Erasing the line between homosexual and heterosexual advertising: A perspective from the educated youth population
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Erasing the line between homosexual and
heterosexual advertising: A perspective
from the educated youth population
E Akermanidis M Venter
Research Assistant at TNS Global Lecturer
Johannesburg, South Africa Univeristity of Witwatersrand
ereniakermanidis@gmail.com marike.venter@wits.ac.za
ABSTRACT
The ‘pink dollar’ or ‘dream market’ is a relatively untapped market that is idealised by
marketers for its profit potential. As a result, it is of significant interest to marketing
practitioners who aim to invest in this billion dollar industry. However, marketers face
challenges in reaching this market through mainstream advertising due to the ‘stigma’
attached to homosexuality, which often results in the marginalisation of heterosexual
consumers. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of consumers’
tolerance of homosexuality on their attitudes toward homosexual advertisements, and
ultimately how these attitudes influence on purchase intention. Data collection was
conducted by means of self-administered questionnaires involving 312 university students
aged 19 and 24. The results of this study indicated that tolerance to homosexuality does
influence attitudes formed by various advertisements, thereby influencing purchase
intentions. Furthermore, the results indicated that gender influenced the attitude and
purchase intention towards brands that use homosexual models in their advertisements.
The findings of this study provide marketers with a better understanding of how to
advertise to the homosexual market without marginalising the heterosexual consumer.
Developing improved understanding of such an important market segment is significantly
meaningful, especially in South Africa, a developing country that researchers often
neglect.
Keywords: advertising, homosexual, heterosexual, purchase intention, attitudes
South Africa has one of the most liberal Furthermore, Cape Town is often referred to as
constitutions in the world, and was the first the gay capital of South Africa, and has
country to integrate sexual orientation in its become a tourist attraction for primarily white
Bill of Rights in 1996 (Cock, 2002; Francis & homosexual consumers (Visser, 2010), thus
Msibi, 2011; Traeen, Martinussen, Vitters & contributing largely to South Africa’s
Saini, 2009). As a result, homosexuality in economy and actively participating in local
South Africa has become more visible consumption practices.
(Ncanana & Ige, 2014) and recreational
activity has become the focus for homosexual Homosexual consumers express their sexuality
consumption (Livermon, 2014). Homosexuals through consumption and their purchasing
proudly participate in forms of self-expression, power is valued at $835, 30 billion in the USA
such as the Gay and Lesbian Pride parades, (Peters, 2011). In research dominated by
and they openly engage in homosexually- American theoretical ideologies, homosexual
orientated township events (Livermon, 2014). consumers are depicted as having highThe Retail and Marketing Review 51
disposable incomes, are considered to be more research was the generalisability of findings.
brand–loyal, and are early adopters of new For example, Hooten, Noeva, and Hammonds,
products and services (Pinho, Loureiro & (2009) explored brand perceptions and
Kastenholz, 2012). As a result, marketers have purchase intention, but made use of a sample
increased marketing expenditure in order to that was too small to be generalised, providing
target the homosexual market, but marketers an opportunity for future research, particularly
are challenged in finding appropriate ways to in an African context. Conducting this
advertise to this market without marginalising research in a South African context is
a portion of the heterosexual market beneficial to uncover insights into different
(Oakenfull & Greenlee, 2004). This consumer mind-sets. Furthermore, it implies
marginalisation is evident in current literature, that determining a respondent’s characteristics
and reveals an undercurrent of hostility against in terms of tolerance to homosexuality and
homosexuals in South Africa that often leads their gender needs to be included in research
to violence (Reid & Dirsuweit, 2001; (Bhat et al., 2010).
Theunick, 2000). Therefore, regardless of the
fact that the South African constitution has Therefore, this paper aims to investigate the
extensive human rights protecting gender influence of a consumer’s tolerance to
diversity, negative attitudes and low levels of homosexuality on their attitudes towards
social acceptance still exist towards homosexual advertisements (varying in the
homosexuals (Ncana & Ige, 2014). level of intimacy, gender, and product sector),
and its influence on purchase intention.
