefs. 67 1,00 5,00 3,5522 Disagree
12. I would call commonly-held beliefs into question. 66 2,00 5,00 3,5000 Disagree
13. I would acknowledge that teaching practices and policies can either Partially
66 1,00 5,00 3,6667
contribute to, or hinder, the realization of a more just and humane society. agree
14. I would encourage socially responsible actions in the students 68 2,00 5,00 4,0588 Agree
Total 60 3,6979
3.5. Gender differences
Within the scope of the present study, gender differences were sought after in relation to perceived levels
of reflection. As we can understand from Table 8, male and female pre-service EFL teachers differ in
terms of two of the items. The first one is about pre-reflection dimension. Male participants seem to
perform in a survival mode and react automatically without consideration (M=3,3333) while female pre-
service EFL teachers disagree that they act in a survival mode (M=2,600). Another difference is in terms
of whether pre-service EFL teachers would provide limited space for students’ learning styles. Female
students seem to be stricter in terms of this point (M=3,2642). It can be speculated that they will not, at
least in their initial years, focus on different learning styles.
Table 8. T-test results as to gender
Items gender f mean F sig.
I perform in a survival mode, reacting automatically without consideration female 55 2,6000 -2,714 ,008
of alternative responses. male 15 3,3333
I provide limited accommodations for students’ different learning styles. female 53 3,2642 2,437 ,017
male 16 2,5625. Sarıçoban & Kırmızı / Eurasian Journal of Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 1(1) (2021) 14–29 23
3.6. Differences in grade level
The third aim of the study was to see whether 1st grade pre-service EFL teachers differ from 4th graders
in terms of the sub-dimensions of reflection. The results are presented in Table 9. A careful analysis of
the table indicates that 1st grade and 4th grade pre-service EFL teachers differ in terms of items related
to pre-reflection, surface reflection, and critical reflection. For the first item, the mean score for 1st grade
pre-service EFL teachers is lower (M=2,4595), indicating that they are less likely to perform in a survival
mode. This may be because they have a long time to become a teacher and may not be able to assess the
importance of this kind of reflection. The second item where 1st and 4th grade pre-service EFL teachers
differ is whether they are preoccupied with classroom management and control. In this item, the mean
score for 4th graders is higher than the 1st graders, indicating that 4th graders are more close to the realities
of classroom and they started to have concerns about it. This is supported by the next item, which is
about whether pre-service EFL teachers would consider differing needs of learners. For this item also,
the mean score of 4th grade pre-service EFL teachers (M=3,4688) is higher than 1st grades (M=2,2500).
In a similar vein, there is also a difference in terms of whether they would adjust methods and strategies
based on students’ performance. For this item also, 4th grade pre-service EFL teachers have a higher
mean score (M=3,81125). This also supports the view that 4th graders are becoming more concerned
about the realities of the classroom. Finally, as for whether they would challenge the status quo, 4 th
graders ranked higher than 1st graders (M=3,1818, M=3,9355, respectively). This is good news because
we are after teachers who can challenged established practices for betterment.
Table 9. Statistical differences in terms grade
When I become a teacher, … gender f mean t sig.
I would perform in a survival mode, reacting automatically without 1 grade 37 2,4595 -3,147 ,002
consideration of alternative responses. 4 grade 31 3,1613
I would be preoccupied with classroom management, control and student 1 grade 36 3,1667 -2,066 ,043
compliance.
4 grade 31 3,6452
I would fail to consider differing needs of learners. 1 grade 36 2,2500 -2,111 ,039
4 grade 32 2,7500
I would adjust methods and strategies based on students’ relative 1 grade 32 3,4688 -2,016 ,048
performance.
4 grade 32 3,8125
I would challenge status quo norms and practices, especially with 1 grade 33 3,1818 -4,023 ,000
respect to power and control.
4 grade 31 3,9355
4. Discussion
The present study aimed at grasping the overall situation in pre-service EFL teachers’ reflection levels.
