Economic Impacts of Natural Hazards on Vulnerable Populations in FIJI - UNCDF
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Economic Impacts of Natural
Hazards on Vulnerable Populations
in FIJIContents
List of abbreviations ii
Executive summary 1
1
Hazard and exposure 2
1.1. Overview of risks 2
1.2. Cyclones 5
1.3. Floods 6
1.4. Landslides 6
1.5. Droughts 7
1.6. Earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanoes 7
2
Vulnerability and impacts 8
2.1. Economic profile 8
2.2. Agriculture and fisheries 9
2.3. Tourism 13
2.4. Commerce and manufacturing 14
2.5. Housing and settlements 15
2.6. Low-income and informal workers 16
2.7. Gender 17
2.8. Youth 21
3
Coping mechanisms 24
3.1. Types of coping mechanisms 24
3.2. Adaptive social protection 26
3.3. Remittances 27
3.4. Financial inclusion 29
3.5. Insurance 30
3.6. Migration and relocation 32
3.7. Community-based support 33
4 Conclusions
4.1. Hazard, exposure, and vulnerability
4.2. Coping mechanisms
35
35
35
References 39
2iList of abbreviations
ADB Asian Development Bank
CRED Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters
CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
EM-DAT Emergency Events Database
ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FJD Fiji dollar
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GFDRR Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery
GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit
IASC Inter-Agency Standing Committee Reference Group on Risk, Early Warning
and Preparedness
IDMC Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre
IFRC International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
ILO International Labour Organization
IMF International Monetary Fund
INFORM Index for Risk Management
MSME Micro-, small-, and medium-sized enterprises
OCHA United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
PCRAFI Pacific Catastrophe Risk Assessment and Financing Initiative
SPC Secretariat of the Pacific Community
TC Tropical Cyclone
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNDRR United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
UNICEF United Nations Childrens’ Fund
USD United States dollar
WASH Water, Sanitation and Hygiene
WFP World Food Programme
WTO World Trade Organization
ii
3Executive summary
Fiji is highly exposed to natural hazards, with • Social protection systems that can rapidly
cyclones and floods being annual events that adapt in crisis situations can support the
damage property and cause long-term cumulative immediate needs of affected people as
economic harm. Other natural hazards, including well as longer-term reconstruction. Fiji has
landslides, droughts, earthquakes, tsunami, and demonstrated the ability to rapidly and
volcanoes, are present but pose smaller threats. effectively scale up its social protection
Climate change is expected to exacerbate schemes to deliver cash payments for disaster
weather-related hazards in the future. relief and reconstruction.
Fiji’s agriculture and fisheries industries, and micro- • Remittances make an important contribution
small, and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs), to poverty reduction, wealth creation,
are particularly vulnerable to damage caused social protection, and economic growth
by natural hazards, and are critical sources of in Fiji, and there is evidence from many
livelihoods for a large proportion of the population. countries worldwide that remittances support
It is infeasible to protect crops and fisheries against responding to and recovering from disasters.
cyclones and floods, and it can take many years
• Financial inclusion is an important contributor
for crops and fisheries to recover from damage.
to development, poverty reduction, and
Many MSMEs rely on agricultural production and are
disaster resilience. The relatively high level of
based in people’s homes, which are often poorly
financial inclusion in Fiji contributes to disaster
constructed and vulnerable to damage. The tourism
resilience and is an important component of
sector has been more resilient to natural hazards,
recovery efforts.
with the exception of small home-based businesses
that produce handicrafts and other articles for the • Insurance can be an important tool for
tourist trade. managing risks associated with natural
hazards, but in Fiji, the majority of middle- and
Natural hazards disproportionately affect poor
low-income households have no insurance
people, workers in the informal economy, women,
protection, property insurance covering risks
and youths. Poor people tend to be more exposed
of natural hazards is difficult to obtain and
to hazards than wealthier people, are more severely
expensive, and no insurance coverage for
affected by hazards that do occur, and have fewer
crops, livestock, or fisheries is available in the
resources available to them to cope when disasters
country.
do occur. Women and girls are disadvantaged and
constrained economically, have livelihoods that • Migration within Fiji and internationally can
are more often dependent on natural resources, support development and disaster resilience.
and suffer increased incidences of gender-based Demand for rural-urban and international
violence during crises. Youths suffer from disruption migration, driven by seeking economic
to education and employment caused by natural opportunities and by the impacts of natural
hazards, which can lead to long term deficits hazards, is likely to continue to increase.
in human capital and permanently reduced Relocation of settlements, a highly sensitive
employment prospects and incomes. issue, is also likely to increase in the future.