Therefore, the main purpose of this study was Furthermore, this research aims to provide
to investigate the influence of consumers’ marketers with a better understanding of
tolerance of homosexuality on their attitudes feasible advertising methods that can be used
toward homosexual advertisements, and to target the homosexual market without
ultimately how these attitudes influence on marginalising the heterosexual consumer. The
purchase intention. first objective of this research was to
determine whether or not consumers’ tolerance
Although several studies on homosexual towards homosexuality influences attitudes
advertising have been conducted in an and purchase intentions of brands that target
American context, shortcomings exist in these the homosexual consumer. The second
studies. For example, Oor, van Oudtshoorn, objective was to investigate whether or not the
and Kotze (2005) conducted a study level of intimacy, the product sector, and the
investigating the influence of sexual tension on gender of the models in the advertisements
consumer attitudes and purchase intention, but have an influence on consumers’ attitudes
this study only focussed on the use of lesbian towards advertisements. The third objective
imagery. This warrants future research to was to determine if a respondent’s gender
investigate the influence of sexual tension in influences their attitude towards the
both male and female homosexual imagery. advertisements, and the fourth objective was to
With this in mind, the role of product sectors, determine whether or not attitudes towards an
such as the technology and fashion categories, advertisement influence purchase intentions.
can also influence behaviour. Homosexual The fifth objective sought to determine the
consumers are known for following innovative influence of an individual’s gender as a
trends and tend to be fashion and moderator of attitudes and purchase intention.
technologically savvy (Fejes & Lennon, 2008;
Sha, Aung, Londerville & Ralston, 2007). THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
There appears to be an increase in the
acceptability of homosexual advertising, more Segmenting and targeting the
evident in fashion than in other product sectors homosexual consumer
(Bhat, Leigh & Wardlow, 2010).Thus, varying
the product sectors researched is advisable so Psychographic segmentation occurs through
that the differences in attitudes and purchase consumer clustering based on similar
intentions of consumers in relation to the psychological predispositions, such as a
product itself can be ascertained (Bhat et consumer’s lifestyle (Cant, Strydom, Jooste,
al.,2010). Another limitation of previous du Plessis, 2006; Joubert, 2010). A particular52 Erasing the line between homosexual and heterosexual advertising
lifestyle can be reviewed in terms of a Advertising to the homosexual
consumer’s sexuality, where this segmentation consumer
approach is gaining more popularity as
homosexual consumers are more openly Advertising is a powerful tool used to
displaying their sexuality (Oakenfull & persuade consumers to purchase a product or
Greenlee, 2004). service (Malmelin, 2010) and evolves with
time. When directing advertising to the
Targeting the homosexual consumer is directly homosexual consumer, gender and racial
related to whether or not homosexual identity become factors to consider. Oakenfull
consumers show open acceptance of their & Greenlee (2004) proposed that within the
sexual orientation (Hsieh & Wu, 2011). homosexual market there is growing
Research shows that a male homosexual will consensus that in order to target female
alter his purchasing behaviour depending on homosexual consumers, female visual imagery
the level of acceptance he cultivates for his should be used. Similarly, targeting male
own identity, which is further influenced by homosexual consumers should make use of
the level of acceptance realised by his referent male visual imagery. Contrary to this finding,
groups (Hsieh & Wu, 2011). As a result, more Dotson, Huatt, and Thompson (2009) found
overt behaviour is elicited by homosexual that female homosexual consumers do not
consumers who are more accepting of their prefer to see female homosexual imagery, but
lifestyles (Hsieh & Wu, 2011). Thus, from a rather male homosexual imagery. These
marketing perspective those consumers who findings can be explained by the fact that
openly identify with the homosexual female homosexual consumers are unable to
community are referred to as a dream market identify with more feminine female imagery,
to be exploited because marketers can then and find it easier to connect to androgynous
customise their marketing messages to overt imagery depicted by male models in the
consumer identities (Oakenfull & Greenlee, advertisements. This notion is indicative of
2004). Queer theory, which proposes that one’s
gender is not always in line with of one’s
Positioning decisions when targeting gender identity, where a male does not
the homosexual consumer necessarily have to identify with masculine
identity and females do not necessarily need to
Positioning is a fundamental aspect in ensuring identify with feminine identities (Kates, 1999).
a brand can differentiate itself effectively from Within a South African context, homosexual
its competitors in order to entice consumers to advertising is dominated by white homosexual
purchase the product or service (Joubert, imagery, which imagery fails to represent
2010). When opting to target homosexual black homosexual identity in advertising
consumers particularly in advertising, brands (Sonnekus & van Eeden, 2009). An example
are in effect positioning themselves as a of strong usage of white homosexual imagery
risqué, liberal, and progressive brand in order is evident in Gay Pages, a longstanding glossy
to acquire more attention from consumers South African magazine that has successfully
(Oor, Van Rheede Van Oudtshoorn & Kotze, targeted the homosexual niche market who fall
2005; Tsai, 2013). Sabaru, Ford, Volvo, Land within LSM 8 to 10, and has a readership base
Rover, Volkswagen, and Walmart are known of 45 000 people (Gay Pages, 2014).
