Emotive Figures as "Shown" Emotion in Italian Post-Unification Conduct Books (1860-1900) - Érudit
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Informal Logic
Emotive Figures as "Shown" Emotion in Italian Post-Unification
Conduct Books (1860-1900)
Annick Paternoster
Rhetoric and Language: Emotions and Style in Argumentative Discourse Article abstract
Volume 39, Number 4, 2019 Within a digital corpus of 20 Italian post-unification conduct books (1860 to 1900),
UAM CorpusTool is used to perform a manual annotation of 13 emotive rhetorical
URI: https://id.erudit.org/iderudit/1066686ar figures as indices of “shown” emotion (émotion montrée, Micheli 2014). The analysis
DOI: https://doi.org/10.22329/il.v39i4.6033 consists in two text mining tasks: classification, which identifies emotive figures
using the 13 categories, and clustering, which identifies groups, i.e. clusters where
emotive figures co-occur. Emotive clusters mainly discuss diligence and
See table of contents
parsimony—personal values linked to self-improvement for which reader agreement
is not taken for granted. In this corpus they function as “moving” values, that is,
values acting recurrently as contexts for “argued” emotion (émotion étayée, Micheli
Publisher(s) 2014).
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Cite this article
Paternoster, A. (2019). Emotive Figures as "Shown" Emotion in Italian
Post-Unification Conduct Books (1860-1900). Informal Logic, 39 (4), 433–463.
https://doi.org/10.22329/il.v39i4.6033
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https://www.erudit.org/en/Emotive Figures as “Shown” Emotion in Ital-
ian Post-Unification Conduct Books (1860-
1900)
ANNICK PATERNOSTER
Università della Svizzera italiana
Istituto di Studi italiani
Via Lambertenghi 10A
CH-6900 Lugano
Italy
annick.paternoster@usi.ch
Abstract: Within a digital corpus of Résumé: Dans un corpus numérique
20 Italian post-unification conduct de 20 livres de conduite post-
books (1860 to 1900), UAM Cor- unification italiens (1860 à 1900),
pusTool is used to perform a manual UAM CorpusTool est utilisé pour
annotation of 13 emotive rhetorical annoter manuellement 13 figures
figures as indices of “shown” emotion rhétoriques émotives en tant
(émotion montrée, Micheli 2014). The qu’indices de l’émotion “montrée”
analysis consists in two text mining (Micheli 2014). L’analyse consiste en
tasks: classification, which identifies deux tâches d’exploration de texte: la
emotive figures using the 13 catego- classification, qui identifie les figures
ries, and clustering, which identifies émotives à l’aide des 13 catégories, et
groups, i.e. clusters where emotive la mise en grappes, qui identifie des
figures co-occur. Emotive clusters groupes, c’est-à-dire des grappes où
mainly discuss diligence and parsi- coexistent des figures émotives. Les
mony—personal values linked to self- grappes émotives discutent
improvement for which reader agree- principalement de la diligence et de la
ment is not taken for granted. In this parcimonie, valeurs personnelles liées
corpus they function as “moving” à l'amélioration de soi, pour lesquelles
values, that is, values acting recur- l'accord du lecteur n'est pas pris pour
rently as contexts for “argued” emo- acquis. Dans ce corpus, elles
tion (émotion étayée, Micheli 2014). fonctionnent comme des valeurs
“émotionnantes,” c’est-à-dire des
valeurs agissant de manière récurrente
comme des contextes pour l’émotion
“étayée” (Micheli 2014).
Keywords: “Argued” emotion, conduct books, emotive figures, exclamation,
Italy, nineteenth century, Lausberg, Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca, “shown”
emotion, values434 Paternoster
1. Introduction
Within the pragmatics of politeness, research on norms and values
has recently sparked an interest in conduct books. Conduct books
contribute to the conventionalisation of politeness norms; they
extract conventions by observing social practices and legitimise
them further (Terkourafi 2011; Paternoster and Saltamacchia
2017; Culpeper 2017). Conduct books also tend to be particularly
moralising. They use values in order to justify conventions as
compulsory. This happens in two ways: values contribute to the
conventionalisation process of specific norms, and they also help
to maintain the moral order generally by raising moral awareness
(Kádár 2017). Italian nineteenth-century conduct books are laden
with explicit moral evaluations, as Paternoster and Saltamacchia
(2019) have shown for fashion rules. With regard to hairstyles,
e.g., “un’acconciatura eccessiva indica vanità e leggerezza” (‘ex-
cessive adornment points at vanity and frivolity’ Cianfrocca 1878
[1872], p. 14)1. Tasca, a historian, calls Italian nineteenth-century
conduct books “galatei morali” ‘moral conduct books’ (2004, p.
109), but this is a pleonasm as galatei typically promote Catholic
ethics, which sets them apart from other advice literature, like
etiquette books.
In the textual genre of advice literature, which explicitly states
an instructive purpose (in titles, prefaces, prologues) and contains
explicit instructive language throughout, “instructiveness” is “most
salient” (Tanskanen and Skaffari et al. 2009, p. 6). The reader of
instructional literature is expected to be compliant. In the texts
considered here, however, this is not always the case. Surprisingly,
the exposition is often interrupted by persuasive passages, which
try to involve the reader by means of an emotive discourse. There
are numerous rhetorical questions, exclamations, vocatives, inter-
jections etc., treating topics where disagreement is expected. In
other words, certain topics—mainly concerning moral values—
trigger an increased persuasive effort shaped as an author-reader
dialogue. This observation sparks the following question: which
values attract this emotive style? Are there, in other words, values
that prove controversial in the context of Italian post-unification
1
All translations are mine unless otherwise indicated.
© Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463Emotive Figures as “Shown” Emotion 435
conduct books? To answer this question, I conducted a quantita-
tive rhetorical analysis of emotive figures based on a manual
annotation of the corpus. The analysis ultimately aims to inventory
“moving” values. In the corpus, these values are recurrently pre-
sented with an emotive style. This paper fills a double knowledge
gap in that conduct books are not often subjected to stylistic analy-
sis and they are not often thought of as containing controversial
content.