Support systems that help poor and disadvantaged • Community-based coping mechanisms are
populations cope with the impacts of natural a common way for communities to manage
hazards include: risk, especially in rural and poor communities.
Traditions of community-based safety nets are
strong in Fiji.
11. Hazard and exposure
1.1. Overview of risks
Pacific island countries are widely regarded The Pacific Catastrophe Risk Assessment and
as experiencing the highest risks associated Financing Initiative (PCRAFI) estimates that
with natural hazards in the world due to their within the next 50 years, Fiji has a 50% chance
high exposure to a variety of hazards, their of experiencing a loss of more than 25% of GDP
geographical remoteness, and their dispersion due to earthquakes or tropical cyclones, and
across a large area (ADB [Asian Development a 10% chance of a loss exceeding 50% of GDP
Bank], 2018, p. 2; World Bank, 2017a, p. (PCRAFI, 2011, pp. 1–2).
81). Across the region, hydrological and
The principal hazards affecting Fiji are tropical
meteorological events cause the majority of
cyclones and floods. Fiji is located in the tropical
economic losses, with cyclones being the most
cyclone belt and experiences an average of
serious hazard, while geo-hazards are the major
one cyclone per year with damaging winds,
cause of human loss (World Bank, 2017a, p. 81).
rains, storm surges, and floods (PCRAFI, 2011,
Fiji is ranked as the 12th most hazardous country p. 5, 2015, p. 5; UNDRR [United Nations Office
in the world by WorldRiskIndex on the basis of for Disaster Risk Reduction], 2019, p. 6). Climate
high exposure to natural hazards and relatively change is likely to exacerbate all weather-
low coping capacity (Day et al., 2019, p. 56). related hazards in Fiji, and flood severity has
An International Monetary Fund (IMF) study already found to be increasing (UNDRR, 2019,
estimates that Fiji has a 70% chance of suffering p. 11). Fiji is seismically relatively quiet, but is
a significant1 disaster related to natural hazards near the Pacific ‘Ring of Fire’ and therefore
each year (Lee et al., 2018, p. 7), and the exposed to the possibility of earthquakes and
Government of Fiji forecasts that cyclones tsunamis (PCRAFI, 2011, p. 3; UNDRR, 2019, p.
and floods are likely to cause average annual 6) although these types of hazards have been
losses equal to 5.8% of Gross Domestic Product rare and caused limited impacts in the past
(GDP) (Government of Fiji, 2017b, pp. 50–55). (Government of Fiji, 2017b, pp. 48, 55).
1
This analysis was based on the Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT), which counts disasters involving 10 or more
deaths, 100 or more people affected, the declaration of a state of emergency, or a call for international assistance.
2Different agencies, using different Figure 1: Natural Hazard Forecasts
methodologies, provide different assessments
WorldRiskReport
of risk for Fiji.
Risk Risk
score quintile
• WorldRiskReport2 ranks Fiji as the 12th most
hazardous country in the world due to high Exposure 38.43 Very High
exposure to natural hazards and lack of Vulnerability 46.41 Medium
coping capacities. The ranking process Susceptibility 21.54 Medium
assigns countries scores ranging from 0 Lack of coping 78.76 High
(least risk) to 100 (greatest risk) based on 27 capacity
indicators (Day et al., 2019, pp. 44, 56). Lack of adaptive 38.93 Medium
capacity
• INFORM (Index for Risk Management)3 (Day et al.,2019)
assesses the relative risk of countries INFORM
experiencing humanitarian crises, taking into Epidemic
account exposure to hazards, vulnerability Drought
hazards
Natural
of the population, and coping capacity. Tropical Cyclone
Tsunami
INFORM ranks Fiji 103rd out of 191 countries Flood
on exposure to natural hazards, implying Earthquake
Overall risk
a roughly average level of risk by global Lack of coping capacity
standards. It considers Fiji to have a Vulnerability
Natural hazard & exposure
particularly high risk of tsunamis and a low
risk of floods (IASC [Inter-Agency Standing Low High
Committee Reference Group on Risk, Early Relative risk compared with other countries worldwide
(IASC, 2020)
Warning and Preparedness], 2020).