to have put marketing strategies into place that
specifically target the homosexual market Male and female homosexual
(Hooten et al., 2009). Adopting this position advertising
can, in effect, increase brand recall and
recognition (Angelini & Bradley, 2010). Recently, gay window advertising that uses
However, brands may run the risk of androgynous styled imagery has been adopted
marginalising their current heterosexual frequently by organisations as a method to
consumers (Bhat, Leigh & Wardlow, 2010). advertise to male homosexual consumersThe Retail and Marketing Review 53
without marginalising heterosexual consumers supplemented by the increase in open
(Borgerson, Schroeder, Blomberg & Thorssen, homosexual forums (Hsieh & Wu, 2011). As a
2010; Puntoni, Vanhamme & Visscher, 2011). result, homosexual consumers are reported to
This form of advertising does not overtly spend more time and money in apparel stores
represent homosexual imagery in the in order to affirm their social standing that can
advertisements, but depicts the sexual be provided by clothing, rather than the basic
orientation of the persons ambiguously in the need that the apparel industry offers (Sha et
advertisements, increasing the difficulty for al., 2007). Subsequently, the technology
heterosexual consumers to decode the product sector can be considered in
advertisements (Borgerson et al., 2010; conjunction with the market diffusion of
Puntoni et al., 2011). However, homosexual innovation (Trott, 2012). This model consists
consumers manage to interpret the implicit of five sectors, namely innovators, early
homosexual representations encoded in the adopters, early majority, late majority, and
advertisements by marketers (Borgerson et al., laggards (Smith & Taylor, 2010).
2010).
Homosexual consumers in particular are
Lesbian chic advertising is used to target analysed as being part of the early adopter
female homosexual consumers, which depicts segment that are defined as consumers who
varying degrees of sexual tension between two focus their buying decisions on whether or not
females and the females are not necessarily a technology product or service is
viewed as a lesbian couple (Richert, 2012). technologically advanced and has a high
The variations of sexual tension can be subtle performance potential, and are thus viewed as
and undetected, or overt and obvious. trend setters for other consumers
However, lesbian chic advertising has been (Vandecasteele & Geuens, 2009). Thus,
developed in accordance with heterosexual advertising to homosexual consumers is an
male sexual fantasies, and does not in actual avenue to pursue for technology brands since
fact target the lesbian consumer effectively homosexual consumers are enticed by
(McKeena, 2002). technology brand messages, and can act as
lead users for other consumers (Fejes &
The influence of product sectors on Lennon, 2008).
homosexual advertising
A heterosexual perspective to
Research shows that homosexual consumers homosexually themed advertising
are more fashion conscious than their
heterosexual counterparts (Schofield & South Africa has a liberal constitution that acts
Schmidt, 2005). As a result, gay men focus as the foundation for homosexual acceptance.
more on their physical appearance than However, there is still prejudicial behaviour
heterosexual men are inclined to (Ahmad & towards homosexuality by heterosexual people
Bhugra, 2010). Therefore, consumption (Herek, 2004). For instance, research has
patterns are a useful means for defining shown that many citizens view homosexuality
consumers according to their sexuality (Hsieh as the erroneous transfer of gender qualities.
& Wu, 2011). Homosexual consumers prefer Male homosexual people are viewed as being
to see their lifestyle within fashion feminine and weak, whereas female
advertisements as a means of self-expression homosexuals are viewed as females attempting
(Dotson et al., 2008). The consumption of to be regarded as men (Francis & Msibi,
clothing contributes to a consumer’s identity. 2011).
This is because fashion becomes a non-verbal
communicator for homosexual consumers to However, within the younger population more
identify themselves and others as homosexual acceptance of homosexuality is being realised
(Schofield & Schmidt, 2005; Sha et al., 2007). (Keleher & Smith, 2012). Two theories are
Clothing particularly enhances a homosexual’s considered to explain the social changes in
distinct qualities and is used as a means to accepting homosexuality. The first is the
embody confidence in the homosexual generational-replacement explanation, which
lifestyle (Sha et al., 2007). An increase in self- proposes that a shift in homosexual acceptance
expression through consumption is further is as a result of the human lifespan, that is, the54 Erasing the line between homosexual and heterosexual advertising
older, more conservative population are being However, these results are not confirmed by
replaced by a younger population with a all researchers (Oakenfull & Greenlee, 2004).
higher tolerance of homosexuality (Keleher &
Smith, 2012). Thus, in effect, tolerance of CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND
homosexuality does not change over time, but RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
rather is replaced in accordance to the human
life cycle. The second theory is the period- Based on the research accumulated, Figure 1
effects explanation, which attributes the shift depicts the proposed theoretical model.
in homosexual acceptance to the changes in
politics, social norms, and religious beliefs that This model is one-directional and attempts to
influence society’s tolerance levels (Keleher & determine the influence of tolerance to
Smith, 2012). Tolerance to homosexuality homosexuality on consumer attitudes to a
further influences a consumer’s response to stimulus (the variations in advertisements),
homosexual imagery. A consumer that is more and subsequently its effect purchase intentions,
tolerant of homosexuality will develop more and account for a heterosexual respondent’s
positive attitudes to homosexual imagery than gender. The independent variable is tolerance
consumers who are less tolerant of to homosexuality as it affects the attitudes
homosexuality (Bhat et al., 2010). toward the variation in advertisements.
