Edwin Land and Instant Photography - National Historic Chemical Landmarks Chemists and Chemistry that Transformed Our Lives - American Chemical ...
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National Historic Chemical Landmarks
® Chemists and Chemistry that Transformed Our Lives
Edwin Land and Instant Photography
Polaroid Corporation Laboratory, Cambridge, Massachusetts
American Chemical Society
“It was as if all that we had done in learning to make polarizers, the knowledge of plastics,
and the properties of viscous liquids, the preparation of microscopic crystals smaller than
the wavelength of light, the laminating of plastic sheets, living on the world of colloids in
supersaturated solutions, had been a school both for the first day in which I suddenly knew
how to make a one-step dry photographic process and for the following three years in
which we made the very vivid dream a solid reality.”
—Edwin H. Land
Edwin H. Land (1909–1991) was the select light waves with particular and he worked to arrange a mass
innovative inventor responsible for orientations. of microscopic crystals to produce
conceiving of and perfecting instant the same effect. He created fine
Natural polarizers were effective
photography. Known simply as polarizing crystals, suspended them
at reducing glare and measuring
Polaroid, the system revolutionized in liquid lacquer, and aligned them
angles of reflectivity, but they were
traditional photography by com- using an electromagnet. He then
large and expensive. Land imag-
pressing darkroom processes into an pulled a sheet of celluloid (a thin,
ined important uses for synthetic
integrated film unit and producing clear plastic) through this solution to
polarizers, if they could be produced.
a final photograph in the seconds make a continuous sheet of crystals.
Almost from the start of his work,
following the click of a camera As the lacquer dried, the crystals
around age 13, Land was searching
shutter. Since its introduction in retained their orientation, and the
for a product that would improve
1948, instant photography grew to result was a polarizing sheet that
vehicle safety during nighttime
immense popularity, recording mil- was thin, transparent, and pliable.
driving: If polarizers could be placed
lions of family memories in the film’s
in headlights and windshields, In 1929, Land applied for his first
iconic white frames.
then they could be used to prevent patent, a method for producing
“My motto is very Beyond this single remarkable the disturbing glare from oncom- his polarizing sheets. He returned
personal and may invention, Land produced other ing vehicles’ headlights. Moreover, to Harvard in the same year but
transformative technologies such because glare would be eliminated, left again before completing his
not fit anyone as the sheet polarizer, and he con- headlights could be made brighter, undergraduate degree to focus on
else or any other tributed broadly to federal research thereby increasing the safety of his emerging business. By 1930, Land
activities during World War II and nighttime driving. had identified a more promising way
company. It is:
the following decades. For his sci- to manufacture polarizing sheets:
In 1926, Land enrolled at Harvard
Don’t do anything entific and business achievements, Instead of using electromagnets,
University to study physics, but his
that someone Land was admired by scientists, he could apply the tiny crystals
desire to conduct research caused
corporate leaders, and government to a plastic sheet and, by stretch-
else can do. him to leave after only a few months
officials alike. ing it, achieve parallel alignment
in search of more practical opportu-
Don’t undertake EDWIN LAND AND nities. He moved to New York City, of the crystals. Although it took
a project unless POLARIZED LIGHT where he studied physical optics several years to perfect, this method
As a boy, Land was fascinated by independently at the New York resulted in the commercial produc-
it is manifestly
light. In particular, he was drawn to Public Library and conducted experi- tion of polarized sheets.
important the natural phenomenon of light ments secretly at Columbia Univer- In 1932, Land and George W. Wheel-
and nearly polarization. sity. There, he worked to develop a wright, III (1903–2001), a Harvard col-
Polarization refers to a physical prop- synthetic polarizer. league, formed Land-Wheelwright
impossible.”
erty of light waves. As the waves Land’s experiments built on those Laboratories in Cambridge, Massa-
—Edwin H. Land, move forward, they vibrate verti- of the British chemist and surgeon chusetts, to manufacture polarizers.