The study is descriptive in nature. In the present study, reflection was considered under four main sub-
dimensions, which are pre-reflection, surface reflection, pedagogical reflection, and critical reflection.
The secondary aim of the study was to see whether there are gender and grade level differences in terms
of reflection levels of pre-service EFL teachers.
As for pre-reflection, the findings of the present study indicated that the participants tend to act based
on pre-set standards, be preoccupied with classroom management and control. One important point
revealed by the results is that some of the participants, especially lower grades, tend to believe that the
classroom control would be beyond their control. This can be attributed to the fact that they are not
equipped with the necessary skills as to classroom management yet.. Sarıçoban & Kırmızı / Eurasian Journal of Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 1(1) (2021) 14–29 24 When it comes to surface reflection, it is indicated that by the results that the participants would base their beliefs and adjustments on experience. This endorses the idea that experiences play a huge role in the formation of beliefs and judgements, which is a general finding in teacher cognition research. Another bad news is that according to the findings a number of pre-service EFL teachers stated that follow orders rather be innovative because they do not want to get in trouble, and they would question the utility of specific teaching practices but not general policies or practices. These findings indicate that pre-service EFL teachers need guidance in such importance domains. With regard to pedagogical reflection, the findings indicated that the participants may have a tendency to analyze the correlation between teaching practices and student learning, are willing to connect new concepts to students’ prior knowledge, and they would recognize the complexity of classroom dynamics. The results also show that pre-service EFL teachers would value what students bring to the learning process and they would value creativity. However, some bad news is also here to stay. The participants stated that they would try to enhance learning for all students, would be really interested in the effectiveness of teaching practices, and would constructively criticize themselves. Worse than that, they think that they will not adjust methods and strategies based on students’ relative performance and analyze the impact of task structures, such as cooperative learning groups, partner, peer or other groupings, on students’ learning. It is speculated that the reason for this may be insufficient knowledge of pre-service EFL teachers in the stated domains. The lesson to draw from here is that first of all teachers’ reflection levels, whether pre-service or in-service, must be gauged with great care and the necessary guidance must be provided to them. The final dimension of reflection in the present study was critical reflection. The findings as to critical reflection showed that the participants would view their practice within the broader sociological, cultural, historical, and political contexts, would observe themselves in the process of teaching, and would acknowledge the social and political consequences of their teaching. They also reported that they would encourage socially responsible actions in the students. These are good news. The bad news is that the participants would not consider the ethical consequences of classroom policies and practices, not challenge status quo norms and practices or would call commonly-held beliefs into question. pre-service EFL teachers seem to avoid taking initiative in terms of ethical issues or questioning the status quo norms. When it comes to gender differences in terms of reflection, the results indicated that male participants seem to perform in a survival mode and react automatically without consideration. Another difference is related to whether they would provide limited space for students’ learning styles. Female students seem to be stricter in terms of this point. It can be speculated that they will not, at least in their initial years, focus on different learning styles. Finally, some prominent insights have also been drawn as to grade level differences in relation to reflection. The results demonstrated that 1st grade students and 4th graders differ in some significant points in relation to all four sub-dimensions of reflection. For example, 4th graders would be more preoccupied with classroom management issues compared to 1st graders. This is an expected result because 4th graders are closer to become teachers and they are anxious about it. In a similar manner, the results show that 4th graders would be more concerned about the needs of learners in classroom. As for teaching methods and strategies, 4th graders indicated that they would be more likely to adjust their teaching methods based on the realities of the classroom. These results demonstrated that 4th graders are becoming more concerned about the realities of the classroom. The overall findings of the present study also show that reflection is an indispensable component of teacher education. However, the fragmentary evidence as to pre-service EFL teachers indicated in the presented study clearly show that teacher education programs must attach more attention to teacher
