Ergonomic Principles and Checklists for the Selection of Office Furniture and Equipment - November 1991
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National Occupational Health and Safety Commission
Ergonomic Principles and
Checklists for the Selection
of Office Furniture
and Equipment
November 1991
© Commonwealth of Australia 1991
ISBN 0 644 24516 6
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the
Copyright Act 1968 (Cwlth), no part may be reproduced by any
process without written permission from the Director, Publishing
and Marketing, Australian Government Publishing Service.
Inquiries should be directed to the Manager, AGPS Press,
Australian Government Publishing Service, GPO Box 84,
Canberra ACT 2601.
ii
1. Introduction 1
2. Office Ergonomics and Occupational Health 2
3. Principles for Designing an Office Workstation 4
4. Furniture and Equipment to be Selected 9
5. Development and Use of Checklists 12
6. Try-outs and Consultation 21
7. Concluding Remarks 21
8. References 22
iii
ERGONOMIC PRINCIPLES FOR THE SELECTION OF
OFFICE FURNITURE AND EQUIPMENT
1. Introduction The Ergonomics Unit at Worksafe Australia receives frequent
requests for advice on the purchase of furniture and equipment for
offices. It also advises frequently on remedial action in offices
where there are problems such as complaints of musculoskeletal
discomfort or excessive glare. In May 1990, the Department of
Administrative Services began to draw on the experience of the
Unit by involving it in the process of selecting the contractors to
supply office chairs to Commonwealth Government departments.
This was followed by the Unit's involvement in the selection
procedures for contracts for adjustable desks and other equipment
such as footrests and document holders. These activities led to the
Unit developing a series of checklists for the ergonomic evaluation
of office furniture and equipment.
Checklists for the ergonomic evaluation of products are useful for
the following reasons:
# They require decisions to be made on the essential and
desirable criteria for selection;
# They ensure a consistent approach to the evaluation of a large
number of products; and
# They provide a guide to manufacturers and suppliers on the
ergonomic criteria being used in the selection process.
1
The aims of the criteria used in the checklists are to optimise the
comfort and productivity of office workers and to minimise their
risk of suffering musculoskeletal disorders. Since they are usually
selected and purchased separately, there are separate checklists for
each type of furniture or equipment. However, it is important that
each item be considered in the context of the whole workstation.
The aims of this introductory paper are to explain the principles
which should be applied to the overall workstation design and how
the checklist criteria were developed.
2. Office Ergonomists aim to provide working conditions which are well
Ergonomics above the minimum required to ensure health and safety of the
and workforce. Thus, in achieving a comfortable, productive and
Occupational satisfying office environment, any musculoskeletal complaints
Health would also be minimised. To design such an environment, it is
necessary to consider not only furniture and equipment, but also
the job designs, lighting, no ise, air quality, office landscaping and
personal space. This paper concentrates on furniture and
equipment which both have a strong influence on postures.
Constrained Postures
In office work, discomfort and pain are most likely to be caused by
constrained postures, and hence static muscle loads which lead to
early fatigue. (See, for example, Hunting et al., 1980, Hunting et
al., 1981, Kilbom et al., 1986, and Westgaard et al., 1986.)
Constrained postures which are often troublesome are:
# Forward flexion of the neck;
# Twisting of the neck;
# Elevation of the shoulders;
# Twisting of the trunk;
# Forward reaching of the upper arm;
# Abduction of the upper arm;
2
# Ulnar deviation of the hand; and
# Extension of the wrist.
The time for which such postures must be held is crucial in
determining the need for correction. Thus, there are two general
approaches to the problem:
# Avoid prolonged maintenance of constrained postures by
ensuring frequent rest breaks, designing the job to provide
variety, and limiting the proportion of the working day which
has to be spent on some activity which constrains posture,
such as continuous keying; and
# Minimise the need for poor posture in all activities by giving
attention to furniture and equipment and its proper
arrangement and adjustment.
Neither approach should be made in isolation. There is obviously
an interaction between the two. The less ideal the ergonomics of a
workstation, the greater will be the need for rest breaks. This is
one way in which ergonomic improvements can have a beneficial
effect on productivity.
Job Satisfaction
Apart from its influence on posture and hence comfort, poor
ergonomics of a workstation can have a bad effect on job
satisfaction. This is increasingly so as people become aware of the
existence of good furniture. For this purpose, furniture is probably
a "hygiene" factor, that is, it causes dissatisfaction if it is not good,
but does not greatly contribute to satisfaction once good furniture
has been obtained. However, avoidance of dissatisfaction is still a
significant reason to get the furniture right. In doing so, the users
must be thoroughly involved in the selection process.
3
3. Principles Each workstation must be considered as a whole, rather than by
for Designing selecting individual items of furniture and equipment in isolation.
an Office The bases for the design include:
Workstation
# The tasks to be done at the workstation;
# The materials and equipment required; and
# The dimensions of the operator/s (anthropometry).
The reason for emphasising the study of the complete system is the
strong interaction between most individual items. For example, it
is no use selecting a chair of sufficiently low height adjustment to
allow small people to rest their feet on the floor if the work surface
is of a fixed height which is too high for the resulting seated
height. In fact, for work at fixed surfaces, the benefits of seat
height adjustment are largely lost, as shown in Figure 1.
For such cases, the purchase of footrests becomes essential,
whereas footrests are not needed if both chair height and work
surface height have sufficient adjustment ranges, as shown in
Figure 2.
The Tasks
In considering the overall workstation design, we must start with
an analysis of the tasks which need to be performed there. No
amount of ergonomic furniture can solve a situation where there is
simply insufficient space. For example, as computer technology
has been introduced into some offices, the computers or their
terminals often have simply been placed onto existing desks, thus
using up a large proportion of the space which is still needed for
clerical tasks. The "paperless" office is still a long way from being
achieved, so it is usually necessary to design for both keyboard
work and writing work. Consider the following example in which
the selection of "ergonomic" desks failed to take this into account.
An organisation purchased a large number of "split" desks in
which the right-hand half of the desk was intended for a keyboard
and was adjustable in height. Consequently, all the computer
terminals were installed on the right-hand side. Unfortunately,
4
5
most of the jobs involved a considerable amount of clerical work
in addition to the use of the computer. Also, most of the
employees were right-handed. In order to write, these employees
had to twist around to their left to find a space for writing on the
desk. Alternatively, they used a drawer unit which they pulled up
on their right for writing on, but this gave no knee space, so again
their bodies had to be twisted.