Forbes magazine, cally, horizontally, and at all angles William Herapath (1820–1868). The company’s inexpensive polar-
in between. A polarizer acts like a Herapath had sought, with little izers were used in photographic
May 4, 1987
slatted screen, with long, thin, paral- success, to produce large synthetic filters, glare-free sunglasses, and
lel openings. These invisible slats crystals that would mimic the stereoscopic products that gave the
stop all angles of light except those natural crystals that were the most illusion of three-dimensional (3-D)
parallel to the openings. By doing useful polarizers available at the images. 3-D movies were created
so, polarizers provide the ability to time. Land recognized an alternative, by applying polarizers to projectors
A N AT I O N A L H I S TO R I C C H E M I C A L L A N D M A R K
and viewing glasses. The company Land, shown
also invented a new product called a here with an
vectograph that combined two still early instant
photograph, first
images taken from slightly different
demonstrated
positions and printed as oppositely- Polaroid’s instant
polarized images; using polarized photography
glasses, viewers saw a 3-D image of system to the
the subject. public in 1947.
In 1937, Land-Wheelwright became
a public company named Polaroid
Corporation after the trade name
for the firm’s polarizing films. While
Land’s dream of anti-glare vehicle
systems was never implemented
by automakers, the company was
making a good business on polar-
izing films.
POLAROID & WWII RESEARCH
In 1940, as the United States antici-
pated its entry into World War II,
Land proposed a new task for the
young company—to focus its scien- ward the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Around this time, Land played an
tific research and manufacturing on in 1965.
important role in the synthesis of
technologies that would help to win
quinine, the most effective antima- As WWII drew to a close and the
the impending war. The U.S. entered
larial medicine then known. Quinine company neared the end of its
the war in December of the follow-
was produced from cinchona, a trop- military service, Land faced a new
ing year, and Polaroid became one
ical plant grown primarily in Indo-
of many companies to contribute to challenge: What would Polaroid do
nesia. Like other strategic materials
the wartime effort. after the war? Now leading a much
that were produced abroad, the U.S.
larger company with more employ-
Polaroid delivered anti-glare goggles sought methods to synthesize qui-
ees and greater research expertise
for soldiers and pilots, as well as gun nine domestically. In 1942, Land hired
than a few years earlier, Land was
sights, viewfinders, cameras, and Robert Burns Woodward (1917–1979)
determined to put his company and
numerous other optical devices with of Harvard University as a Polaroid
its people to work during peacetime.
polarizing lenses. The vectograph, consultant to find an alternative to
previously a novelty, became a tool the use of quinine in the production INVENTING INSTANT
for the U.S. military to visualize geo- of polarizers (quinine-based crystals PHOTOGRAPHY
graphic features of battlegrounds were used to manufacture polar- In 1943, during a vacation in Santa
and aerial maps in three dimensions. izers at the time) and also to explore Fe, Land took a photo of his daugh-
Polaroid earned a reputation among alternative methods for producing ter, Jennifer, who was then three
the many companies working quinine. years old. The girl asked her father
toward national goals for delivering why she couldn’t see the photo right
The first task was quickly completed,
optical technologies in short time away—at the time, photographs
and Woodward then developed a
frames. had to be developed professionally, a
plan for synthesizing quinine. Land
process that often took several days.
In addition to leading Polaroid was convinced of the importance
Land was immediately taken by the
research for military projects, Land of the project and the merits of
concept of instant photography
also served as a consultant to the Woodward’s proposal. With the help
and set off on a long walk to think
National Research Defense Com- of Polaroid and Harvard, Woodward
through the idea.
mittee, a body that emerged at and his colleague William von Eggers
the onset of WWII to direct non- Doering (1917–2011) successfully syn- Years later, he recalled, “Within
governmental scientific research for thesized quinine in 1944. Although an hour, the camera, the film, and
war purposes. In time, Land would it did not lead to a practical method the physical chemistry became so
continue his government service, of production, the synthesis was clear” that he immediately set off
working on Cold War technologies a milestone in the field of organic to speak with his patent attorney.