ThinkHazard
• ThinkHazard4 provides an overview of High Risk River flood Landslide
natural hazards at national and local levels. Urban flood Tsunami
It considers Fiji to have a high risk of most Coastal flood Cyclone
Earthquake Wildfire
weather-related and geophysical hazards,
but low risk of water scarcity and volcanic Medium Risk Extreme heat
activity (GFDRR [Global Facility for Disaster Low Risk Volcano
Very low Risk Water scarcity
Reduction and Recovery], 2020).
(GFDRR, 2020)
• The Government of Fiji, in its 2017 national Government of Fiji
climate vulnerability assessment, estimates Average annual asset losses
that cyclones and floods cause average FJD million % GDP
annual losses equal to 5.8% of GDP, and that
Tropical cyclones 152 1.6%
earthquakes and tsunamis cause minimal
Fluvial floods (rivers) 250 2.6%
average losses (Government of Fiji, 2017b,
pp. 50–55). Pluvial floods 154 1.6%
(surface water)
Earthquakes and 5• The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre Figure 2: Historical Disasters
(IDMC)5 models the risk of future population
EM-DAT: Damage, 1990-2020
displacements, and projects the greatest risks
for Fiji to be related to cyclones and storm Volcanic activity
surges (IDMC, 2019).
Tsunami
Agencies that keep records of disasters agree
Cyclone
that cyclones and floods have caused the
greatest economic losses in Fiji. DesInventar6 Flood
and EM-DAT7 (Emergency Events Database) are Earthquake
the two main global datasets of disasters related
Drought
to natural hazards. They use different inclusion
0 250 500 750 1000
criteria, data sources, and reporting practices,
Damage in million USD
so they are not necessarily comparable. In
(CRED, 2020)
particular, DesInventar includes significantly
more events than EM-DAT, especially high- Desinventar: Losses, 1990-2020
frequency, low-impact events; EM-DAT tends
to show lower estimates of impacts and to lack Drought
estimates of damages in smaller countries; data Volcano
collection practices in both datasets appear Storm (local)
to vary from one country to another and may
Storm surge
not always be comparable between countries;
and both datasets appear to cover flooding Landslide
inadequately (Edmonds & Noy, 2018, pp. 482– Tsunami
484). For Fiji, both datasets agree that cyclones Earthquake
and floods are the hazards that have caused
Flood
the most damage or loss8, although they differ
regarding the number of events and magnitude Cyclone
of damage or loss that they record (CRED Epidemic
[Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of 0 250 500 750 1000
Disasters], 2020; UNDRR, 2020). PCRAFI has also Losses in million USD
compiled a regional database of more than 600
(UNDRR,2020)
disasters (PCRAFI, 2013, pp. 53–57), and of the
129 events recorded for Fiji, 55% were cyclones, PCRAFI: number of recorded disasters
with most of the rest being floods or storms;
no disasters associated with tsunamis or storm Tropical cyclone 71
surges were recorded (PCRAFI, 2013, p. 57).
Flood 30
5
Part of the Norwegian Refugee Council, a humanitarian Earthquake 13
non-governmental organization (NGO)
Severe local storm 10
6
Operated by the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk
Reduction (UNDRR), drawing on data from partners around
the world; data for the Pacific region are provided by the Landslide 5
Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC)
Storm surge 0
Operated by the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology
7
of Disasters (CRED), Catholic University of Louvain
Tsunami 0
EM-DAT reports damage defined as “value of all damages
8
and economic losses directly or indirectly related to the (PCRAFI, 2013, p.57)
disaster”; DesInventar reports losses defined as “sum of losses
directly caused by the disaster” (https://public.emdat.be/
about; https://www.desinventar.net/effects.html)
41.2. Cyclones
Cyclones, bringing damaging winds, rain, cyclones. The overall frequency of cyclones in
and storm surges, are the most significant the Pacific is expected to remain unchanged or
natural hazard for Fiji. On average, the country decrease by a small amount, while wind speeds
experiences one cyclone per year, resulting could increase by 2% to 11%, which would lead
in FJD 152 million in asset losses annually; to exponentially higher damage (ADB, 2018,
losses from 100-year return period cyclones p. 5; Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 50; Schimel,
are estimated at around 11% of GDP, and the 2020, p. 39). Rising sea levels will also increase
losses from Tropical Cyclone (TC) Winston are the impacts of cyclones as a result of storm
consistent with those from a 200-year event surge and flooding (Schimel, 2020, p. 39). By
(Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 50). 2050, extreme weather events may cause up to
a 6.5% loss of Fiji’s GDP annually (Schimel, 2020,
Fiji has experienced two record-breaking
p. 39).