Since modern keyboards are all quite thin, the need for separate
surfaces for keyboards is now no t so pressing. Separate adjustable
surfaces are also notorious for interfering with knee space. In fact,
the split desks referred to above are usually found to be fitted with
padding around the under-desk mechanism. This padding has been
fitted by operators after they have banged their knees. Split
surfaces also reduce the flexibility of use of a desk. Hence, it is
preferable that the whole desk surface height be adjustable.
Equipment Required
An analysis of the tasks to be performed at a workstation will
indicate the equipment required, which may include reference
manuals, files, writing materials in addition to the computer, a
telephone, a calculator and printer. The arrangement of these items
may be planned on a scale drawing, or the actual items can be set
up on a prototype workstation. It is likely that a single desk will
not provide sufficient space, and a return will also be necessary.
The depth of some desks may also prove insufficient. At this stage
one might consider the possibilities of reducing the size of the
equipment. Personal computer design is tending to reduce the
"footprint" size. Also, the tower style of the central processing
unit enables it to be placed on the floor rather than on the desk.
VDU monitors are still very deep, particularly with plugs
protruding from the back. The development of thin screen displays
will be of great assistance.
Anthropometry
Reach distances, work surface and chair heights, VDU monitor
heights and many other features of workstations should all be
based on anthropometric data. Australian designers have the
problem of deciding which data set or sets to use. European or
American data sets are commonly used, but the Chinese and
6South-east Asian components of our population are increasing
rapidly. The ethnic mix in each organisation is likely to be quite
different, so the best approach may be to develop anthropometric
distributions for each organisation from different data sets, using
the proportions of each ethnic group. Some applications of
anthropometric data are discussed below.
The arrangement of equipment on a working surface should be
based on placing the most frequently used items within the easiest
reach. Reach distances on a horizontal work surface may be
divided into a "Normal work area" and a "Maximum work area".
The Normal area may be reached while the upper arms are still
relaxed and close to the body. The Maximum area is reached by
stretching the arm out fully. Figure 3 shows these reach limits for
a 5th percentile European woman superimposed on the plan view
of an office workstation. (See Pheasant (1986) for more
information on reach distances.) Most of the equipment is
apparently out of reach. The situation is improved to some extent
by allowing the chair to swivel, but in this case, an under-desk
drawer unit on the right limits the swivelling range. Leaning
forward can bring more items into reach, and finally the person
may need to get up from the chair and lean even further. This
situation may be improved by use of vertical space, that is,
shelving to hold some of the less frequently used materials.
Modern office chair design has solved many of the problems of
fitting a wide range of different sized people by providing
convenient adjustments. The ranges of adjustments should be
checked to ensure that they cater as much as possible for the ethnic
mix in the workforce involved. For example, to ensure that all
people can obtain good back support, the backrest must be
sufficiently adjustable in the fore and aft direction. This changes
the effective depth of the seat which should be no greater than the
buttock to popliteal length. The backrest height should also be
adjustable so that all users can get optimum lumbar support. Fixed
dimensions, such as the seat width, must be chosen to suit as large
a proportion of the population as practicable. If the seat width is at
least as great as the hip width of 95th percentile European women,
then it will suit more than 95% of the workforce.
7Figure 3. View of a typical office workstation showing horizontal
reach areas for a 5th percentile female of European origin.
VDU monitor heights should be based on the eye heights of
people, a comfortable viewing angle and a comfortable viewing
distance. These measurements are illustrated in Figure 1, where
the viewing distance is shown as 700mm. The viewing distance
should depend on the size of letters on the screen, and the lower
case letters should subtend 15 to 20 minutes of arc to the user's
eye. This amounts to a maximum viewing distance of 700mm for
typical letter heights of 3.1 to 4.2mm. While closer viewing
distances are often recommended, users tend to prefer distances
even greater than 700mm. For example, a survey by Grandjean et
al.(1984) of the preferred settings of 59 operators showed a mean
screen distance of 760mm (range 610 to 930mm). Some
workstations prevent the screen from being placed at such
distances.
84. Furniture Items for which purchasing decisions commonly need to be made
and include:
Equipment
to be Selected # Free-standing desks (fixed or adjustable);
# Cluster workstations;
# Chairs;
# Footrests;
# Document holders;
# Desk lamps;
# Monitor arms;
# Drawer units;
# Shelving;
# Anti- glare screens;
# Wrist rests; and
# File trays.
Items such as footrests, document holders and monitor arms are
often described as "ergonomic" equipment, possibly giving people
the impression that they are necessary for the development of a
workstation which would satisfy ergonomic criteria. This would
be a mistake. In fact, excessive equipment often uses up valuable
space and gets in the way. The needs of each workstation and the
person or persons to be working at it must first be assessed.
9For example, a footrest is normally not necessary if both desk and
chair are adjustable through sufficient ranges, which is the
preferred arrangement. Desk lamps are not needed when the
ambient light levels are adequate.
Monitor arms are not needed with most personal computer
arrangements, since placing the VDU monitor on the central
processing unit usually results in an appropriate height, and
modern monitors have a built- in capacity to tilt and swivel.
Monitor arms can be valuable for getting the monitor well out of
the way for other tasks, or when sharing a monitor display with
other people. However, there are many cases where monitor arms
have been purchased without good reason, and it is not uncommon
to find that a monitor arm has created more problems than it has
solved. Particularly undesirable are monitor arms which require
tools for their adjustment, since these tools are soon lost.
Wrist rests should not be needed with modern thin keyboards and
well-rounded desk edges. Anti- glare screens should be only a last
resort where the workstation cannot be arranged to avoid veiling
reflections on the VDU screen.
Just as some "ergonomic" equipment is not always necessary, the
extent of adjustments available in some products may not be
warranted. More adjustments does not necessarily mean better
ergonomics. A bewildering array of adjustment stalks now
protrudes from some "ergonomic" chairs. Even when only the
basic adjustments are present it is a problem to get users to adjust
their chairs correctly.