and advising presidents on scientific chemistry and was among the Polaroid’s work with crystals, dyes,
matters. achievements that earned Wood- and polymers in the development
of polarized products provided the stopped film development. The and after the film emerged from the
company the expertise it needed to reservoir, called a pod, was sealed camera, photographers had to wait
begin working on the project before within the film unit, making the exactly 60 seconds before peel-
the war was over. entire process appear dry for the ing off the negative backing of the
consumer even though it used liquid image. Although it required precise
The instant photography system
developers. When the film was operation by photographers and did
Land imagined was a radical depar-
released from the camera, a pair of not exceed the quality of traditional
“If you sense ture from traditional film processing.
rollers at the mouth of the camera films, customers loved the system’s
In conventional photography, a pho- promise of nearly instant results.
a deep human bit the pod, rupturing it and allowing
tographer took a series of photo-
need, then you reagent to be forced evenly across A true (non-sepia) black and white
graphs on a roll of film and returned
the film, coating the entire image version followed in 1950. Meroë
go back to all the it to a laboratory later for develop-
area. As the reagent spread, various Morse (1924–1969), an art history
ment. There, a technician would
basic science. If chemicals worked to remove the major from Smith College, worked
work inside a darkroom, a specialized
unexposed silver halide from the closely with Land to oversee the
there is some laboratory that contained the mate-
negative, release it onto the positive development of this version of Pola-
rials—chemical baths to start and
missing, then you layer at the top of the film unit, and roid films. Moving to black and white
stop the development, washing and
reduce it, producing the final image. involved a separate set of challenges,
try to do more drying equipment, and other sup-
primarily in stabilizing the developed
basic science and plies—needed to develop film and From 1943 through 1946, the instant
image. These films required the addi-
produce photographic prints. The camera was kept secret at Polaroid’s
applied science tional step of manually swabbing
entire process took several minutes laboratories as multiple challenges
the developed image with a polymer
until you get it. in the laboratory and usually several were resolved. The entire process coating to prevent darkening of the
days from the time a photographer required suitable color intensity and photograph.
So you make the
dropped off the film until a print was sharpness. The film unit had to be
system to fulfill ready for retrieval. shelf-stable from the time it left the The series of innovations released
factory to when consumers clicked by Polaroid over the next decade
that need, rather Land’s system required a new kind
their camera buttons, and it had to reduced the early problems and
than starting the of camera and film, a system that improved picture quality remarkably.
work at a wide variety of tempera-
would compress all of the compo- By 1957, the New York Times called
other way around, tures, from desert heat to winter
nents of a conventional darkroom instant photography “equal in tonal
cold. Finally, after development, the
where you have into a single film unit, to be pro- range and brilliance to some of the
unit had to stop all the reactions to
cessed in under a minute after being finest prints made by the usual dark-
something and create long-lasting photographs.
ejected from the camera. If success- room routine.” Polaroid Corporation
wonder what to Each problem was solved with pre-
ful, the system would allow users to grew rapidly as instant photography
cise control of the film’s chemistry.
do with it.” evaluate and share images moments exploded in popularity.
after they had been taken, a trans- INTRODUCING POLAROID FILM
ADVANCING INSTANT COLOR
—Edwin H. Land formational change from traditional In fewer than five years, Polaroid
had invented and mastered all of PHOTOGRAPHY
photography.
the necessary new technologies By the 1960s, traditional photog-
As in traditional photography, light raphy offered color films to the
to demonstrate Land’s instant
entered the camera through a lens amateur photographer, and thus the
photography system. Land made
and was reflected onto a light-sen- next challenge for Polaroid was to
the first public demonstration of
sitive film that recorded a negative develop instant color film. The proj-
instant photography on February 21,
image of the scene. (In a negative, ect required a tremendous series of
1947, during a meeting of the Optical
dark areas of the scene appear light Society of America in New York City. chemical breakthroughs, which were
and light areas appear dark.) After Newspapers covering the event accomplished over a span of 15 years.
the silver halide crystals in the film called the invention “revolutionary.” Polaroid scientists had to perfect
were exposed to light, they were The following year was dominated each component of their version of
reduced to metallic silver. From this by resolving challenges the company color photographic film—inventing
negative, a positive photograph faced in bringing the system from new dyes, negative films, positive
could be developed. the laboratory to commercial-scale sheets, and developers—and give
The key to Land’s system was a manufacturing. precise timing to the series of chemi-
film unit that contained both the cal reactions involved in taking and
The first Polaroid camera, called the
negative film and a positive receiv- developing a photograph.