Accordingly, the dependent variable is the
Moderator of the formation of attitudes attitude consumers form when viewing
and purchase intention. advertisements, which in turn affects purchase
intention. This effect is indicative of the dual
Heterosexual consumers’ attitudes and mediation model that visually depicts the
purchase intentions vary, depending on their procedure that consumers undergo to process
gender. Previous research shows that the marketing messages, which, in effect, are the
gender of the heterosexual consumer attitudes and purchase intentions developed by
influences their attitude toward homosexual the consumer (Yoonk, Lacznaiak, Muehling &
imagery. However, there is a level of disparity Reece, 1995). In order to work out the
as to the influence gender has on attitude relationship between consumer attitudes and
formation. Oakenfull & Greenlee (2004) found purchase intentions, a consumer’s attitude
that male heterosexual consumers formed less towards the advertisement subsequently
negative attitudes to female homosexual becomes the independent variable, and
imagery than male homosexual imagery. purchase intentions become the dependent
However, female heterosexual consumers variable. A respondent’s gender IS said to
reported to have consistent attitudes towards moderate formation of a consumer’s attitude
both male and female homosexual imagery. when the independent variables are
manipulated.
FIGURE 1
Model used in this study
Consumer attitude to
Tolerance to variations in intimacy, H2
product sector, and Purchase intentions
homosexuality H1 gender of model
found in the
advertisements
H3
Relationship
Moderator H4
Mediator Sex of heterosexual
respondents
Compiled by Ereni Akermanidis (2013)The Retail and Marketing Review 55
Lastly, a respondent’s gender as a mediator on H4b: there is a difference between heterosexual
consumer attitude formation will expose a female attitudes when viewing different
difference between gender and the formation homosexual advertisements.
of attitudes. Subsequently, the hypotheses are
as follows: RESEARCH DESIGN AND
METHODOLOGY
H1: there is a relationship between tolerance to
homosexuality and consumer attitudes to This study undertook a quantitative,
homosexual advertising; descriptive research design whereby
questionnaires were distributed among a
H2: there is a relationship between heterosexual sample of 340 respondents.
overall consumer’s attitudes and overall
purchase intentions;
Sampling
H2a: there is a relationship between attitudes
formed for advertisement #1 (low intimacy, A stratified sample of 340 university students
female, fashion sector) and purchase were selected, of which 312 questionnaires
intentions; were found useful. Each strata was defined
based on the faculties offered at the
H2b: there is a relationship between attitudes University. All students were from the
formed for advertisement #2 (low intimacy, University of Witwatersrand, representing a
male, fashion sector) and purchase intentions; diverse socio- demographic target population,
and the stance of the university is for students
H2c: there is a relationship between attitudes
formed for advertisement #3 (high intimacy, to support homosexuality openly (Wits, 2013).
female, fashion sector) and purchase The sample of students were mostly between
intentions; the ages of 18 and 24, equally divided between
males and females. This sample fell into a sub-
H2d: there is a relationship between attitudes group of generation Y, also known as echo
formed for advertisement #4 (high intimacy, boomers, where the appropriate age group
male, fashion sector) and purchase intentions; selected was the 19-24 year age group, since
the young adult population is primarily
H2e: there is a relationship between attitudes focused on their sexuality, reiterating the
formed for advertisement #5 (low intimacy, appropriateness of the selected sample (Traeen
female, technology sector) and purchase
et al., 2009).
intentions;
H2f: there is a relationship between attitudes Ethical consideration
formed for advertisement #6 (low intimacy,
male, technology sector) and purchase This research underwent a comprehensive
intentions; ethics procedure. Questionnaires were
anonymous and respondents participated
H2g: there is a relationship between attitudes voluntarily. The data was only used for
formed for advertisement #7 (high intimacy, academic purposes within the University of the
female, technology sector) and purchase Witwatersrand. Due to the sensitive subject
intentions; matter, counselling was freely available for all
H2h: there is a relationship between attitudes
participants.
formed for advertisement #8 (high intimacy,
male, technology sector) and purchase
intentions; Measuring instruments
H3:gender of respondents moderates the Questionnaire design
formation of consumer attitudes;
The questionnaire consisted of four sections.