The now commonly available option of seat tilt should be
approached with caution. It can be valuable for workers who
spend a lot of time bent forward over their desks, but for most, the
fixed horizontal seat surface provides adequate versatility. The
seat tilt adjustment mechanisms available allow backward as well
as forward tilt, so there is the danger that users will leave the
adjustment in the backward tilt position at all times, thus putting
undesirable pressure under their thighs. Also, some mechanisms
free both seat tilt and backrest angle at the same time, making it
quite difficult to adjust each of these independently.
10Adjustable height desks are certainly a great advantage, allowing
quick adjustment for users of different sizes, and for individuals
when they change tasks. However, if the cost of these items is a
problem, we should not overlook the possibility of modifying fixed
desks to suit individuals. This can usually be done quite cheaply
by a tradesperson.
Cluster workstations, in which work surfaces are attached to
dividing partitions, are increasingly popular for furnishing office
spaces, but most of these products pose problems with height
adjustment. When the height is difficult to adjust, it is unlikely to
be done. A small adjustable section for a keyboard is often
provided with these workstations, but what about the other tasks?
Workstations are often seen where there is a large height difference
between the adjustable and fixed sections, and this suggests that
the fixed sections are at an inappropriate height.
The adjustable keyboard surfaces in cluster workstations also fix
the position of the computer, making the workstation less flexible
for other tasks. The optimum positioning of the VDU monitor to
minimise screen reflections and background glare is also inhibited.
Convenient height adjustment for the whole of the work surface
should be aimed fo r.
Cluster workstations have the advantages of dividing up individual
workstations, providing supports for shelving and ducting for
cables, but in choosing between different products of this type, the
ease of height adjustment should be carefully examined. Another
problem to consider is the work surface depth provided, and
whether it is sufficient to allow a VDU monitor to be pushed back
to an optimum viewing position. The partitions in a cluster
workstation prevent the monitor from being pushed back as far as
it might on a free-standing desk where part of the monitor, plus the
cables and plugs, can extend over the edge of the desk.
Having decided which items are really necessary, ergonomic
checklists, such as those developed by the Ergonomics Unit of
Worksafe Australia, should be of value in comparing different
products on the market, or designing some equipment to be made
in- house.
115. Furniture and equipment may be selected on the basis of user trials,
Development but these procedures require the services of a representative group
and Use of of users, the larger the size of the group the better. Trials can be
Checklists very time-consuming when a wide range of products needs to be
evaluated. A comprehensive checklist can be a useful screening
tool enabling a short list of chairs to be identified for user trials. It
also has the advantage of selection criteria being available "up
front" to manufacturers so that they are more aware of ergonomic
design features.
Checklists contain both objective and subjective requirements.
Among the objective requirements are critical dimensions.
Specifying dimensions too closely would be hard to justify and
would excessively inhibit freedom of design. Usually, an
acceptable range can be given for each dimension. The
dimensions should be based on available anthropometric data for
the user population. If standards do not compromise the
requirements of anthropometry, reference must also be made to all
available standards since conformity with them is desirable for
maximising potential markets, The procedures for developing
checklists for office chairs were typical of the development of
other checklists. They are described below.
Development of Checklists for Office Cha irs
In developing the checklists, it was found that no single source of
information was sufficient. The primary basis for the dimensions
should be the appropriate anthropometric data. Unfortunately,
Australia lacks a set of anthropometric data for its present ethnic
mix, but both British and Chinese data were consulted (Pheasant
1986).
National Standards are also useful sources of information, and the
following were consulted:
# Australian Standard AS 3590.2-1990, Screen-based
workstations; Part 2: Workstation furniture;
# British Standard BS 5940:Part 1:1980, Office furniture, Part
1. Specification for design and dimensions of office
workstations, desks, tables and chairs;
12# Health and Safety Executive, 1991, Seating at Work, London:
HMSO;
# German Standard DIN 4551, 1975, Office furniture:
Revolving office chair with adjustable back, with or without
armrests, adjustable in height; and
# Ergonomic guidelines for use by the Australian Public
Service, prepared by the RSI Task Force Implementation
Group, July 1987.
There were conflicting requirements in the data given in these
documents, and a number of decisions had to be made on the basis
of experience of the members of the Ergonomics Unit and
consultation with other ergonomists.
The Australian Standard listed above had only just been published
at the start of the development of the checklists. While this
standard provides a useful starting point for a designer, it has some
deficiencies which should be eliminated in future revisions. The
checklists developed by the Ergonomics Unit recognise a range of
approaches to design, and are more flexible in their requirements
than the Australian Standard. Australian Standards are important
source documents for designers and purchasers, but the
responsibility for appropriate design is not necessarily met simply
by adhering precisely to a standard.
Two checklists for chairs were developed: one for adjustable office
chairs and one for fixed (visitor's) chairs.
Reasoning Behind the Dimensions
The aim of ergonomic design is to satisfy as large a proportion of
the population as possible. This is usually not achieved by using
the mean values of the appropriate anthropometric dimensions.
Ideally, adjustability should be provided to cater for the wide
variability of certain critical dimensions among the population.
The adjustment ranges must then be carefully chosen. Even if a
dimension of a chair is not made adjustable, careful choice of the
best percentile on which to base the fixed dimension can minimise
discomfort among the population using the chair. To illustrate the
problems and the reasoning behind the recommendations, several
of the dimensions and features are discussed below.
13Seat Height
Seat heights are measured after loading the seat with the British
Standard seat plate and compression weights, which simulate the
compression resulting from a person sitting on the seat (see BS
5940: Part 1: 1980).
Consider first the height of the seat above the floor for a fixed
height chair such as a visitor's chair. The anthropometric
dimension which should be taken as the basis for this dimension is
the popliteal height, shown in Figure 4. To this should be added
the appropriate heel height. While heel heights vary with fashion,
Stephen Pheasant recommends adding 25mm for men and 45mm
for women.
Figure 4. Some critical dimensions for chair design.