Model 95, and its associated film
ing sheet joined by a reservoir that went on sale in 1948 at a depart- More complex than either sepia or
held a small amount of chemical ment store in Boston. The cameras black and white photography, color
reagents (including sodium hydrox- sold out in minutes. The Model 95 photography used three separate
ide, a strong base) that started and produced only sepia-toned images, negative layers to record colors. TheA N AT I O N A L H I S TO R I C C H E M I C A L L A N D M A R K
infinite number of color nuances After Howard
captured by the human eye can be Rogers (right)
reproduced by appropriate intensi- proposed the
dye developer
ties of three colors—red, green,
molecule, the
and blue. They are developed in a company created
photograph using the complemen- and tested 5,000
tary dyes cyan, magenta, and yellow. compounds over
Starting in the late 1940s, Land and several years to
his team worked with traditional perfect them for
instant color film.
methods for producing color photo-
graphs, but they quickly learned to
adapt to the thin confines and short
timeframes required of Polaroid
color photography.
After working on the project for
several years, the team found inspi-
ration in a new type of compound
proposed by project leader Howard
Rogers (1915–1995) that would allow
them to completely reformulate the
color developing process. Instead of
using separate dye and developer
molecules for each of the three
colors used in film, Rogers proposed,
and then led the creation of, new
compounds called dye developers in
which both components were teth-
ered together. These new molecules
served both functions and simplified
the overall film unit. Finally, the team solved the problem Until this point, Polaroid films
by inserting acid molecules within required a step that interfered with
Not only did Polaroid chemists test Land’s vision of absolute one-step
a layer of polymer in the positive
thousands of new molecules to give photography: After being ejected
sheet where they would react with
adequate colors to their new film,
the alkaline developer molecules the from the camera, the user had to
they also orchestrated the series
moment after they completed the peel back the negative sheet to
of chemical reactions taking place
process of developing the image. reveal the final photograph. Some
within the film unit. Each color fol-
When this happened, the acid and early films required additional steps
lowed a separate path of develop-
base combined, forming water in by the user, such as swabbing the
ment from its negative layer to the
the film and fixing the dyes in place. developed image with a coating to
positive photographic print. Timing
stabilize it or adhering the image to
of these molecular movements Polaroid’s color film debuted in 1963.
a hard backing to prevent curling.
was crucial for proper color forma- Sales of Polaroid film, already rapidly
tion. Land maintained his goals increasing, expanded six-fold in the The development of the SX-70 and
of 60-second development with following decade. For Polaroid, color its film required a complete refor-
shelf- and temperature-stability and mulation of the Polaroid system.
instant photography represented an
permanence. Above all, the film was integral,
enormous commercial and technical
By 1962, Polaroid had solved several meaning that the negative, positive,
success.
problems, such as brightening the and developers were all contained
THE POLAROID SX-70 within a film unit and would remain
color dyes and preparing factories
The crowning chapter of the Polaroid there after developing. To accom-
for commercial production; however
image permanence remained an system was the development of the plish this, the positive layers had to
issue. The alkaline developer mol- SX-70 camera and film. The project be transparent to allow light to pen-
ecules, necessary for dissolving the represented ultimate simplicity and etrate them and expose the nega-
dye developers, transferred with the reward for photographers—all they tive, below. Polaroid’s solution was
dyes to the positive layer where they had to do was press the camera to develop a chemical opacifier—a
would immediately begin to destroy button and watch as the image chemical screen that was clear when
the final image. developed before their eyes. undeveloped but opaque immedi-Edwin H. Land were equal in importance to their
invented synthetic scientific knowledge. Land also chal-
polarizers, instant lenged his staff to build films and
photography,
and other optical cameras to the exacting demands
technologies. of professional artists—Ansel
For his scientific Adams (1902–1984), the legendary
and business landscape photographer, was one
achievements, of Polaroid’s consultants. Under
Land was admired
Land’s leadership, Polaroid success-
by scientists,
corporate leaders, fully bridged ideals in both scientific
and government research and the arts.
officials alike.