H4a: there is a difference between heterosexual In the first section, Part A, a brief overview of
male attitudes when viewing different the participant’s demographics was
homosexual advertisements; and
established. Part B required the respondents to
rate their attitudes and purchase intentions
towards four advertisements that varied in56 Erasing the line between homosexual and heterosexual advertising
depiction levels of intimacy and gender. These viewing homosexuality from the perspective
advertisements were related to fashion of learnt behaviour, more negative feelings
products. In Part C, respondents had to rate begin to surface (Whitehead & Baker, 2012;
their attitudes and purchase intentions Halder-Markel & Joslyn, 2008). Lastly, when
responding to four advertisements that a consumer views varying degrees of intimacy
similarly varied in level of intimacy and in an advertisement, their attitudes also
gender, however, these advertisements were change, where an increase in the level of
related to technology products. Fictional brand intimacy leads to more negative attitudes
names were used to avoid any form of possible (Oakenfull & Greenlee, 2004). The reason
bias (See Appendix A). Part D required a behind this may be allied to whether not the
respondent to state their sexual orientation. consumer feels comfortable with
The question was worded in the following homosexuality.
manner: “If I had to categorise myself, I would
define myself as being homosexual, Attitudes were measured using an adaptation
heterosexual, or bisexual” (Bhat et al., 2010). the Attitude toward the Ad scale used by Bhat
Furthermore, an additional option was given to et al. (2010) and the Bruzzone test (Shimp,
respondents to describe their sexual orientation 2007). Together these scales registered high
as ‘uncertain’, acknowledging the potential reliability (α=0.92) across all advertisements
confusion some respondents have towards measured in the study. Furthermore, to
their sexuality. In order to ensure that the measure purchase intentions a three-item scale,
study is conducted in the most ethical manner termed a brand interest scale, was used,
possible, all respondents’ information will be registering high reliability across three
statistically analysed, but focus will be advertisements used in their study (α=0.85,
concentrated on the heterosexual consumer. 0.86 and 0.88) (Oor, van Oudtshoor, Kotze,
2005). The tolerance to the homosexuality
Questionnaire scales scale had high reliability (α=0.90).
To measure tolerance of homosexuality, a Data analysis
newly created scale was developed since the
majority of existing scales reflect an Data analysis was conducted on the 312 usable
assumption of a dominant heterosexist questionnaires using a variety of tests in SAS
paradigm, which may lead or offend Enterprise 5.1. A factor analysis confirmed the
respondents. This new scale adopted principles validity of the scales, and cronbach alpha
of the semantic differential measurements. values confirmed the reliability of all the
When developing this scale, similar scales in the questionnaire (Bereson, Levine &
terminology was employed as used by Bhat et Krehbiel, 2006). In this study a level of
al. (2010), namely moral, immoral, acceptable, significance was taken as 0.05. Simple linear
unacceptable, condemned, and liberated. regression was used in order to work out
These terms were chosen due the relationships specified in the model.
stigmatisation of homosexuality in some Moreover, an Anova was performed to deduce
cultures that affect consumers’ behaviour the differences between attitudes for males and
(Francis & Msibi, 2011; Joubert, 2010). females when exposed to different advertising
Secondly, the decision to include terms like stimuli. Thereafter, a t test was used to
maddening, pleasing, criticism, and praise are determine the difference in attitudes across
informed by the analysis of a South African gender and for each product sector (Bereson et
context, whereby homosexuality is considered al., 2006). In some instances the sample was
un-African and is believed by some to have separated and clustered into a heterosexual
emerged as a result of colonisation (Francis & group and a non-heterosexual group due to the
Msibi, 2011). low response rate of non-heterosexual
respondents (28 out of 312 respondents). By
Thirdly, the terms ‘genetic’ versus ‘learnt’ doing so, the non-heterosexual sample did not
have been used because when viewed from a form part of the main analysis in this study, to
strictly genetic perspective, homosexuality avoid the results being erroneously skewed.
allows for society to be more tolerant to the
homosexual lifestyle. Conversely, whenThe Retail and Marketing Review 57
RESULTS AND FINDINGS Further analysis was conducted for each
advertisement, which varied in intimacy,
Descriptive results gender, and product sector. All relationships
for each advertisement individually were also
In terms of the descriptive data, non- supported (p=0.049; p=0.001; p=0.0001;
heterosexual respondents reported to form p=0.0001; p=0.0001; p=0.0001; p=0.001;
neutral attitudes to homosexual imagery across p=0.0001). In addition, using Pearson
product sectors (μ=3). Furthermore, male non- correlations moderate correlations existed
heterosexuals were unlikely to follow through between attitudes and purchase intentions for
with a purchase when viewing advertisement advertisements #1 (p=0.70), #4 (p=0.71), #7
#1, #2, #3, and #4 (μ=2) but showed neutral (p=0.72) and #8 (p=0.71), whilst a strong
intentions towards the other advertisements correlation existed for advertisements #2
(μ=3). Further, female non-heterosexual (p=0.75), #3 (p=0.75), #5 and #6 (p=0.71).