The historical context and the corpus are introduced in section
2. Section 3 situates my contribution in the context of the growing
interest in emotions in linguistics and argumentation, particularly
in reference to Christian Plantin’s (2011) and Raphaël Micheli’s
(2014) notions of “shown” emotion and “argued” emotion. Using
definitions of emotive figures from classical rhetoric and argumen-
tation-based approaches to rhetoric, taken respectively from the
compendia by Heinrich Lausberg and by Chaïm Perelman and
Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca, I provide examples for the rhetorical
figures used in the analysis. Section 4 presents the manual corpus
annotation completed using UAM CorpusTool. Section 5 discuss-
es the results of two text mining tasks: classification and cluster-
ing. The first task consists of tagging emotive figures in the text,
and the second one identifies text segments that are similar, that is,
those with a high density of emotive tags or clusters. Emotive
clusters are then used to identify “moving” values, that is, values
acting recurrently as contexts for “argued” emotion. Section 6
discusses these “moving” values from the point of view of the
historical context. The values that most frequently attract an emo-
tive style are diligence and parsimony, which are personal values
linked to self-improvement, and, to a lesser extent, social values
such as respect for other people. These values appear to be contro-
versial, that is, reader agreement is not taken for granted. The
analysis shows that long after the unification of Italy, work and
thrift stay “moving” values, and this corresponds to the wider
public debate over poverty and public assistance. The concluding
remarks offer possible directions for further research.
© Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463436 Paternoster
2. Italian post-unification conduct books
Nineteenth-century Italy was inundated with conduct manuals.
Tasca (2004) counts 186 original titles, resulting in at least 450
different editions. This boom can probably be explained by the
desire of the emerging bourgeoisie to replace the aristocratic cer-
emonial code with a new, more rational and utilitarian code of
conduct (see Saltamacchia and Rocci 2019 on the use of ragione
“reason” as a keyword in an 1802 Italian conduct book). Conduct
book numbers peaked in the decennia following the unification of
the country. This paper proposes to work with the 20 most suc-
cessful (that is, the most reprinted) conduct books published be-
tween 1860-1900, during a period in which, after several decennia
of war and turmoil, the ruling class was keen to establish social
peace. Within the nation-building effort, conduct books were seen
as reliable tools to create a new national identity based on social
values deemed necessary for polite interaction (fraternal love,
solidarity, etc.) and personal values deemed necessary for the
economic development of the new country (diligence, thrift, etc.).
Conduct books were socially inclusive. Typically, post-unification
conduct books were written by men belonging to the cultured
bourgeoisie: teachers, headmasters, priests, philanthropists. They
addressed either school-going children or adult members of the
lower middle class who were invited to share the values and life-
style of the bourgeoisie. Conduct books functioned as reading
material in schools, but they also circulated in parish libraries and
libraries for the people. They were intended for a consumer of
limited means; they were affordably priced, and they discussed
activities only requiring a modest financial outlay such as visits,
walks in the park, theatre, churchgoing, greetings, conversation,
and table manners (Botteri 1999; Vanni 2006).
The twenty selected conduct books form part of the Corpus di
galatei italiani ottocenteschi (CGIO, under construction, compilers
Annick Paternoster and Francesca Saltamacchia). Using the opti-
cal character recognition software Abbyy Finereader 12 Profes-
sional (and manual correction), the compilers made searchable
files of the 50 most reprinted conduct and etiquette books of the
long nineteenth century (1800-1920). For this paper, I have used
© Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463Emotive Figures as “Shown” Emotion 437 20 conduct books appearing in the first 40 years after the unifica- tion of Italy (1860-1900). Numbers peak in the 1870s and then decline. For the first decade of the twentieth century, GGIO only contains 1 conduct book (next to 4 etiquette books). Table 1 lists the texts in chronological order, with the numbers of editions until 1920—the end date of our corpus. Chiavarino (1897), remarkably, is in print until 1960. Table 1 includes a word count and a sentence count, both established with the file information function in UAM Corpus Tools. Author, Year, Title Editions Words Sentences Cristofori, Francesco. 1864. Le 2 8,825 364 norme del vivere civile. Avverti- menti per fanciulli e giovinotti Gatta, Matteo. 1869 [1865]. 2 30,419 1,134 Galateo ad uso dei giovinetti d’ambo i sessi Cajmi, Carlo. 1869 [1865-7]. 3 71,972 2,241 Nuovo galateo. Consigli di un nonno a’ suoi nipoti Gattini, Luigi. 1870 [1869]. Il 4 28,044 1,103 galateo popolare Pellegrino, Gaetano. 1870. Il 3 27,617 1,603 galateo del giovanetto convittore Bruni, Oreste. 1870. La vera 5 51,555 2,841 civiltà insegnata al popolo Rodella, Costantino. 1871. 2 25,003 997 Enrichetto ossia il galateo del fanciullo Gallenga, Giacinto. 1871. Codi- 3 130,592 3,915 ce delle persone oneste e civili ossia galateo morale per ogni classe di cittadini Grossardi, Gian Carlo. 1879 2 24,795 592 [1875]. Galateo del carabiniere Rossi, Clemente. 1921 [1878]. Il 4 72,411 3,565 tesoro delle giovinette © Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463
438 Paternoster
Cipani, Giovanni Battista 1884. 2 5,963 235
Piccolo galateo pei figliuoli del
popolo
Fornari, Ermelinda 1888. Fan- 1 36,291 1,910
ciulle per bene. Galateo per le
fanciulle
Demartino, Federico 1897a 3 23,512 1,601
[1888]. Manuale dei doveri di
civiltà informato ai sensi della S.