In addition to his scientific and
business contributions, Land was
involved in public service over the
course of his life. After his WWII
consulting, Land continued as a
scientific advisor to the federal gov-
ernment, contributing to the devel-
opment of cameras for U-2 aerial
surveillance system and Corona sat-
ellites. Land continued to advise the
federal government as a member
of the President’s Science Advisory
Committee (PSAC) from 1957 to 1959,
as a consultant to PSAC from 1960 to
ately when ejected from the camera sandwich of thin polymer sheets, 1973, and as a member of the Presi-
and able to become clear again to a positive image-receiving sheet, dent’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory
reveal the developed image. reagent, timing and light reflecting Board from 1961 to 1977.
Minimizing the complexity of the layers, and the tri-color negative—17
Land received numerous service,
undertaking, Land described the layers in total. The camera itself was
technology, and scientific awards
project to The Photographic Journal a remarkably sleek design. When
during his lifetime, including the
in 1974: it was first sold in 1972, the prod-
Presidential Medal of Freedom
uct represented the culmination
“It is an interesting experience to (1963), the National Medal of Sci-
of Land’s 1943 dream of absolute
see how all of Absolute One-Step ence (1967), and the National Medal
instant photography.
Photography can happen very of Technology (1988). He served as
simply if it happens sequentially, EDWIN H. LAND (1909–1991) president of the American Acad-
involving both the camera and Edwin Herbert Land was born in emy of Arts and Sciences from
film in some two hundred to five Connecticut on May 7, 1909. Begin- 1951 to 1953 and was a member of
hundred steps… ning in his teenage years, Land the National Academy of Sciences.
was fascinated by science, taking Although Land never formally com-
“When the film is ejected potas-
sium hydroxide in a few drops a particular interest in the proper- pleted his undergraduate degree,
of water is spread in a layer ties of light. His interests led him to he was awarded honorary doctoral
26/10,000 inch thick and ‘all hell study physics at Harvard University, degrees by several universities.
breaks loose,’ but in a much more conduct independent research, and
Land founded The Rowland Institute
orderly way than that phrase eventually to found his own com-
for Science (now the Rowland
implies. For several minutes chemi- pany, Land-Wheelwright Laborato-
Institute at Harvard) to continue his
cal reactions occur rapidly one ries, in 1932. Reorganized as Polaroid
research, primarily on a theory of
step after another in that thin Corporation in 1937, Land served as
color vision perception he proposed
sandwich and then this progression its president, chairman, and director
known as the retinex theory. He
slowly stops. There is peace again of research for several decades.
retired from Polaroid in 1982, 50
and the picture is complete.” Land worked closely with arts years after founding its predeces-
The simplicity of the SX-70 sys- professionals throughout his career. sor company. Over the course of his
tem for photographers belied its He hired several art historians to career, Land earned 535 patents. He
technical complexity. Within the work for the company, believing died on March 1, 1991, in Cambridge,
2 millimeter thick film unit was a that the team’s aesthetic abilities Massachusetts.A N AT I O N A L H I S TO R I C C H E M I C A L L A N D M A R K
Edwin Land and Instant Photography
A National Historic Chemical Landmark
The American Chemical Society designated the development of instant photography by Edwin H. Land
of Polaroid Corporation as a National Historic Chemical Landmark in a ceremony at the MIT Museum in
Cambridge, Massachusetts, on August 13, 2015. The commemorative plaque installed at the former Polaroid
Corporation Laboratory at 28 Osborn Street, Cambridge, reads
From his workplace in this building, Edwin H. Land (1909–1991) led the Polaroid Corporation in its
development of the first instant photography system. This novel technology, demonstrated in 1947,
produced photographs by means of a complex sequence of chemical reactions contained within
the film unit. Land directed numerous improvements to the original one-step, sepia-toned film until
Polaroid introduced a truly integral instant color photography system in 1972. The immediacy of the
Polaroid system revolutionized the industry, and instant photography grew rapidly as a popular and
artistic medium. Land, an innovative scientist and businessman, earned 535 patents in the course of
conducting and directing research at Polaroid.