female respondents showed neutral purchase
intentions across all advertisements. In Hypothesis 3: In line with an objective of this
addition, tolerance to homosexuality resulted study, this hypothesis tested gender as a
in neutral tolerance levels from male non- moderator of the formation of consumer
heterosexuals, and positive tolerance levels attitudes. This hypothesis was shown to be
from female non-heterosexual respondents. significant (p=0.001), implying a difference in
attitudes between gender groups. Furthermore,
Concerning the heterosexual respondents’ the interaction between gender and attitudes
attitudes for advertisement #3, male was shown to be significant (p=0.001),
respondents formed negative attitudes but reinforcing the fact that gender does moderate
females showed more neutral attitudes. the relationship between attitudes and
purchase intentions.
Furthermore, for advertisement #6, positive
attitudes where formed by males but females Hypothesis H4a: The fourth hypothesis (H4a)
showed more neutral responses. In terms of tested the differences in attitudes between
purchase intentions, negative purchase male heterosexual attitudes when viewing each
intentions were evident across both genders. advertisement. This hypothesis is related to
Furthermore, female and male heterosexual hypothesis #3, which proposed that there is a
respondents showed neutral attitudes in terms statistically significant difference between the
of their tolerance of homosexuality. In genders of the heterosexual person’s
connection to hypothesis testing, the following formulated attitudes when viewing different
was uncovered: homosexual advertisements.
Hypothesis 1: A key of objective of this study Regarding the source statistics, the
was to determine if tolerance to homosexuality independent groups (advertisements) are
influences attitudes towards various significant (p=0.0001), which implies that
homosexual advertisements. The first there is a difference between male
hypothesis met this objective and tested the heterosexual attitudes when viewing
relationship between tolerance to independent advertisements. Given that the
homosexuality and consumer attitudes. Using Levine’s test is significant (σ2=0.001), there is
a regression analysis, the results supported this sufficient evidence to suggest that the means
hypothesis (p=0.001) and showed that there is are equal. Furthermore, the Bartlett test shows
in fact a relationship between tolerance to a significant chi square (χ2=0.001), which
homosexuality and attitudes formed by implies that there is sufficient evidence to
respondent. suggest that the population variances are
different. The Bonferroni test shows that there
Hypothesis 2: The second hypothesis tested is a significant difference between
the relationship between heterosexual advertisement #6 and all other advertisements.
consumer attitudes and overall purchase
intentions. This hypothesis was supported and In effect, advertisements can be grouped
shows that this relationship exists (p=0.001). together in that they elicit similar attitudes.
Where, advertisements with low intimacy (#2,58 Erasing the line between homosexual and heterosexual advertising
#5, and #7) elicited the same attitudes; there is a difference between advertisements
advertisement #1, #3, #7, and #8 resulted in #5 and #6 (p=0.0001), advertisements #5 and
the same attitudes as one another. #7 (p=0.0001), advertisements #6 and #8
Furthermore, advertisements with high (p=0.0001), and advertisements #7 and #8
intimacy (#3, #4, and #8) had the same (p=0.0001).
attitudes as one another, and #1, #5, and #7
elicited the same attitudes from respondents. Attitudinal differences across the fashion
and technology sector: With regards to
Hypothesis test H4b: The fourth hypothesis product sector differences, it was evident that
(H4b) suggested there is a difference between differences in attitude were formed between
female attitudes when viewing different advertisements #1 and #5 (p=0.0202)
advertisements. With regard to the source advertisements #2 and #6 (p=0.0001);
statistics, the independent groups advertisements #4 and #8 (p=0.0001).Further
(advertisements) are significant (p=0.001). analysis revealed that the mean difference
Given that the Levine’s test is significant, (μ=0.16) between advertisements #1 and #5
there is sufficient evidence to suggest that σj2 showed that advertisement #5 elicited more
are equal (σ2=0.0536). Furthermore, the positive attitudes than advertisement #1.