Scrittura
Cortinovis, Pietro 1889. Regole 2 10,552 475
di civiltà e buona creanza per
uso de’ convitti
Grelli, Carlo 1889. Piccolo 2 6,247 258
galateo ad uso degli istituti
educativi d’Italia
Righi, Benvenuto. 1889. 3 13,190 666
L’educazione del giovanetto
Commodari, Pasquale. 1893. 8 6,419 337
Precetti di civiltà
Pasquali, Pietro. 1897. Il rispet- 4 12,270 931
to. Libretto di buone creanze
Chiavarino, Luigi 1897. Il picco- 10 23,088 1,330
lo galateo ad uso specialmente
degli istituti di educazione
Krier, Bernhard J. 1900 [1894]. 2 48,588 2,342
L’urbanità. Venti conferenze
tenute agli allievi del collegio
vescovile di Lussemburgo
67 657,353 28,440
Total
Table 1. Texts included in the corpus (1860-1900)
As noted, this corpus of conduct books containing mainly school
manuals—only four authors, Bruni, Gallenga, Grossardi, Gattini,
address adults—belongs to the genre of instructional literature
where an authority is giving instructions to a passive learner.
However, rules and values are presented with a different style.
© Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463Emotive Figures as “Shown” Emotion 439 Rules consist in long lists of directives. Directives form a fuzzy, indiscreet category, with the illocutionary force ranging from orders to requests and advice. Although the expert is in a position to be direct and use imperatives, the majority of the rules are mitigated and use distancing politeness (Brown and Levinson’s negative politeness, 1987 [1978]). Mitigation is predominantly achieved by the use of “shields” (Caffi 2007), that is, the author, but also the reader, is “hidden” behind impersonal verbs, passives without agent, diluted “we” and general statements. With the distancing style, it is as if the reader is moved into the background. Values, however, are expressed with assertives, although the exposition is often interrupted by a rhetoric of reinforcement. In these cases, the authors do not assume agreement from the reader. Although values are mainly used as endoxa—shared social beliefs that require no further argumentation—there are many cases where specific values are the object of increased persuasive effort framed as a dialogue with the reader. The monologue becomes, so to say, a dialogue, and the reader moves into the foreground. There are many overlaps with Brown and Levinson’s positive politeness (or rapprochement politeness). 3. Emotive figures Both mitigation and reinforcement are emotive in nature (Caffi and Janney 1994; Caffi 2007, pp. 138-139). I will adopt Caffi’s termi- nology: emotive language is interpersonal, intentional, and strate- gic, whereby involvement—in reference to Hübler 1987—is seen as a continuum that spans across distancing and rapprochement moves. This paper is on emotive rapprochement. Caffi, whose approach is eminently interdisciplinary, reserves “emotional” for spontaneous, intrapersonal manifestations of our inner self, but she acknowledges that emotions also follow certain socio-cultural rules (2007, p. 130).2 Plantin, writing in French, quotes Frijda’s (1993) distinction between communication émotionnelle (sponta- neous, studied by psychology) and communication émotive, which 2 For an exploration of the cognitive aspect of emotions like “scripts” or “sche- ma-like structures” with regard to impoliteness (anger, sadness), see Culpeper (2011, pp. 56-59). © Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463
440 Paternoster is strategic and intentional, only to dismiss it arguing that the presence of real emotions cannot be studied by linguists—he uses émotionnel and émotionné quite indistinctly for all manifestation of emotion in language (2011, pp. 140-142). Whilst pathos has had a place in rhetoric since Aristotle, the discussion of rhetorical figures and, specifically, emotive rhetori- cal figures within argumentation theory has been fairly recent.3 Ground-breaking work has been done by Christian Plantin (2011) and Raphaël Micheli (2014). Figure 1 shows Plantin’s distinction between émotion nommée, which does not need any inferencing work on behalf of the recipient since the emotion is “said” directly by an emotion term (for example, the verb “to fear”), and two other cases where emotion is signified indirectly and needs infer- encing by the recipient. On the right, emotion is inferenced from semiotic manifestations pointing to the presence of an emotion in the speaker; on the left, emotion is inferenced in the opposite direction, that is, from a situation typically linked to a specific emotion. Figure 1. The semiotisation of emotions, reproduced from Plantin (2011, p. 144). 3 An alternative method to study emotions is Appraisal Theory (Martin and White 2005) in which evaluative terms are said to be based on affect because they express either attraction or repulsion. Appraisal was adapted for emotions by Bednarek (2008). © Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463
Emotive Figures as “Shown” Emotion 441
Micheli rephrases this distinction into émotion dite “said,” montrée
“shown” and étayée “argued” (2014, p. 12; for the English termi-
nology see Serafis and Herman 2017). Although the three types of
semioticised emotion are intertwined in complex ways, this paper
focuses on “shown” emotion as a way to access “argued” emotion.
Lexical and syntactic strategies of “shown” emotion in Micheli
(2014, chapter 3) include elliptic clauses, exclamations, interjec-
tions, nominal sentences, right dislocation, and cleft sentences.
“Shown” emotion can also be “transphrastic” and affect text seg-
ments containing more than one sentence by means of repetitions
and parallelisms (Micheli 2014, pp. 99-103). Bednarek notes that
“language as emotion or emotional talk relates to all those constit-
uents (verbal, non-verbal, linguistic, non-linguistic) that conven-
tionally express or signal affect/emotion (whether genuinely expe-
rienced or not, and whether intentional or not)” (2008, p. 11).
“Shown” emotion is, thus, a matter of conventionalisation.
The conventionalised status of emotive discourse is demon-
strated by rhetoric. In his compendium of literary rhetoric, Hein-
rich Lausberg includes, within the thought figures, two similar
groups of figures: “figures oriented towards the audience” and
“emotive figures” (1998, §§ 758-779; §§ 808-851). The figures in
the first group “intensify the speaker’s contact with the audience”
using devices of “address” and “question” and they are “emotive”
(Lausberg 1998, § 808).4 Figures of address include, for example,
the apostrophe (the address of a third party), and figures of ques-
tion include, for example, the rhetorical question (interrogatio)
and mock dialogue. The second group contains “primarily emotive
figures” (L 1998, § 808) such as exclamatio, evidentia (detailed
description), and sermocinatio (where a third party takes the
floor). Even the most cursory glance at Lausberg’s sources reveals
the longevity of these figures, which have been conventionalised
since antiquity. Similar figures form part of Chaïm Perelman and
Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca’s New Rhetoric where they are classified
as figures of “communion” and “presence” (2013 [1969], pp. 171-
179). Figures of communion, say proverbs, “bring about commun-
ion with the audience” (Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca 2013
4
For concision, Lausberg is hereafter abbreviated to L.
© Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463442 Paternoster
[1969], p. 172; p. 177 for proverbs)5. With such figures, like
“apostrophe” and rhetorical questions, the speaker “endeavors to
get his audience to participate actively in his exposition, by taking
it into his confidence” or “inviting its help” (P&OT 2013 [1969],
p. 178). Figures of presence “make the object of discourse present
to the mind” (P&OT 2013 [1969], p. 174), that is, it becomes
foregrounded in the mind of the hearer by means of, for example,
repetition, sermocination, dialogism, and hypotyposis (a synonym
for evidentia). Plantin in turn analyses Lausberg’s emotive figures
in connection with Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca’s figures of
communion aptly concluding that these figures involve the audi-
ence by transforming a monologue into a dialogue (2009, pp. 10-
11). Similarly, writing on the emotive effect of evidentia, Cigada
states that the interruption of a one-way exposition by foreground-
ing the recipient is “most efficient” when using “dialogical se-
quences” (2008, p. 51). Emotion and fictional dialogue are, so it
seems, intricately linked; in rhetoric, fictional dialogue is the
conventional way to convey “shown” emotion and involve the
recipient.
When it comes to the corpus, it must be noted that these figures
were part and parcel of the nineteenth-century education system.
Alessandro Manzoni, for instance, frequently uses emotive figures
in the dialogues of his 1840 novel I promessi sposi ‘The Be-
trothed.’ Kullmann (2006) argues that the figures used in the novel
form part of the rhetorical manuals used in the schools frequented
by the author. After unification, Manzoni’s novel was used in
schools as an example of good style (Polimeni 2011). This paper
works with the following emotive figures: exclamation, rhetorical
question, mock dialogue, vocative, suspension points, evidentia,
italics for emphasis, irony, interjection, apostrophe, sermocination,
repetition, and proverbs. The list was established empirically and
includes only categories that were effectively found in the corpus.
In what follows, I provide definitions with examples taken from
the corpus.
5
Hereafter P&OT.
© Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463Emotive Figures as “Shown” Emotion 443 1) Exclamation is the “expression of emotion by means of isolated, intensified pronuntiatio,” which “in a similar way” is “proper to interrogatio” (L 1998, § 809): Quanto è bella una famiglia dove il cuore e la mente ordinata pos- sono inspirare codesta armonia! How beautiful is a family where the heart and the orderly mind can inspire harmony! (Cajmi 1869 [1865-7], II, p. 17) 2) The interrogatio or rhetorical question is the “expression of an intended statement in the form of a question to which no answer is expected since, given the situation, and from the point of view of the speaking party, the answer is supposed to be self-evident” (L 1998, § 767). For Lausberg, this device is meant to “humiliate” the opposing party, but this is certainly not always the case. In this example about a wealthy man who refuses to educate his children, the figure aims to increase common ground: È forse questo, dimando io, amore alla famiglia? Così accettiamo ed usiamo i doni di Dio? Quale utilità recano a se stessi e agli altri, uomini di tal genere? E un padre può egli esser felice di tale abiezione della propria prole? Is this perhaps, I ask, love of one’s family? Is this how we accept and use the gifts of God? How is that kind of man useful to him- self and to others? Furthermore, can a father be happy if his chil- dren are left in such an abject condition? (Bruni 1870, p. 32) 3) Mock dialogue (or dialogism, subiectio) is a “monologue” with “question and answer” included “to enliven the line of thought” (L 1998, §771): Sapete cosa dovete fare voi? Dovete leggere e mettere in pratica ciò che troverete esposto in questo Galateo. Do you know what you must do? You must read this Galateo and practise what you’ll find set out in it (Pellegrino 1870, p. 3). 4) Vocatives address the reader. Although the latter “belongs to the normal audience,” the vocative has the effect of “an apostrophe since it is unusual and, moreover, snatches the reader concerned away from the anonymous mass of readers, and therefore turns away from the anonymity of the readership” (L 1998, § 763): © Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463
444 Paternoster O mogli! la gentilezza è il pregio vostro, dopo l’onestà, maggior d’ogni altro. O wives! After honesty, kindness is your greatest vir- tue (Gallenga 1871, p. 44). 5) The number of dots in suspension points is not fixed and up to seven dots are possible. Suspension points can represent reticence. Among the motives for reticence, Lausberg lists respect for the audience and “omission of content offending against the sense of shame,” which can create “emphasis” (L 1998, § 888). The “de- velopment” is left “to the hearer” (P&OT 2013 [1969], p. 487). Suspension points can also indicate a pause to mark out a passage as important and create suspense. In this case, seven dots empha- sise marital problems: Talvolta può avvenire che i casi della vita guastino quel sereno orizzonte che sempre dovrebbe splendere al disopra delle fami- glie;....... Sometimes it may happen that the events of life spoil that serene horizon, which should always remain clear above families;....... (Cajmi 1869 [1865-7], II, p. 15) 6) Evidentia is “the vividly detailed depiction of a broadly con- ceived whole object […] through the enumeration of (real or in- vented) observable details” (L 1998, §810). Through the “experi- ence of simultaneousness,” the speaker “places himself and the audience in the position of the eyewitness (L 1998, §810; see also P&OT 2013 [1969], pp. 176-177). Simultaneity calls for the pre- sent tense, which can “produce a very strong impression of pres- ence” (P&OT 2013 [1969], p. 177; see L 1998, § 814 on translatio temporum). This example criticises family men who are polite in society but aggressive at home: Eppure io odo dei gemiti, delle grida: odo un agitarsi in quelle stanze, un romoreggiar di voci incomposte che in isconcia guisa si urtano, si assaltano. Il suono mi colpisce di villane parole, di bru- tali ingiurie... Oh Dio! in quella famiglia qualcuno piange, qual- cun si dispera! Yet I hear groans, shouts: I hear an agitation in those rooms, a rumble of agitated voices, which clash in an ob- scene manner, assault each other. I am stricken by the sound of rude words, of brutal insults... Dear God! in that family someone is crying, someone is in despair! (Gallenga 1871, p. 38) © Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463
Emotive Figures as “Shown” Emotion 445
7) Italics for emphasis are a device of text composition in texts
where typographic composition is usually kept to a minimum
(Tasca 2004, p. 117):
Che dire in fine di coloro che abusano continuamente dei liquori?