Since footrests are not generally available for visitor's chairs, and it
is most undesirable for the weight of the legs to be taken through
the thighs instead of the feet, the popliteal height value to use
should be that of a small person. Large people would not be
greatly inconvenienced by a relatively low seat, although there
must be a limit to this because elderly people would have difficulty
in getting up from a particularly low seat. Using data for British
adults aged 19-45 years (Pheasant 1986), seat heights can be
estimated as follows:
5th percentile male popliteal height: 395mm
Add heel height: 25mm
420mm
145th percentile female popliteal height: 355mm
Add heel height: 45mm
400mm
If data for Chinese adults are used, the height values as worked out
above become 390mm for males and 370mm for females. These
values may be considered too low because elderly people could
have difficulty in getting up from such low heights. However,
Australian's Asian community is a significant proportion of the
population and should not be overlooked. It is interesting that the
fixed seat height value which was recommended in Australian
Standard 1837-1976, "Ergonomics in Factory and Office Work",
was 375mm.
In his book, Stephen Pheasant (1986) recommends a value of
400mm for fixed seat height. The British Standard 5940 gives a
value of 440mm, but this is based on a 5th percentile female
popliteal height of 364mm, and was estimated in 1980 when,
according to Pheasant, heels were higher. After due consideration
of these and other figures, a value in the range 410mm to 430mm
was recommended in the checklist.
When it comes to adjustable office chairs, such a compromise as
described above for fixed height chairs is no longer necessary. The
Australian Standard AS 3590.2-1990, gives chair height
adjustment ranges which "are designed to accommodate a range of
people between the 2.5 percentile female without shoes and the
97.5 percentile male with shoes". If the data for British adults is
used, this would give:
5th percentile female popliteal height: 347mm
97.5th percentile male popliteal height: 500mm
Add heel height 25mm
525mm
This range, 347 to 525mm, does not correspond with the range 380
to 510mm given in the Australian Standard, and it is difficult to
understand what population data would have been used for this
publication. It is of interest that the adjustment range given in the
design guide, Humanscale 1/2/3 by N. Diffrient and others, is 345
to 523mm.
15Achieving an adjustment range of 347 to 525mm is not feasible
with normal gas strut mechanisms, since the starting dimension of
347mm requires a gas strut of relatively short stroke (100mm),
because larger strokes would result in excessive collapsed heights.
Gas struts with strokes of 120mm were most common in the chairs
evaluated for the government contract, with starting heights
averaging 413mm. However, it is reasonable for chair
manufacturers to supply two height ranges which would together
cover the range determined by anthropometric data.
A range of 370 to 520mm was recommended in the checklist, but a
lot of latitude was applied in assessing chairs for this dimension. It
was assumed that purchasers of the chairs would assess for
themselves what the best height range/s would be for their
purposes. For example, some may prefer to purchase only one
height range on the high side, and provide footrests for the shorter
operators. This could be the best option if the chairs are to be used
at fixed height desks or workstations (see Figure 1). Low height
chairs for small people can only be successful if the desk can also
be adjusted to a low level.
Seat Width
The checklists recommend a minimum width of 450mm. This
gives a little extra space above the 97.5th percentile hip width for
British women of 445mm. The 97.5th percentile hip width for
British males is less than this (417mm).
Seat Slope
Related to seat height is the slope from front to back of the seat.
Since the seat height should be selected to minimise pressure on
the thighs, the backward slope should be minimised, and the front
edge well rounded. It was noted that the option of making the
slope adjustable is increasingly available on adjustable office
chairs. Unfortunately, this results in the possibility of the slope
being left at a setting where there is a substantial backward slope.
This could lead to excessive pressure on the thighs and an
impairment of blood circulation to the legs. For this reason, a
maximum backward slope of 5 degrees was recommended in the
checklist.
16Provision for forward slope of the seat, up to a maximum of 10
degrees, is useful to reduce pressure on the thighs when working
while leaning forward. However, purchasers should consider
carefully whether this advantage warrants purchasing a chair with
slope adjustment. Chair users already have trouble with the proper
settings of seat height and backrest adjustment without adding a
further control. For general purposes, a chair with the seat angle
fixed and horizontal is probably best.
Seat Depth
Seat depth is measured from the front edge of the seat to the
lumbar support region of the backrest. If the seat depth is
excessive, small people will not be able to sit back far enough to
get the benefit of the backrest. The appropriate anthropometric
dimension to consider is the buttock to popliteal length, as shown
in Figure 4.
In the case of fixed (visitor's) chairs, the design compromise
should be directed well towards the smaller user, because large
users are not greatly discomforted by a seat depth which is
considerably less than the length of their thighs. Some values
which are relevant are as follows:
Buttock-popliteal lengths
5th percentile British females: 435mm
2.5th percentile British females: 423mm
5th percentile Chinese females: 385mm
2.5th percentile Chinese females: 378mm
The checklist recommends that seat depth be within the range 380
to 420mm, but some minor deviations from this were tolerated.
The British Standard, BS 5940:Part 1, recommends a similar
acceptable range, viz. 380 to 430mm.
In adjustable chairs, the effective seat depth may be adjusted by
fore and aft movement of the backrest. This movement is usually
achieved by adjusting the angle of the backrest support column, the
backrest itself being allowed to pivot on this column to some
extent. The minimum value of 380mm selected for fixed chairs
becomes the minimum point on the adjustment range for adjustable
17chairs. The maximum value is more arbitrary since it is far from
essential for large people to have full seat depth over the length of
their thighs. However, it is desirable for a person's body to be
centred approximately over the centre of rotation of the chair, that
is, over the axis of the gas strut. The increase in seat depth caused
by tilting the backrest column also allows for adjustments in
posture, that is, leaning back. An important constraint to the
amount of leaning back which sho uld be possible is the point
where the chair becomes unstable. Values for the adjustment
range given in standards are:
British Standard BS 5940:Part 1: 380 to 470mm
German Standard DIN 4551: 380 to 420mm
Australian Standard AS 3590.2: 330 to 480mm
The Australian Standard seems to be the odd one out here, and the
low value of its range cannot be justified by the anthropometric
data. An adjustment range of 380 to 480mm is recommended in
the checklist.