Bartlett test shows a significant chi square Secondly, in terms of the mean difference
(χ2=0.001,) which implies that there is (μ=0.35) for advertisements #2 and #6, the
sufficient evidence to suggest that the results imply that advertisement #6 was better
population variances are different. The received by respondents than advertisement
Bonferroni test shows that there is no #2. Thirdly, advertisements #3 and #7 had no
significant difference between advertisements significant difference (p=0.6328), however the
#1, #2, #3, #5, #6, and #7 among females. mean difference (μ=0.0293) implies that
advertisement #7 was slightly better received
Correspondingly, there is no significant by respondents. Lastly, the mean difference
difference between advertisements #4 and #8 between advertisements #4 and #8 shows that
(high intimacy male advertisements) among advertisement #8 was better received than
female consumers. However, a difference advertisement #4. This implies that the
exists between these two groups, implying that technology sector elicited more positive
respondents negatively view high intimacy attitudes than the fashion sector.
male advertisements, which is different to their
responses to all other advertisements. DISCUSSION
Post hoc testing to measuring Insights into the non-heterosexual
attitudinal differences consumer
Attitudinal differences between males and In view of the low response rate from non-
females: To measure changes in attitudes heterosexual consumers resulting in the
between male and females per advertisement, t inability to draw conclusive findings from
tests were performed. A significant difference such a low base size, bisexual, homosexual
between males and females existed for and uncertain respondents’ results tended to be
advertisements #2 (p=0.0001), #3 (p=0.0002), more neutral to homosexual advertising than
#4 (p=0.0001), #6 (p=0.0001), #7 (p=0.0174), what would have been expected.
and #8 (p=0.0001) were identified.
Research conducted by Holland and Gentry
Attitudinal differences within the fashion (1999) can be used to shed light on this
sector: In the fashion sector there is a outcome. Holland and Gentry (1999) dealt
difference between advertisements #1 and #2 with ethnic groups’ reaction to target-specific
(p=0.0001), advertisements #2 and #4 marketing messages. Although the research is
(p=0.0001), and advertisements #3 and #4 not in line with the theme of this study, an
(p=0.0001). implication has surfaced. Consumer attitudes
are influenced by the information that they
Attitudinal differences within the possess about the brand or agent providing
technology sector: In the technology sectorThe Retail and Marketing Review 59
them with marketing messages. If an ethnic Insights into the heterosexual
group does not have sufficient information consumer
about the brand, they may not recognise the
true reasoning behind target-specific On average, heterosexual respondent’s
messages. Similarly, if the consumer is well- tolerance to homosexuality was neutral. This
versed with a brand, and are aware of past implies that the student population may not be
support for their consumer group, they will overtly heterosexist, but rather indifferent to
show more interest or a more positive attitude homosexuality. This in effect links to research
to a brand and its marketing message (Holland conducted by Schott-Ceccacci, Holland &
& Gentry, 1999). Mattews, 2009 which looked at student
attitudes as a consequence of their educational
To relate these findings to the homosexual environment. Educational environments
consumer, the use of fictional brands may have harbour the most tolerance to different
had an adverse effect on some of the non- lifestyles and, in effect, can re-socialise young
heterosexual respondents. Thus, failure to have consumers.
prior brand information and its support for Results suggested that males prefer low levels
homosexuality may have resulted in of intimacy in advertising and are more
respondents experiencing less favourable inclined to appreciate female homosexual
attitudes to the advertisements, due to the imagery across both levels of intimacy.
perception that the advertisements were a mere Regarding female heterosexual attitudes, on
marketing ploy, as opposed to a brand average the majority of their attitudes were
supporting their consumers directly. neutral. A similarity was evidenced by the fact
that negative attitudes were formed for
Another more superficial reasoning behind this advertisements #4 and #8, which both depicted
unexpected outcome may be as a result of the high intimacy levels between males. On
actual advertisement’s composition, rather average, female consumers are more likely to
than the respondents’ lack of support for their be accepting of brands that make use of
own sexual orientation. Non-heterosexual homosexual advertising, on condition that
respondents may have analysed the male homosexuality is not the focus of the
advertisement further and not have been advertisement. In effect, this research confirms
enticed by the style of fashion depicted in the Hooten, Noeva, and Hammonds (2009)
advertisement, or may they may have failed to research that found that heterosexual
understand the networking service that was consumers do not form positive attitudes
advertised in the technology sector. The towards male homosexuality.
possible reasons may have counted against the
advertisement, and resulted in only neutral The influence of tolerance to
attitudes and purchase intentions being homosexuality on attitudes
formed.