Non parliamo del disgusto che recano a chi sta loro intorno, con
quel fiato puzzolento di rhum e di acquavite, da far venire le forze
di stomaco. What to say, in the end, about those who continually
abuse liquor? Not to mention the disgust that they bring to those
around them, with their breath stinking of rum and brandy, enough
to make one retch (Bruni 1870, p. 79).
8) Irony functions similarly to reticence. As a given meaning is
expressed antiphrastically, it is up to the reader to work out the
intention of the author. The author counts on the fact that the
reader will spot the irony, “Thus irony cannot be used if there is
uncertainty about the speaker’s opinions” (P&OT 2013 [1969], p.
208). Irony with this high degree of self-evidence is used to
“demonstrate the absurdity of the opponent’s analytical terminolo-
gy” (L 1998, §902). This passage ironises about Catholic journal-
ists who write vitriolic attacks against their anticlerical opponents:
A questi scrittori che vanno in così soave maniera evangelizzando
i popoli su pei giornali e pei romanzi, io direi colla buon’anima
del Giusti: “fratelli, voi iscambiate l’acqua dei vostri rigagnoli con
quelle del Giordano […].” To those writers who are evangelising
the peoples in such a gentle manner in newspapers and novels, I
would say with Giusti6 – God have his soul: “Brethren, you are
mistaking the water from your rivulets for the waters of the Jor-
dan” (Gallenga 1871, p. 317).
9) Interjections are almost always accompanied by an exclamation
mark. According to Leo Spitzer in Italienische Umgangssprache,
they are generated not by logic, but by affect. They are like “abso-
lute music,” “closest to trombone sounds” as they come straight
from the soul (Spitzer 1922, p. 2). Children must not lie:
Se poi la bugiarda è una fanciulla, ah! che schifo! Poveretto
l’uomo a cui la sorte serbolla in moglie! Imagine the liar is a
6
Giuseppe Giusti was an Italian poet (1809-1850) who satirised on the Austrian
occupants during the Risorgimento.
© Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463446 Paternoster young girl, ah! how disgusting! Poor is the man whom fate gave her as his wife! (Cajmi 1869 [1865-7], II, p. 68) 10) With an apostrophe, the orator unexpectedly addresses a third party. It is a highly emotive figure “since it is an expression, on the part of the speaker, of a pathos […] which cannot be kept within the normal channels between speaker and audience; apostrophe is, so to speak, an emotional move of despair on the part of the speaker” (L 1998, § 762; P&OT 2013 [1969], p. 178). London desperately needs warmth since its inhabitants only care about work: O benefici raggi del sole, splendete, splendete su quella terra di tanto lavoro feconda, accendete quelle fantasie, animate e riscaldate quei cuori, date a quei petti i santi palpiti, i sublimi en- tusiasmi, date loro la vita, l’amore: la vita e l’amore dell’arte, del- la gloria. Splendete, o benefici raggi, splendete! O beneficial rays of the sun, shine, shine on that land so rich in work, light those fantasies, animate and warm those hearts, give to those breasts sa- cred heartbeats, sublime enthusiasms, give them life, love: life and the love of art, of glory. Shine, o beneficial rays, shine! (Fornari 1888, pp. 61-62) 11) With sermocination a third party unexpectedly takes the floor. Sermocination “has a certain connection with evidentia” and is “the fabrication of statements, conversations and soliloquies or unexpressed mental reflections of the persons concerned” (L 1998, §820). Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca treat this as “imaginary direct speech” (2013 [1969], p. 176). Here, Bruni attacks the lazi- ness of wealthy individuals: Neghittosi tutta la giornata, continuamente vanno dicendo: “Oh io non voglio confondermi veh! non voglio inquietudini! Chi vuol vivere e star bene pigli il mondo come viene e non si occupi di niente.” All day they are idle and continuously go on to say: “Oh I do not wish to be muddled, you see! I do not want to be bothered! He who wishes to live well and feel good must take the world as it comes and not concern himself with anything” (Bruni 1870, p. 106). 12) Repetitions are used for “reinforcement, generally with emo- tional emphasis” (L 1998, § 608). For Perelman and Olbrechts- © Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463
Emotive Figures as “Shown” Emotion 447
Tyteca, the “simplest figures for increasing the feeling of presence
are those depending on repetition” (2013 [1969], p. 174).
Ecco gli effetti dolorosi della mancanza in generale di educazione
e massime dell’educazione del cuore. Ecco gli effetti dei pre-
giudizi figli dell’ignoranza che a nostra vergogna e gravissimo
danno domina ancor sovrana in Italia. See here the painful effects
of the general lack of education, specifically, that of the heart. See
here the effects of prejudice, born of ignorance, which, to our
shame and very serious detriment, still dominates in Italy (Gattini
1870 [1869], p. 27).
13) Proverbs are a figure of communion (P&OT 2013 [1969], pp.
165-167; p. 177). One source contains metadiscourse on proverbs.
Bruni’s conduct book (1870) has the following subtitle: consigli ed
esempi tratti dai proverbi e dalla storia ‘advice and examples
taken from proverbs and history.’ The author specifically address-
es working-class people and uses proverbs because they are al-
ready known by his recipients: “Che più noto dei proverbi, delle
massime ch’esso ha in bocca ogni momento?” (‘What is more
known than the proverbs, the maxims that the people use at every
instant?’ Bruni 1870, p. VIII):
Bisogna tagliare il mantello secondo il panno. Se uno che guada-
gna due lire al giorno, ne spende tre, ce ne ha una di debito; e
questa come la rimetterà? Cut your coat according to your cloth. If
one earns two lira a day and spends three, he has a debt of one;
and how will he pay that back? (Bruni 1870, p. 56)
This passage shows the extent to which emotive figures can accu-
mulate. Ermelinda Fornari writes for little girls, fanciulle and she
is unhappy about the way they treat their grandparents7:
7
Oggi, o fanciulle, vi sorride la vita, l'animo vostro è tuttora gaio, la vostra
salute fiorente, l’avvenire vi si mostra cosparso di fiori, ma non sarà sempre
così. A poco a poco diverrete più deboli, svaniranno le illusioni e le gioie
spensierate e finalmente, vecchie e cadenti, vi curverete sotto il peso degli anni
e degli acciacchi. È triste, è vero? Quel tempo è molto lontano per voi, pure
dovrà giungere un dì. Ditemi, o care, non vi pare che in quell’età deserta di
gioie, in quell’età oppressa da tanti fisici dolori, non debba essere di grande
conforto il vederci amati, curati e sorretti da chi gode tutta la pienezza ed il
vigore della vita? Pure non avviene sempre così. Oh quante e quante volte i
poveri nonni vengono addolorati dagl'ingrati e spensierati nipoti!
© Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463448 Paternoster
Today, girls,1) life smiles at you, your soul is still joyous, your
health flourishes, the future shows itself strewn with flowers, but it
will not always be that way. Gradually you will become weaker,
illusions and carefree joys will vanish and finally, old and frail, the
passage of time and ailments will weigh you down. It is sad, sure-
ly?2) This time may seem very far off, yet, one day, it will inevita-
bly come to you. Tell me, dear girls, does it not seem to you that at
an age deserted by joy, at an age oppressed by so many physical
pains, it should be of great comfort to see ourselves loved, cared
for and supported by those who enjoy all the fullness and vigour
of life?3) However, it does not always happen that way. Oh how
many, how many times poor grandparents are hurt by their un-
grateful and thoughtless grandchildren!4)
“You are old — you are old-fashioned — you are gloomy —
you do not know what progress teaches us — in your day you had
nothing but ignorance”5) — These are the phrases that hurt those
white-haired and venerable heads, these are the ruthless words that
upset those poor hearts full of affection, these are the comforts that
are often given to dear people, who already have a foot in the
grave!6)
It is sad, it is cruel, it is inhuman.7) Examine your conscience –
dear girls – can you say frankly that you have never given an old
man cause for grief, either by responding with ill-grace to his just
observations, to his wise advise, or by mocking him because of his
crooked arm, his trembling hand, half-sighted eye, his obtuse
“Siete vecchi — pensate all'antica — siete uggiosi— non conoscete ciò che
a noi insegna il progresso — ai vostri tempi non c’era che ignoranza” — Ecco le
frasi che colpiscono quei capi canuti e venerandi, ecco le spietate parole che
turbano quei poveri cuori pieni d’affetto, ecco i conforti che sovente si danno a
care persone, che hanno già un piede nella fossa!
Ciò è triste, è crudele, è inumano. Fate il vostro esame di coscienza — care
fanciulle — Potete dire francamente di non aver mai addolorato un vecchio, o
rispondendo col mal garbo alle sue giuste osservazioni, a’ suoi saggi consigli, o
beffeggiando in lui l’omero curvo, la tremante mano, l'occhio semispento,
l’ottuso udito, la voce contraffatta dal mancare dei denti? Purtroppo non lo
credo.
© Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463Emotive Figures as “Shown” Emotion 449
hearing, his voice counterfeited by the lack of teeth? Sadly, I do
not believe it.8) (Fornari 1888, pp. 54-55).
1) vocative o fanciulle
2) rhetorical question
3) vocative o care, repetition in quell’età, rhetorical question
4) interjection Oh, repetition quante and exclamation
5) sermociation
6) repetition ecco, irony conforti and exclamation
7) repetition è
8) vocative care fanciulle, evidentia l’omero curvo, la tremante
mano, l'occhio semispento, l’ottuso udito, la voce contraffatta dal
mancare dei denti, and mock dialogue
The passage contains a group of emotive figures; it is, in other
words, an emotive cluster promoting the value of “respect for the
elderly.”
4. Methods
I used the manual annotation tool UAM CorpusTool 3.3g (re-
trieved from www.corpustool.com; O’Donnell 2008; 2009). This
is a powerful, user-friendly, and flexible software for the annota-
tion of corpora. I chose UAM as it allows the user to develop
his/her own annotation scheme with a hierarchy of features. It also
allows for annotation of multiple texts—here 20 conduct books—
with the same annotation scheme thus facilitating comparison.
Finally, it allows the user to annotate each text at multiple levels
from a single word to entire sentences and paragraphs. Other
features include comparative statistics across subsets and levels,
and storage of all annotation in stand-off XML files for easier
sharing. For research based on the UAM CorpusTool, see
, which
lists studies on a variety of topics such as syntax analysis in EFL,
metaphors, mitigation devices, author stance, requests, lexical
development, appraisal theory, etc. For a study in the context of
argumentation see Palmieri and Miecznikowski (2016).
For the current project, the text analysis consisted of two tasks.
The first task pertained to classification, where texts segments
© Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463450 Paternoster were classified using known categories. A purpose-built annota- tion scheme was designed using the 13 categories of emotive figures listed above. Of course, different figures operate at differ- ent text levels—some pertain to single words (interjections), some to the sentence level (rhetorical question), while others still can operate at transphrastic level (evidentia). To facilitate comparison, every figure was annotated at sentence level. This works well even for lexical elements as there is usually one vocative or one inter- jection per sentence. A sentence containing more than one proverb or more than one case of emphasis was annotated as one unit. For potentially transphrastic figures (evidentia, sermocination, apos- trophe, repetition), sentences were annotated separately in order to gauge the extent of the figure. When a sentence contained multiple different figures, say, an interjection and an exclamation, multiple tags were inserted. I annotated quotes, but not reported speech as this is another (lower) discourse level. In the corpus, figures regularly appear together, as seen in the example cited above. A second task consisted in adding a layer to the annotation scheme that indicated whether each figure was part of a cluster or not. There is an important reason for performing this second task. According to Micheli, who performs qualitative analysis, the presence of a cluster—faisceau in the original— increases the likelihood that these emotive figures effectively express emotion, and therefore he has chosen his examples based on the “congruence of signs” (2014, p. 68). Consequently, in order to find “moving” values, rather than working with figures occur- ring in isolation, I chose to work with groups of figures since clusters are more reliable indicators of the presence of emotion than isolated emotive figures, as noted by Micheli. Based on known structures (categories of emotive figures in the current annotation), clusters are homogeneous groups in which the objects are more similar (in some sense) to each other than to those out- side the group.8 Simply put, clusters of emotive figures are thought to be more similar than text segments with emotive figures occur- 8 My use of the term “cluster” differs from the meaning used within lexical analysis, where clusters, or N-grams and lexical bundles, stand for repeated sequences of N groups of words. © Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463
Emotive Figures as “Shown” Emotion 451
ring in isolation, or text segments with no emotive figures. My
manual annotation is similar to text clustering, that is, “the task of
finding similar documents in a collection of documents” where
“clusters can be documents, paragraphs, sentences or terms” (Al-
lahyari et al 2017).