Height of Lumbar Support
Ergonomists are unanimous on the need to provide back support at
the lumbar hollow in order to minimise the tendency to slump in
posture. Unfortunately, many chairs have backrests which are
essentially straight and cannot provide the local support which is
necessary. High backrests are acceptable, provided the lumbar
area protrudes clearly beyond the rest of the surface. Otherwise,
contact higher up the back occurs first and prevents significant
pressure being applied in the lumbar area. The height from top to
bottom of the lumbar support area is recommended in the
checklists, although this is difficult to measure accurately on a high
backrest.
Unfortunately, there is little anthropometric data which give an
appropriate dimension for the height of the centre of the lumbar
support area above the seat. Some values recommended in
standards are:
British Standard BS5940:Part 1:
Fixed backrest: 210 + 15mm
Adjustable backrest, minimum range: 170 to 230mm
18German Standard DIN 4451:
Adjustable backrest, minimum range: 180 to 250mm
Australian Standard AS 3590.2
Backrest height adjustment range: 220 to 250mm
Grandjean (1988), a well known international expert on seating,
advocates a height of between 100 and 180mm. The adjustment
range chosen for the checklist was 170 to 250mm. It is important
to note that this height is to be measured from the compressed seat
height, where the seat is compressed using a weighted seat
compression plate according to BS 5940. The checklist values for
lumbar support height, and for the shape of the lumbar support
area, were tested in trials with a representative range of people.
These suggest that the British Standard values are about right, and
that the Australian Standard should be modified accordingly.
Some office chairs, particularly those designed for executives, lack
an adjustment for the height of the lumbar support. This is
unfortunate, since different people find the most comfortable
backrest centre height in different positions when the backrest
height is adjustable.
Shape of the Lumbar Support
Radii of curvature of the lumbar support area of the backrest are
recommended in the checklists. These are based on standards and
have been found to give satisfactory results. There is an
interaction between the shapes of backrests and the softness of the
cushion foams. If the foam is relatively hard, the radii need to be
well suited to the user's body. Since less weight is applied to the
backrest than to the seat, backrest foams can be softer than seat
foams, allowing some margin for error in the backrest radii.
Backrest Angle
The backrest angle should be adjustable to ensure that good lumbar
support is available, and that working posture can be varied. It is
most helpful for comfort at different angular positions if the
backrest attachment allows some flexibility. Many types of
executive chairs do not provide backrest angle adjustment relative
to the seat. Instead, the seat and backrest can both be rocked back
together. This feature has no ergonomic justification. Executives
19have similar tasks to all office workers; it is the relative mix of
these tasks which is different. Executive chairs should therefore
enhance comfort and efficienc y in working postures for writing,
keyboard work and interviewing.
Backrest Width
The upper limit of 400mm is based on the criterion of avoiding
restriction to elbow movements during keyboard work. An
increasing number of office workers are required to use a
computer, so this feature is increasingly necessary.
Armrests
The use of armrests is controversial. Their height is fixed in nearly
all designs, so they may cause some people to hunch their
shoulders or raise their upper arms in order to freely use a
keyboard. For this reason, it is often recommended that frequent
keyboard users do not use chairs with armrests. However, some
may find it comfortable to use armrests and prefer them. It would
therefore be desirable for armrests to be easily detachable from the
chair.
Armrests on most chairs on the market are made of a very hard
plastic and are uncomfortable since they contact a bony part of the
forearm. Although it is not mentioned in the present checklists,
softer armrests would be preferred and are now becoming more
common, presumably because of new moulding technology.
Future versions of the checklists may call for this feature. The
checklists should be dynamic documents, subject to change as
better features become feasible.
Controls
Probably the greatest advance in the ergonomics of seating has
been the application of the gas strut which has led to convenient
adjustability. However, chairs will not be adjusted as frequently as
desirable if suitable controls are not provided. Controls should be
clear in their function and comfortable to operate. Even
experienced chair users have difficulty in sorting out some chair
controls. Preferably, instructions should be permanently displayed
on the chair or each control labelled with its function.
20Simplicity of controls is most desirable. A chair bristling with
control stalks is not likely to be a good chair from an ergonomic
point of view.
Comfort of operation requires that controls be easily reached, that
they do not require excessive force to operate, and that there are no
sharp edges or nip points which could damage a hand. These
features should be evaluated with the assistance of typical users.
6. Try-outs It is hoped that selection of furniture and equipment will be helped
and by the checklists. However, it is still essential that trial
Consultation workstations be set up for try-outs in consultation with the user
population. Users are the ones who know most about their tasks
and they should have every opportunity to advise on potential
problems. In many cases there is little to chose between different
products on ergonomic and cost criteria, and users should then be
given the opportunity to make the final decision.
7. Concluding It would be desirable for the checklists to be applied by qualified
Remarks ergonomists or occupational health and safety professionals with
some ergonomics training. The Ergonomics Unit at Worksafe
Australia can provide a measurement service for a fee, but it has
many other projects and cannot provide a quick turn-around. Also,
manufacturers should be able to utilise ergonomic expertise in their
own city rather than having to send their products to Sydney.
Buyers of chairs and other furniture should not have to depend on
Worksafe Australia to supply a certificate of compliance with
ergonomic criteria.
It is important for manufacturers and purchasers to be well aware
that the Worksafe Australia checklists, and the evaluations
conducted by Worksafe Australia, only address ergonomic
features; they do not address questions of strength and durability.
These are important questions, and it would be highly desirable for
an Australian Standard to be developed for this purpose. In the
meantime, purchasers should seek info rmation from manufacturers
about their conformance with relevant overseas strength standards,
for example, British Standard BS 5459, Specification for
performance requirements and tests for office furniture.
218. References GRANDJEAN, E., 1988, Fitting the Task to the Man,(London:
TAYLOR & FRANCIS LTD), p. 61.
GRANDJEAN, E., HUNTING, W. and NISHIYAMA, K., 1984,
`Preferred VDT workstation settings, body posture and physical
impairments', Applied Ergonomics, 15, 99-104.
HUNTING, W., GRANDJEAN, E., and MAEDA, K., 1980,
`Constrained postures in accounting machine operators', Applied
Ergonomics, 11, 145-149.
HUNTING, W., LAUBLI, Th., and GRANDJEAN, E., 1981,
`Postural and visual loads at VDT workplaces. 1. Constrained
postures', Ergonomics, 24, 917-931.