Bhat et al. (2010) proposed that tolerance to
In terms of non-heterosexual male homosexuality did effect attitude formation.
respondents’ tolerance to homosexuality, male This is confirmed in this study, where results
respondents showed neutral tolerance. This show that tolerance to homosexuality does
may be a by-product of social discrimination affect consumer attitudes towards the
resulting in non-heterosexual respondents advertisement. This notion implies that
experiencing shame for their sexual marketers must pay careful attention to
orientation, or fear of being overtly positive determining the tolerance level of their market.
about their lifestyle, which is traditionally The probability that a market is, on average,
marginalised in society (Traeen et al., 2009). tolerant to homosexuality, increases the
However conversely, female respondents did success rate of using homosexual imagery in
show positive tolerance to homosexuality, advertising campaigns.
which suggests that female non-heterosexual
respondents are more open to celebrating their Attitudes on purchase intentions
sexual orientation.
Attitudes formed by respondents showed an
influence on purchase intentions (Bhat et al.,60 Erasing the line between homosexual and heterosexual advertising
2010; Yoonk et al., 1995). A consumer who technology sector that showed more positive
forms positive attitudes towards the attitudes in both male and female heterosexual
advertisement will be more likely to purchase respondents than the fashion sector did. In
from the brand. Thus, based on this notion, addition, low to high intimacy of female
careful attention must be paid to ensuring that imagery in advertising is more feasible than
the composition of the advertisement elicits making use of male homosexual imagery
positive attitudes. within this sampled group. This notion is then
further influenced by a consumer’s tolerance
The role of product sectors to homosexuality, and the respondent’s gender
also mediates the relationship between
The results of this study argue that product attitudes and purchase intentions. However,
sector is a fundamental component in more investigation is necessary to determine
effectively targeting homosexual consumers in the intrinsic differences between consumers.
mainstream advertising. The technology sector
elicited more positive attitudes than the IMPLICATIONS FOR MARKETERS
fashion sector. Potential deductions of this are
that the fashion sector has a stronger This study holds several implications for
association with a consumer’s identity. marketers. Firstly, marketers need to ensure
that the targeted homosexual consumers do in
This implies that a consumer may find it fact identify with the brand. This could be
difficult to identify with homosexual imagery, determined through market research of a
which is unlike their own. This notion is brand’s target market. Secondly, a brand that
discussed in research conducted by White and is looking to target homosexual consumers in
Dahl (2007), which shows that the consumer is mainstream advertising, should gain adequate
more likely to feel less connected to a brand insight into the secondary heterosexual market
that is associated with an out-group. Thus, it to which the brand also appeals. With regard
may be inferred that heterosexual consumers to tolerance to homosexuality, the sample was
may not identify with the technology sector as seen as tolerant to homosexuality, therefore
a reflection of the self, and thus be more open brands that target the educated youth have
to associate this sector to imagery that is more freedom in illustrating homosexuality in
different to their identity. This is unlike the their advertising campaigns. On the other
fashion sector, which consumers often use as a hand, if a brand’s target market is less
means of self-expression, and is a direct educated, marketers could face negative
reflection of a consumer’s identity. effects that can result in the risk of
heterosexual consumers switching brands.
The role of gender
Female homosexual imagery is more
According to the findings shown in the acceptable to heterosexual consumers, and this
previous section, a consumer’s gender does should be borne in mind when trying to gain
moderate heterosexual attitudes and purchase insight into a brand’s market. By doing so, the
intentions, as suggested by research conducted brand will target all sexual orientations in a
by Oakenfull & Greenlee (2004). mutually beneficial manner. As a result,
marketers should minimise the use of male
The possibility of advertising to the intimacy in their campaigns. The findings
homosexual consumer provide evidence that this could lead to
negative attitudes and lower levels of purchase
It is evident that there is in fact a feasible way intentions among the heterosexual consumer.
to target 19-24 year old homosexual Using high levels of homosexual intimacy in
consumers in mainstream advertising without campaigns should be used with caution, since
marginalising heterosexual consumers (falling the South African young adult population’s
within this same age range) in the process. readiness to engage with such homosexual
Findings show that that the level of intimacy, advertisements is underdeveloped. With this in
product sector, and gender of the homosexual mind, the product sector influences the
models in the advertisement do influence successfulness of such a marketing campaign.
consumer attitudes. This is evident in the As uncovered by this research, marketersThe Retail and Marketing Review 61
should rather use this strategy in the product sector) and its influence on purchase
technology sector than in the fashion sector. intention.
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APPENDIX A
A DESCRIPTION OF THE ADVERTISEMENTS USED IN THE STUDY
Advertisement
Description of Advertisement
Number
1 Low levels of intimacy between females for the fashion category
2 Low levels of intimacy between males for the fashion category
3 High levels of intimacy between females for the fashion category
4 High levels of intimacy between males for the fashion category
5 Low levels of intimacy between females for the technological category
6 Low levels of intimacy between males for the technological category
7 High levels of intimacy between females for the technological category
8 High levels of intimacy between males for the technological categoryYou can also read