tropical cyclones this decade: TC Evan, a
category 4 storm9 in 2012, and TC Winston, a Global evidence shows that the economic
category 5 storm in 2016 which was the most damage cause by cyclones is long-lasting and
intense storm ever recorded in the Southern cumulative. A study of the long-term economic
Hemisphere (Schimel, 2020, p. 39). The death toll impacts of tropical cyclones that examined
for both storms was low, with only two deaths 6,712 storm events found that the impact on
recorded for Evan and 44 for Winston (CRED, GDP caused by a cyclone lasts at least twenty
2020; Government of Fiji, 2016, p. 10) but the years, and that countries that are repeatedly
economic losses were heavy, amounting to exposed to cyclones experience a cumulative
2.6% of GDP for Evan and approximately 20% of and effectively permanent loss to GDP.
GDP for Winston (Schimel, 2020, pp. 39–40). The More powerful storms cause more long-term
two storms had similar impacts at the sectoral damage: each additional meter per second
level, with agriculture, forestry, commerce, (3.6 km/h) increase in average annual wind
hotels and restaurants accounting for 87% of exposure lowers per capita economic output
total losses (WTO [World Trade Organization], by 0.37% twenty years later, and an increase in
2019, p. 41). a country’s cyclone exposure by one standard
deviation lowers GDP by 3.6 percentage points
The effects of climate change by the end of
twenty years later (Hsiang & Jina, 2014).
this century are expected to increase the
proportion of high-intensity (categories 4 and 5)
Tropical cyclones are classified into categories numbered 1 through 5 based on maximum sustained wind speed,
9
with category 5 being the most powerful.
51.3. Floods
Fiji is severely and regularly affected by floods surges (Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 51). Fiji has
that cause loss of life, damage to housing experienced, on average, more than one flood
and infrastructure, and economic disruption. each year for the past 40 years. A significant
Coastal floods are a result of a combination fraction of these floods are high-frequency, low-
of mean sea level, astronomical tides, storm intensity events that may not be recorded in
surges due to low pressure and wind action, disaster databases but are frequent enough to
and wind-driven waves (Government of Fiji, generate large cumulative losses (Government
2017b, p. 50). Inland, flooding can occur as a of Fiji, 2017b, p. 51). Average annual flood losses
result of cyclones and other storms: fluvial floods are estimated at more than FJD 400 million, or
occur when rivers burst their banks as a result of 4.2% of GDP (Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 51).
sustained or intense rainfall, and pluvial floods
Climate change is expected to increase both
occur when heavy precipitation saturates
the frequency and intensity of extreme rainfall
drainage systems, particularly in flat and urban
events by the end of the century. Rainfall events
areas (Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 51). Such
that occur once in 20 years may increase
floods are a regular occurrence during the
in magnitude by 5 to 7 mm by 2030 and by
monsoon season (November to April), usually
6 to 36 mm by 2090, and what is currently a
alongside cyclones and tropical storms which
20-year event may occur every 4 to 9 years
bring in high intensity rainfall (UNDRR, 2019,
by 2090, depending on CO2 emission levels
p. 11). Much of the country’s population lives
(Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 51). Without
on river floodplains subject to long-duration
adaptation measures, asset losses would
flooding and in smaller catchments prone
increase correspondingly, reaching 5% of GDP
to flash flooding (Government of Fiji, 2017b,
annually by 2050. The increase in flood losses
p. 51). All major rivers that discharge to the
arises more from the increase in the frequency
ocean and delta areas can be affected by
of smaller events than from the rarer large
elevated sea levels during high tides or storm
floods (Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 54).