About the National Historic Chemical Landmarks Program
The American Chemical Society established the National Historic Chemical Landmarks program in
1992 to enhance public appreciation for the contributions of the chemical sciences to modern life in
the United States and to encourage a sense of pride in their practitioners. The program recognizes
seminal achievements in the chemical sciences, records their histories, and provides information and
resources about Landmark achievements. Prospective subjects are nominated by ACS local sections,
divisions or committees; reviewed by the ACS National Historic Chemical Landmarks Subcommittee;
and approved by the ACS Board Committee on Public Affairs and Public Relations.
The American Chemical Society is a nonprofit organization chartered by the U.S. Congress. With
more than 158,000 members, ACS is the world’s largest scientific society and a global leader in
providing access to chemistry-related research through its multiple databases, peer-reviewed
journals, and scientific conferences. Its main offices are in Washington, D.C., and Columbus, Ohio.Northeastern Local Section Edwin Land and Instant Photography American Chemical Society
American Chemical Society Landmark Planning Committee Diane Grob Schmidt, President
(NESACS) Deborah G. Douglas, MIT Museum Donna J. Nelson, President-elect
Katherine L. Lee, Chair Jack Driscoll, NESACS Thomas J. Barton, Immediate Past
Jerry P. Jasinski, Chair-elect Mike Filosa, NESACS President
Catherine E. Costello, Immediate Past Thomas R. Gilbert, NESACS, and Pat N. Confalone, Chair, Board of
Chair Member, ACS Board of Directors Directors
Michael Singer, Secretary Morton Z. Hoffman, NESACS American Chemical Society
James U. Piper, Treasurer Katherine L. Lee, NESACS National Historic Chemical Landmarks
Jennifer Maclachlan, NESACS Subcommittee
Dorothy J. Phillips, NESACS, and William Oliver, Chair, Northern
Member, ACS Board of Directors Kentucky University, emeritus
Charles M. Sullivan, Cambridge Mary Ellen Bowden, Chemical Heritage
Historical Commission Foundation, retired
Eric Thorgeson, Polaroid Retirees Carmen Giunta, Le Moyne College
Association Arthur Greenberg, University of New
Vivian Walworth, NESACS Hampshire
Kenneth J. Williams, MIT Investment Diane Krone, Northern Highlands
Management Company Regional High School, retired
Bruce Lewenstein, Cornell University
Vera Mainz, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, retired
Seymour Mauskopf, Duke University,
emeritus
Andreas Mayr, Stony Brook University
Daniel Menelly, Rochester Museum
and Science Center
Michal Meyer, Chemical Heritage
Foundation
Carsten Reinhardt, Chemical Heritage
Foundation
Alan Rocke, Case Western Reserve
University
Heinz D. Roth, Rutgers University
Jeffrey L. Sturchio, Rabin Martin
Richard Wallace, Armstrong State
University
Kirsten White, Forest Park High School
Acknowledgments:
Written by Keith L. Lindblom.
The author wishes to thank contributors to and reviewers of this booklet, all of whom
helped to improve its contents, especially members of the Edwin Land and Instant
Photography Landmark Planning Committee and the ACS National Historic Chemical
Landmarks Subcommittee. Special thanks to Jack Driscoll and Vivian Walworth, who
played key roles in advancing the project.
The nomination for this Landmark designation was sponsored by the Northeastern
Local Section of the American Chemical Society. The MIT Museum provided support for ®
the designation.
Images: Cover photo and page 5 photo by Fritz Goro/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty
Images. Page 3 photo © Bettmann/CORBIS. Page 6 photo by J. J. Scarpetti, courtesy of American Chemical Society
The Rowland Institute at Harvard. National Historic Chemical Landmarks Program
Office of Public Affairs
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