I looked for segments where emotive figures were in the same
immediate vicinity. Often a non-emotive (i.e. expositive) sentence
may separate emotive ones, but I still counted this as one emotive
cluster as long as it was covering the same topic. The challenge
was to determine which groups were too small to be considered a
cluster. As a rule of thumb, a group was considered a cluster when
it covered at least one paragraph (where a paragraph is seen as a
text segment forming a unity from the point of view of content).
The shortest cluster is a one word paragraph, containing an excla-
mation and suspensions points: “Errore!...” (‘Mistake!...’ Krier
1900 [1894], p. 11). Its typographic separation adds impact. Emo-
tive figures immediately adjacent to a paragraph considered a
cluster were included in the cluster provided they pre-
pared/continued the topic. Only Pellegrino (1870) and Cajmi
(1869 [1865-7]), whose paragraphs sometimes cover more than
one page, posed a problem. With long paragraphs, I retained seg-
ments covering more than half of the paragraph. In sum, the clus-
tering task mined emotive paragraphs.
The corpus was annotated three times, and I kept an annotation
diary to improve consistency.
5. Results
The corpus contains 6,065 emotive figures. As a rough indication,
of a total of 28,440 sentences, a fifth (21.33%) are affected, alt-
hough one sentence can include more than one emotive figure.
This is a remarkable result, given that the texts form part of in-
structional writing. In Table 2, the second column shows the result
of the first text mining task, classification, i.e., the sum for each
category, without regard to clustering. Exclamations and rhetorical
questions dominate, with each having more than 1,000 occurrenc-
es. There is a noticeable gap of 547 items between the second and
the third category. Of a total of 28,440 sentences, the sum of the
© Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463452 Paternoster
two first categories (2,440) amounts to 8.58% of all sentences.
Lausberg had, indeed, noted that exclamations and rhetorical
questions are very similar. In decreasing order, the top six devices
are exclamation, rhetorical question, vocative, proverbs, italics for
emphasis, and mock dialogue. The seven least frequent figures are,
again in descending order, interjection, sermocination, repetition,
suspension points, evidentia, irony, and apostrophe. For every
rhetorical figure, columns 3 and 4 of Table 2 show which propor-
tion is inside or outside a cluster.
Emotive figure Total Inside a cluster Outside a
(= 100%) cluster
exclamation 1312 714 or 54.42% 598 or
45.58%
rhetorical question 1128 638 or 56.56% 490 or
43.44 %
vocative 581 196 or 33.73% 385 or
66.27%
proverbs 545 224 or 41.10% 321 or
58.90%
italics for emphasis 535 159 or 29.72 % 376 or
70.28%
mock dialogue 392 175 or 44.64% 217 or
55.36%
interjection 358 224 or 62.57% 134 or
37.43%
sermocination 330 239 or 72.42% 91 or 27.58%
repetition 316 264 or 83.54% 52 or 16.46%
suspension points 273 166 or 60.81% 107 or
39.19%
evidentia 122 100 or 81.97% 22 or 18.03%
irony 113 62 or 54.87% 51 or 45.13%
apostrophe 60 55 or 91.67% 5 or 8.33%
Table 2. Frequency and distribution of emotive figures in the corpus
The text clustering task produced two results, the first of which
was unexpected. First, the distribution of the emotive figures
© Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463Emotive Figures as “Shown” Emotion 453
shows that certain figures have a tendency to appear inside clusters
and others outside clusters. This is not a result I set out to demon-
strate, and this was noted after the clustering was completed. Some
figures predominantly appear outside clusters, especially italics for
emphasis (70.28%) and vocatives (66.27%). However, for the
majority of emotive figures (9 out of 13), more than half of occur-
rences, are within a cluster, with peaks for sermocination
(72.42%), evidentia (81.97%), repetition (83.54%), and apostrophe
(91.67%). In column 3, from top to bottom, the percentages seem
to increase whereas in column 4, they seem to decrease. In other
words, the less frequent emotive figures seem to have a tendency
to occur within a cluster (column 3). Their more common counter-
parts tend to appear more often outside a cluster (column 4).
Figure 2 shows the relationship between columns 2 and 3 of
Table 2 on a bar chart, with the addition of a trendline. A trendline
is a best-fit straight line showing the general direction followed by
a group of measurements. The relationship between overall fre-
quency and membership of a cluster is as follows: the lower the
frequency of an emotive figure, the higher the percentage of its
occurrences inside a cluster.
Figure 2. Relationship between overall frequency of emotive figures and
percentage of their in-cluster occurrence
© Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463454 Paternoster
In Figure 2, the vertical axis represents percentages of emotive
figures positioned inside a cluster. The horizontal axis indicates
the frequency of emotive figures, ordered from less frequent on the
left (apostrophe) to most frequent to the right (exclamation). The
trendline is downwards indicating that the more common a figure,
the greater the likelihood of its appearance outside a cluster. The
rarer a figure, the greater the likelihood of its appearance within a
cluster. Less common figures, therefore, are quite specific indica-
tors of emotive clusters. For example, if an apostrophe can be
identified, in nine cases out of ten it will be inside a cluster. Given
that clusters are more reliable indicators of the presence of emo-
tion (as noted by Micheli 2014, see above), ipso facto, emotive
figures with low recurrence are more reliable indicators of the
presence of emotions. This result could have interesting implica-
tions for the mining of emotion using emotive figures, but more
research, with a larger dataset, is required.