KILBOM, A., PERSSON, J. and JONSSON, B., 1986, `Risk
factors for work-related disorders of the neck and shoulder - with
special emphasis on working postures and movements', In The
Ergonomics of Working Postures, (Edited by N. CORLETT and J.
WILSON), (London: TAYLOR & FRANCIS LTD), pp. 45-53.
PHEASANT, S., 1986, Bodyspace, Anthropometry, Ergonomics
and Design, (London: TAYLOR & FRANCIS LTD).
ROBERT BOSCH PTY LTD, 1978, Templates for the Human
Body, (Stuttgart).
WESTGAARD, R.H., WAERSTED, M., and JANSEN T., 1986,
`Muscle load and illness associated with constrained body
postures', In The Ergonomics of Working Postures, (Edited by N.
CORLETT and J. WILSON), (London: TAYLOR & FRANCIS
LTD), pp 5-18.
Ergonomics Unit
Worksafe Australia
GPO Box 58
SYDNEY NSW 2001
22November 1991
USER CHECKLIST FOR ERGONOMIC DESIGN
OF ADJUSTABLE CHAIRS
Chairs and seating should be designed primarily to provide adequate support for the user, without placing unnecessary
stress on any part of the body. They should encourage a posture which allows for comfort, efficiency and minimal
muscle fatigue.
There are three major anatomical/physiological factors which need to be considered in sitting posture:
* the posture of the spine;
* the type and amount of muscle work required to maintain comfortable postures;
* compression of the tissues (most particularly the blood vessels and nerves) at the back of the thigh and behind the
knee.
People vary markedly in size, and a certain amount of adjustment in chair dimensions is desirable in order to ensure that
95% of the user population can be comfortably and suitably seated. With the increasing ethnic diversity of the
Australian population there is a greater need to accommodate people at the extremes of the range, and this should be
reflected in the critical dimensions of seating. Because Australian anthropometric data are not available, the
accompanying guidelines are based on data from various sources so as to reflect the wider range of sizes.
The following checklist is based on the criteria developed by Worksafe Australia to assess the ergonomic design of
adjustable office chairs. The checklist is concerned with the functionality of chairs. It deliberately avoids (except where
stated) specifying how and with what materials a chair should be constructed. The back page contains additional
explanatory notes on how measurements should be made, what measurements are based on, and why measurements are
important.
CHAIR IDENTIFICATION
Manufacturer: Model no:
Model name: Date:Essential ergonomic requirements are marked with an X. Other criteria are considered desirable and their importance will
depend on how and where the chair is to be used.
SECTION 1.0 ERGONOMIC REQUIREMENTS: SEAT, BACKREST AND ARMREST
SEAT YES NO
1.1 Is the effective seat depth adjustable from 380mm to 480mm? (see note) X
1.2 Is the effective seat width at least 450mm? (see note) X
1.3 Is the seat height adjustable from 370mm to 520mm? The achievement of this full range may require
two complementary chairs. (see note) X
1.4 Is the seat angle (if fixed) horizontal or tilted a maximum of 5° backward? X
1.5 Is the seat angle (if adjustable) limited to between 10° forward and 5° backward? X
1.6 Does the seat swivel through 360 degrees? X
1.7 Is the seat flat or slightly dished? (Only minimal dishing is desirable; max. of 25mm in transverse
direction and 40mm lengthwise). (see note) X
1.8 FOR COUNTER CHAIRS: Is the chair fitted with a footrest adjustable from 370mm to 520mm below
seat height? (Special attention needs to be paid to the stability of such chairs) X
BACKREST
1.9 Is the vertical convexity of lumbar support area approx. 250mm radius? (see note)
1.10 Is the lumbar support area between 200mm and 250mm from top to bottom? (see note) X
1.11 Is the backrest width between 360mm and 400mm? (see note). X
1.12 Is the horizontal concavity of the lumbar support area between 400mm and 800mm radius? X
1.13 Is the backrest angle adjustable between 85° and 115° to the horizontal? (see note).. X
1.14 Is the height of the lumbar support area adjustable from 170mm to 250mm above the seat? X
1.15 Does the backrest pivot in 3 dimensions to suit minor changes in upper body posture?
ARMRESTS (IF FITTED)
1.16 Is the armrest height between 200mm and 250mm? (see note)
1.17 Are the armrests at least 50mm wide?
1.18 Is the spacing between inside edges of armrests at least 485mm and no more than 560mm? X
1.19 Are the armrests at least 200mm long and set back 100mm to 150mm from the front edge of seat? (see
note)
SECTION 2.0 QUALITATIVE ITEMS
2.1 Can the seat height adjustment be made easily and quickly while seated? X
2.2 Does the seat cushion effectively distribute pressure, and not “bottom out” with heavy users?
2.3 Does the backrest cushioning effectively distribute pressure, and protect the user from the frame?YES NO
2.4 Can the backrest height and angle be easily adjusted while seated? X
2.5 Are the seat and backrest covered with a woven woolen fabric?
2.6 Is the front edge of the seat rounded to avoid pressure on the underside of the thighs? X
2.7 Are the side edges of the seat turned downwards? X
SECTION 3.0 SAFETY AND STABILITY
3.1 Does the chair have five base support points? X
3.2 Is the seat rotation axis on, or less than 30mm behind the midpoint of the max. seat depth?
3.3 Is the seat assembled so that it cannot be unintentionally detached from the main frame? X
3.4 What is the safety dimension of the leg assembly of the chair? _________________mm (see note).
3.5 Is the safety dimension of the leg assembly greater than 42% of the maximum effective seat depth?
[(value 3.4/max. value 1.1)*100] X
SECTION 4.0 GENERAL ASPECTS
4.1 Can either castors or glides be fitted and readily changed so that the chair can be moved smoothly and
controllably on its relevant surface? X
4.2 Are surfaces free of sharp edges which could snag clothing or cause discomfort or injury? (All edges
should be curved or rounded). X
4.3 Are metal parts corrosion resistant or treated with a corrosion resistant finish? X
4.4 Are upholstery coverings either detached or fitted to a sub frame which is firmly fixed but easily
detachable for replacement or cleaning?