. Sarıçoban & Kırmızı / Eurasian Journal of Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 1(1) (2021) 14–29 25 reflection. In short, it can be said that the term reflection, introduced by Dewey in 1933 in order to explain and guide the educational subjects in depth, assumes great importance in the field of education. Through effective reflection, teachers can improve their autonomy, thus contributing to their agency. As such, teachers or practitioners can solve their own problems effectively. Michell (2017, p. 166) quite reasonably suggests that “teaching reflective practice is not easy, nor is engagement with the reflective process.”. However, it is an indispensable part of education process, both on the part of students and teachers in particular. Therefore, as was indicated by Nam (2017), teachers should be supported so that they can be able to reflect critically on themselves. Furthermore, in literature there are studies that show that teachers’ attitudes towards reflection can be turned to positive. For example, Nocetti et al. (2020) indicated that it is possible to cultivate positive attitudes towards reflection through various learning communities. Therefore, teachers must be provided with such opportunities. On the other hand, it is not possible to set pre-determined guidelines for the application of teacher reflection that would fit any place and any context. As is indicated by Hiver et al. (2019), “even the most effective instructional method or technique will not work in all situations, nor should it be expected to.” What can be done is to determine and do the right thing at the right time by sticking to general guidelines (Duffy et al. 2009). As such, flexibility, critical thinking for on-the-spot-decisions and what works well in what conditions are necessary skills to be cultivated (Parsons et al. 2018). Therefore, each teacher or institution can individually determine and apply reflection-enhancing programs for teachers. 5. Conclusion The concept of reflection was defined as “active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of grounds that support it and the further consequences to which it leads” (Dewey, 1933, p. 9). Five centuries later, Schön (1983) further developed it and finally it was Wallace (1991) who played a big role in promoting it as an area of study in ELT. Since then, it has been an area of interest for ELT researchers and continues to be so. Even though the present study came up with some findings, it has several limitations. First of all, the number of participants in the present study could be increased. Another limitation is that the study failed to provide back-up data through interviews with pre-service EFL teachers. Future studies should consider a mix-method design to get deeper insights. Yet, the study has also provided insights into how pre-service EFL teachers reflect on their prospective careers. It was seen that 4th grade pre-service EFL teachers tend to be more anxious about a number of practical issues like classroom management, focusing on differential needs of learners, basing teaching methods on students’ expectations, etc. Depending on these findings, it can be speculated that pre-service EFL teachers’ awareness increases as they come closer to actual teaching experience. While reflection is defined differently in the existing literature, it is also seen as a principally cognitive process (Korthagen, 2001), a mental framework that includes revising and interpreting experiences and events. Therefore, future research that focuses on teacher reflection can focus on the cognitive aspects of reflection. Depending on Moradkhani and Shirazizadeh’s study (2017), another suggestion is to focus on higher level and lower levels of reflection in relation to contextual factors. Moradkhani and Shirazizadeh (2017) worked on the role of contextual factors and found significant differences between teachers working at private institutions and state institutions in terms of reflection levels. Another crucial point is that, as was pointed out by Akbari (2007), reflective practices should not be confined to intellectual exercise only because if it is limited to intellectual practices only it ends in “a real loss of reflective spirit” (Mann & Walsh, 2013, p. 293). Therefore, both intellectual and practical aspects of reflection should be taken into consideration. Moreover, Farrell (2015b) conducted a metanalysis and most of the studies there indicated that giving opportunities to EFL teachers enabled