Second, clusters allow for greater reliability in the identification
of topics that form the object of shown emotion. Given that some
topics repeatedly attract emotive clusters, this is possibly an access
route to émotion étayée (“argued” emotion, Micheli 2014), be-
cause it enables the discovery of topics conventionally associated
with emotions (in other words, the topics are émotionnant “mov-
ing,” see Figure 1). Table 3 shows how often a given topic—
almost always a value (or its opposite)—attracts an emotive clus-
ter.
Number of Values
clusters
8 Diligence at work
6 Parsimony
5 Respect for fellow theatregoers; religion; educa-
tion; slander; gambling (including playing the
lottery)
4 Introduction; conclusion; diligence at school;
gratitude; importance of virtue; excessive love
of entertainment; insincerity; respect for the
elderly
© Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463Emotive Figures as “Shown” Emotion 455
3 Love of one’s children; love of one’s siblings;
love of one’s parents; love of animals; respect
for servants; respect for the dead; gluttony;
drunkenness; charity; avarice; hypocrisy in
religion; anger; choosing appropriate friends;
compliance with doctor’s prescriptions
Table 3. Topics attracting most emotive clusters
Four introductions and four conclusions contain emotive rhetoric
indicating that emotive rhetoric also depends on the position in the
text. Furthermore, there are 27 topics attracting two emotive clus-
ters each, and 121 topics that appear only once with emotive rheto-
ric in segments that criticise, for example:
- hogging newspapers in a café
- bad music in church
- women attending murder trials to entertain themselves
- fear of the school dentist
One question regards the type of emotion that is being communi-
cated. Sometimes there is a concern on the part of the author that
the reader will ignore the advice. In some cases, authors express
indignation. Plantin has worked on the lexical expression of indig-
nation, linking the reason for indignation to the transgression of
universal norms (the principles and values of democracy, like
justice, 2012: 179-181). In order to determine precisely which
emotions are semioticised in conduct books, a lexical analysis is
needed of “said” emotion. However, this falls outside the scope of
the present study.
6. Discussion
In section 2, it was noted that Italian post-unification conduct
books promote two sets of values: the social values of politeness
(understood as brotherhood and solidarity) and the personal values
needed for the economic development of the country. In Table 3,
personal values appear to attract more emotive clusters with the
top positions occupied by diligence and parsimony—values relat-
ing to self-improvement and self-help. Other related topics are
© Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463456 Paternoster
education, gambling, diligence at school, excessive love of enter-
tainment, gluttony, drunkenness, and avarice. Politeness is a
slightly less moving value and is reflected in topics such as respect
for fellow theatregoers, the elderly, servants and the dead; love for
one’s children, siblings, parents, and animals; charity; slander;
gratitude; insincerity; and anger.
In post-unification Italy, work and study were considered effec-
tive tools for self-improvement and were strongly promoted as
official values of the nation-building effort. Conversely, poverty
was thought to be caused by laziness, alcoholism, gluttony, or
gambling. In other words, the poor’s poverty was their own fault.
Begging was discouraged. This is an example of an emotive clus-
ter praising work:
Eppure quanti sono che vogliono vivere alle spalle altrui!
Quanti sono che oziosi tutta la giornata quanto è lunga, mai
non hanno un pensiero d’occuparsi di qualche cosa utile e
abbrutiscono in modo l’anima loro che perdono irreparabil-
mente la propria dignità.
Per questo molti si danno a vagabondare, e sudici e cenciosi,
indifferentemente stendono la mano senza punta vergogna di
rendersi avviliti presso la società! Anzi loro sembra di con-
durre una vita magnifica; non hanno un pensiero che gli af-
fligga, e quasi inconsapevoli della loro esistenza, vanno in-
nanzi finché la morte non gli toglie dal mondo!
E dire che col lavoro potrebbero essere stimati quanto gli al-
tri!
Guai a quell' operaio che non ama il lavoro ! Egli è un dis-
graziato.
Al contrario, quanto è edificante la condotta di tanti bravi
popolani i quali amando moltissimo il loro onore, sono sem-
pre laboriosi!
Oh vivano essi felici tutti i giorni della loro dimora su questa
terra!
Yet how many want to live on the back of others! How many
are idle all day long, they never think of keeping busy by do-
ing something useful and demean their soul to the extent that
they irreparably lose their dignity.
© Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463Emotive Figures as “Shown” Emotion 457 For this reason, many become vagrants. Filthy and in rags, they shamelessly extend their hand without feeling any guilt for becoming society’s dejected! On the contrary, they think they lead a magnificent life; they do not have a thought that afflicts them, and almost unaware of their existence, they go on until death removes them from the world! And to say that with work they could be esteemed just like any other! Woe to that worker who does not love work! He is a wretch. On the contrary, how uplifting is the conduct of so many de- cent working-class people who are always laborious as they love their honour so much! Oh may they live happily every day of their stay on earth! (Bruni 1870, pp. 49-50) The new government did not provide public assistance and care of the poor was organised by the Church or by charitable organisa- tions. However, there was “vigorous public debate” between the Catholic ethics of compassion and state intervention on one side and the principles of laissez-faire and self-help on the other (Riall 2009, p. 96). There was indeed widespread Italian interest in the “self-help” movement (Bacigalupi and Fossati 2000). Self-help, published in 1859 by Samuel Smiles, was quickly translated into Italian, and soon inspired another bestseller, Volere è potere “Where there’s a will, there’s a way” (1869) by Michele Lessona, which totaled 23 editions. The emotive style affecting many topics related to diligence and respect for others shows that the imple- mentation of these values is not taken for granted. Ultimately, these are the values on which the authors expect less reader agreement and deploy a more persuasive effort. There is intense public debate about poverty, but it is remarkable that it trickles down into conduct books most of which are addressed to children (see Paternoster 2019 on the stigmatisation of alms-asking, which was thought to perpetuate laziness). 7. Concluding remarks Within instructional writing, conduct books are particularly moral- ising. Values justify social conventions, but they themselves are © Annick Paternoster. Informal Logic, Vol. 39, No. 4 (2019), pp. 433–463
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