4.5 Are fittings and controls smoothed, rounded or shaped and positioned to avoid personal injury and
damage to clothing? X
4.6 Can the controls or moving parts be operated without risk of trapping the fingers? X
4.7 Are adjustment instructions clear and permanently fixed to a visible part of the chair?
4.8 Are the controls or moving parts designed so that they cannot be easily removed?
4.9 Are there marks or labels showing information on care and cleaning?
4.10 Is the design and construction robust? (see note) X
4.11 Does the chair feel solid and safe to the user?
4.12 Is the chair silent in operation? Chair should not creak or squeak.
SUMMARY YES NO
Does the chair satisfy all essential ergonomic requirements? (marked with an X)
Does the chair pass the desirable criteria considered important?
Comments:EXPLANATORY NOTES AND DEFINITIONS
(Paragraph numbers correspond to numbered items in the checklist).
1.1 SEE DIAGRAM A. The effective seat depth (adjustable by fore-and-aft movement of the backrest) is the horizontal distance,
measured from the front edge to the foremost point of the backrest on the centre line of the seat's width. The minimum value of this
dimension is based on the buttock to inside knee length of smaller users. It is essential that while sitting normally and using the
backrest, the front edge of the seat does not press on the underside of the thighs or knees. The backrest should still be usable, i.e.
supply lumbar support, in its most forward position.
1.2 Effective seat width is measured at a distance 125mm forward of the lumbar support when the backrest is in its most forward position.
It is based on 98th percentile female hip breadth.
1.3 Seat height is measured from the floor to the centre of the seat surface allowing for seat compression. This can be achieved using the
device described in BS 5940 Part 1 Section A.4. which simulates a seated 80kg person. Seat height adjustment range is based on the
lower leg length of the range of users.
1.5 Excessive seat tilt is undesirable. A fixed seat angle satisfying 1.4 is quite acceptable.
1.7 SEE DIAGRAMS A & B. Some dishing may enhance the feeling of stability for users and assist in the even distribution of pressure
on buttocks and upper thighs. Dishing, if it is too pronounced or incorrectly proportioned, may restrict freedom of body and leg
movement on the seat. This is undesirable.
1.9 SEE DIAGRAM A. The lumbar support area is the minimum area required for adequate support and stability of the seated person. It
is defined as the vertical convexity designed to fit in the small of the back. Some backrests consist entirely of lumbar support. The
curvature can be easily measured with a flexible curve in comparison with a series of drawn radii.
1.10 SEE DIAGRAM B. The backrest may extend higher than this but where manipulative tasks are performed, such as keyboard work,
the shoulder blades and upper trunk should be free to move while lumbar support is maintained.
1.11 Backrest width is the horizontal distance between the side edges of the backrest measured at the midpoint of the lumbar support. Its
maximum dimensions are limited by the need for free arm movement by smaller users.
1.13 Backrest angle is the angle between the horizontal and a line tangential to the middle of the lumbar support.
1.14 The height range is measured from the mid-point of lumbar support area to the compressed seat with the backrest in the vertical
position. It is based on the range of heights of the mid lumbar region (L2 - L4) of users.
1.16 Armrest height is the vertical distance between the centre of the compressed seat cushion and the fore-and-aft centre of the armrests.
The use and dimensions of armrests are controversial and no hard and fast rules apply. However, they are not recommended for
people who do manipulative tasks, such as keyboard work, as they interfere with arm movements. It would be desirable for the
armrests to be easily detachable if required.
1.19 Armrests must be set back to enable the chair to be pulled in towards the desk. Where armrests are curved down towards the front, the
distance from the front edge should be measured at 150mm above the seat.
3.4 The safety dimension of the leg assembly is the shortest distance from the centre of the seat rotation axis to a straight line joining two
adjacent support points. If castors are fitted, these shall be turned in the direction resulting in a minimum value.
4.10 This criterion applies to obvious design or construction deficiencies which may lead to personal injury or untimely wearing or failure
of components. Specific tests are needed to test strength and durability.
Ergonomics Unit, Worksafe Australia, G.P.O. Box 58, Sydney, NSW 2001. Tel: (02) 5659555, Fax: (02) 5659300.
This work is copyright. Apart from any use permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced be any
process without the written permission of the National Occupational Health & Safety Commission.November 1991
CHECKLIST FOR ERGONOMIC DESIGN
OF DOCUMENT HOLDERS
Document holders should be provided at workstations where VDU work and keyboard operations are
carried out. They prevent excessive inclination of the head and unfavourable body rotation and help reduce
the strain on the spine, shoulder and neck muscles. When positioned at the same level, distance and
inclination as a VDU screen they reduce the need for rapid and frequent changes in focal accommodation,
minimising the risk of eye strain.
There are two basic types of document holder; those designed to be positioned at the side of the VDU
screen, and those designed to be positioned at the base of the VDU terminal, between the screen and the
keyboard. Document holders which are positioned at the side of the VDU can be supported on a movable
base which sits on the surface of the desk, or can be attached to an arm which is clamped to the edge of the
desktop (see Diagram 1). The most suitable position for a document holder will depend on the type of task
being performed and the user's preference. Side document holders are often preferred by touch typists and
users carrying out data entry tasks. Users carrying out less intensive VDU tasks and those who spend more
time looking at the keyboard or entering data from batches of dockets often prefer to use a terminal-base
type document holder.
DOCUMENT HOLDER IDENTIFICATION
Manufacturer: Model no:
Model name: Date:The following checklist is based on the criteria developed by Worksafe Australia to assess the ergonomic design of office accessories. It is
concerned with the function of document holders and avoids (except where stated) specifying how and with what materials a document
holder should be constructed. The back page contains additional explanatory notes on how the measurements should be made, what the
measurements are based on, and why the measurements are important. Some terms and definitions have been explained in Diagram 2.
Essential ergonomic requirements are marked with an X. Other criteria are considered desirable and their importance will
depend on what the document holder will be used for, and the associated equipment the document holder will be used with.
GENERAL ERGONOMIC REQUIREMENTS: The following criteria apply to all three types of document holder illustrated in
Diagram 1.