. Sarıçoban & Kırmızı / Eurasian Journal of Language Teaching and Linguistic Studies, 1(1) (2021) 14–29 26 them to increase their motivation and boosted the desire to explore further. Hence, another suggestion could be to give teachers chances to reflect on their teaching and guide them in the process. 6. Ethics Committee Approval The author(s) confirm(s) that the study does not need ethics committee approval according to the research integrity rules in their country (Date of Confirmation: February 07, 2021). References Akbari, R. (2007). Reflections on reflection: A critical appraisal of reflective practices in L2 teacher education. System, 35, 192–207. Akcan, S. (2016). Novice non-native English teachers’ reflections on their teacher education programmes and their frst years of teaching. PROFILE Issues in Teachers’ Professional Development, 18(1), 55-70. https://doi.org/10.15446/profile.v18n1.48608 Barnhart, T., & van Es, E. (2015). Studying teacher noticing: Examining the relationship among pre- service science teachers’ ability to attend, analyze and respond to student thinking. Teaching and Teacher Education, 45, 83–93. Bolton, G. (2010). Reflective practice: Writing & professional development. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language teaching: A review of research on what teachers think, know, believe, and do. Language Teaching, 36, 81-109. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444803001903 Brookfield, S. D. (2017). Becoming a critically reflective teacher (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Darling-Hammond, L., & Snyder, J. (2000). Authentic assessment of teaching in context. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16(5–6), 523–545. Demissie, F. (2015). Promoting student teachers’ reflective thinking through a philosophical community of enquiry approach. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 40, 1–13. Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. Boston, MA: Heath Duffy, G. G., Miller, S., Parsons, S. & Meloth, M. (2009). Teachers as Metacognitive Professionals. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, and A. C. Graesser (eds.) Handbook of Metacognition in Education, edited by, 240–256. New York: Routledge. Farrell, T. S. (2011). 'Keeping SCORE': Reflective practice through classroom observations. RELC Journal, 42, 265–272. Farrell, T.S.C. (2015a). Promoting teacher reflection in second language education: A framework for TESOL professionals. New York, NY: Routledge Farrell, T. S. C. (2015b). The practice of encouraging TESOL teachers to engage in reflective practice: An appraisal of recent research contributions. Language Teaching Research, 20, 223-247. Farrell, T.S.C. (2018). Research on reflective practice in TESOL. New York: Routledge. Farrell, T.S.C. & Kennedy, B. (2019). Reflective practice framework for TESOL teachers: one teacher’s reflective journey, Reflective Practice, 20(1), 1–12.
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İngilizce öğretmeni adaylarının yansıtma seviyelerinin bir analizi
Özet
“Yansıtma” kavramı eğitim alan yazınına 1933 yılında John Dewey tarafından getirilmiştir ve o zamandan beri
akademisyenlerden büyük ilgi görmüştür. Çok önemli bir terimdir çünkü eğitimin çok yönlü doğasını
yansıtmaktadır. Buna göre; bu çalışmanın amacı, gerekli adımların atılabilmesi için öğretmen adaylarının yansıtma
seviyeleri ölçmektir. Veri toplamak için Larrivee (2008) tarafından geliştirilen Yansıtma Anketi kullanılmıştır. Bu
anket, öğretmenlerin yansıtma seviyelerini dört aşamalı olarak ölçmektedir ki bunlar ön-yansıtma, yüzeysel
yansıtma, pedagojik yansıtma, ve eleştirel yansıtma şeklindedir. Çalışma, 70 öğretmen adayı ile yapılmıştır.
Sonuçlar, İngilizce öğretmen adaylarının dört boyut açısından ortalama düzeyde yansıtma seviyesine sahip
olduklarını göstermektedir.
Anahtar sözcükler: Yansıtma; öğretimle ilgili inaçlar; eleştirel yansıtma; pedagojik yansıtma
AUTHOR BIODATA
Dr. Arif Sariçoban worked as an associate professor of ELT at Hacettepe University for 20 years and currently
works at the Department of ELL at Selçuk University as a full professor. Dr. Sarıçoban the editor-in-chief for an
international journal.
Dr. Özkan Kırmızı works as an associate professor at English Language and Literature Department at Karabuk
University. He completed his Ph.D at Hacettepe University, English Language and Teaching Department. His
interest areas include L2 teacher education and pedagogical content knowledgeYou can also read