SIZE: YES NO
0.1 Is the length of the back surface of the document holder at least 255mm? (see note) X
0.2 Is the width of the back surface of the document holder at least 210mm? (see note) X
SAFETY AND STABILITY:
0.3 Can the holder support 1 kg, without loss of its set position? X
0.4 Is the document holder designed so that it does not vibrate excessively when touched?
0.5 Is the holder stable in all positions, at all times, for its specified weight bearing capacity? X
0.6 Is the maximum weight bearing capacity clearly displayed on the holder?
CURSOR LINE GUIDE AND CLIP:
0.7 Is a horizontal cursor line guide provided with the document holder?
0.8 Can the cursor line guide be moved easily up and down the side of the document holder while remaining
parallel to the bottom ledge? X
0.9 Can the cursor line guide be parked away from the source document when not in use?
0.10 Is the cursor line guide transparent?
0.11 Is the cursor line guide adaptable to different thickness of source document?
0.12 Is the document holder fitted with a clip/attachment mechanism which allows the document to be
temporarily attached? X
0.13 Is the clip/attachment mechanism designed to cater for different sized documents?
GENERAL ASPECTS:
0.14 Is the back surface flat (ie. Free of bumps or grooves) so that users will not have difficulty making notes
or corrections to thin source documents?
0.15 Can height and angle adjustments be made easily and quickly while seated, without requiring excessive
physical effort or any special tools/equipment? X
0.16 Is the ledge running along the bottom of the holder at least 30mm wide and set at 92° (+ or - 2°) to the
back surface? X
0.17 If an additional upright lip is attached to the bottom ledge, is it removable?
0.18 If the document holder has attached lighting read note 0.18.
0.19 If the document holder comes in more than one piece, is it easy to assemble when initially received, with
clear concise assembly and set up instructions provided? X0.20 Are clear and concise adjustment instructions and care information easily visible and permanently fixed YES NO
to the holder?
0.21 Is the supplier’s name and contact information permanently fixed to the holder?
0.22 Is the document holder quiet during use and adjustment? Should not creak or squeak.
0.23 Is the document holder free of sharp edges or corners, pinch points or projections that could damage
clothing or cause injury to users or passers-by? X
0.24 Are metal parts corrosion resistant and all surface finishes non-reflective and light in color? X
0.25 Are applied surfaces (eg. labelling) affixed in such a way that they would not peel/fall off under normal
use and environmental conditions?
0.26 Is the construction durable?
SECTION 1: SPECIAL REQUIREMENT FOR SWIVEL ARM SIDE DOCUMENT HOLDERS YES NO
1.1 Is the height of the document holder adjustable from the desk top surface to 250mm above the desk? (see
note) X
1.2 Is the back surface adjustable in tilt from 0° to 30° to the vertical? (see note) X
1.3 Is the base attachment clamp designed so that it does not permanently fix to, or permanently damage/mark
the desk top? X
1.4 Is the base attachment clamp easily fixed to, and removed from the desk, without causing hand discomfort
and without requiring excessive physical effort or any special tools?. .X
1.5 Does the holder have the minimum range of movement specified in note 1.5? X
1.6 Can the surface of the document holder be turned to face the front for the full range of movement
specified in 1.5? X
1.7 Can the document holder be clamped to desks up to 40mm thick? X
1.8 Is the base attachment clamp designed so that its protrusion beyond the edge of the desk is minimised?
(see note)
1.9 Is the document holder designed so that the position of the holder can be adjusted without the supporting
mechanism extending beyond the edge of the desk? (see note)
SECTION 2: SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR MOVABLE BASE SIDE DOCUMENT HOLDERS YES NO
2.1 Is the height of the document holder adjustable from the desk top surface to 250mm above the desk? (see
note) X
2.2 Is the back adjustable in tilt from 0° to 30° to the vertical? (see note) X
2.3 Is the base of a size and shape which ensures stability without taking up excessive desk space? X
SECTION 3: SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR TERMINAL BASE DOCUMENT HOLDERS YES NO
3.1 Is the height of the document holder adjustable from the desk top surface to 60mm above the desk? (see
note) X
3.2 Is the back surface of the document holder adjustable in tilt from 20° to 50° to the vertical? X
3.3 Does the holder have a flat base which allows it to slide under keyboards and CPUs etc? XSUMMARY YES NO
Does the document holder satisfy all relevant essential ergonomic requirements? (marked with an X)
Does the document holder satisfy the desirable criteria considered important?
Comments:
EXPLANATORY NOTES AND DEFINITIONS
(Paragraph numbers correspond to numbered items in the checklist)
0.1 255mm is the minimum height required to hold a thin, flexible A4 page
upright. The height should be measured from the top surface of the
bottom ledge.
0.2 This is the minimum requirement. Holders designed to take A3
documents and A4 booklets should be at least 400mm wide.
0.18 The position of any attached lighting must be adjustable so that users
will be able to avoid reflections on the source document. The lamp
should cast an even light across the source document and should not
cause any part of the document holder to become hot. It is desirable
that the brightness can be adjusted with a dimmer switch.
1.1 The height should be measured from the bottom ledge with the
document holder in the vertical position. Height adjustment enables the
holder to be placed at the same level as the VDU screen allowing the
eyes to move horizontally from the document to the screen.
1.2 A greater tilt range is desirable. The specified range ensures that the
source document can be place in the same plane as the computer screen.
1.5 The bottom ledge of the document holder should be able to be positioned anywhere within a 700mm semi-circular radius from
where it is clamped to the desk. It should be able to reach up to the maximum height requirement (250mm) in every position
(except within a 200mm radius of the base attachment mechanism – represented by the shaded area in the diagram). (See
Diagram 3). A reach of 700mm ensures that the backsurface of the document holder can be positioned just behind the
keyboard when the holder is
clamped to a desk 900mm
deep.1.8 Most desks are
pushed up against office
walls or dividing panels so
it is an advantage to avoid
accessories which protrude
excessively over the edge of
the desk.
1.9 See note 1.8.
2.1 See note 1.1.
2.2 See note 1.2.
3.1 The height range should be
measured with the holder at
20° to the vertical. 60mm
allows clearance for most
keyboards.
Ergonomics Unit, Worksafe Australia, G.P.O. Box 58, Sydney, NSW 2001. Tel: (02) 5659555, Fax: (02) 5659300.
This work is copyright. Apart from any use permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part may be reproduced be any process
without the written permission of the National Occupational Health & Safety Commission.You can also read