1.4. Landslides
Steep slopes, unstable volcanic soil, heavy (Drazba et al., 2018, p. 1337; Government of Fiji,
precipitation, and high winds contribute to a 2017b, p. 47). The frequency of landslides is likely
significant risk of landslides in Fiji (Drazba et to increase with climate change as a result
al., 2018; UNDRR, 2019, p. 6). There is a lack of of increased precipitation and more intense
data on landslide occurrences and impacts tropical cyclones, but land use, deforestation,
in Fiji, but they are often triggered by rainfall and slope management are also contributing
and are believed to pose a substantial threat factors (Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 54).
61.5. Droughts
Droughts in Fiji are infrequent, and usually short saline water intrusions as a result of reduced
and seasonal, with an average duration of a flows in rivers (Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 54).
few months or less (Government of Fiji, 2017b, In 1997-98, for example, one of the strongest El
p. 47,54). Almost all droughts are associated Niños on record led to widespread food and
with the El Niño10 phenomenon, which have water shortages, school closures, a halving of
the potential to reduce annual rainfall by up to the sugarcane harvest, and one of the worst
50%, although not all El Niños lead to droughts recessions in Fiji’s history (OCHA [United Nations
(Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 54; UNDRR, 2019, Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
p. 11). Droughts are infrequent – only six major Affairs], 2015, p. 3). Another El Niño-induced
droughts were recorded between 1970 and drought in 2015 similarly led to about 13% of
2016 (Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 47) – but the population receiving emergency water
when they occur they affect an average of 20- deliveries and reduced harvests (OCHA, 2015).
30% of Fiji’s land area (Government of Fiji, 2017b,
The impact of climate change on the risk of
p. 54).
drought is unclear. Different climate models
Impacts of droughts include decreased project different changes in precipitation
agricultural production, mortality of livestock, patterns and there does not appear to be a
shortages of drinking water, forest fires, and consensus around the implications for drought
in Fiji (Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 54).
1.6. Earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanoes
Fiji has relatively little seismic activity, but it is 2017b, pp. 47, 55; UNDRR, 2019, p. 10). Overall,
located near the Pacific “Ring of Fire” and is Fiji is expected to incur an average of FJD 5
therefore exposed to earthquakes and tsunamis million per year in losses due to earthquakes
(PCRAFI, 2011, p. 3; UNDRR, 2019, p. 6). There are and tsunami (Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 55),
two active volcanoes in the country (UNDRR, making this a relatively small risk compared
2019, p. 10). Earthquakes and tsunamis have with other natural hazards. Climate change
had little impact on Fiji in the past fifty years – could potentially lead to increased tsunami risk,
the last major earthquake in a built-up area primarily through sea level rise but also through
occurred in 1953 (PCRAFI, 2015, p. 17) – but such damage to coral reefs; there is evidence that
hazards could be significant when they occur. these coastal ecosystems can offer some
Studies have suggested a 20% to 40% chance of protection against tsunamis, depending on
experiencing a significant earthquake at least local conditions (Dilmen et al., 2015, p. 3570;
once in the next fifty years (Government of Fiji, Shao et al., 2019, p. 85).
El Niño is a natural warming of surface ocean waters in the eastern tropical Pacific which occurs every three to seven
10
years, and lasts from six months to two years (OCHA, 2015, p. 1)
72. Vulnerability and impacts
2.1 Economic profile
Fiji has a diversified economy with a particularly Figure 3: Fiji GDP annual change
strong tourism industry and significant agriculture
and textile industries. Fiji’s economy is the 10
second-largest in the Pacific after Papua New
GDP growth (annual %)
8
Guinea, and its location enables it to serve
as a regional hub for the rest of the Pacific 6
(Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 41; UNDRR, 2019, 4
p. 6). Tourism is responsible for about 34% of GDP 2
and contributes more than any other sector to
0
foreign exchange earnings, with remittances,
sugar, and textiles also being important foreign -2
exchange earners (Government of Fiji, 2016,
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015
2017
2019
p. 19, 2017b, p. 41; Reserve Bank of Fiji, 2016,
p. 9; World Bank, 2017b, p. 7; World Travel & (World Bank, 2020)
Tourism Council, 2020). Economic growth has
been strong during the last decade, with credit Figure 4: Employment by sector
growth, remittances, improved labour market
conditions, infrastructure spending, and the
60
strong tourism industry contributing to growth es
% of total employment
50 Servic
(Government of Fiji, 2016, p. 19), alongside
the return to democratic elections and 40
Agricu
normalisation of international relations in 2014 lture
30
(World Bank, 2017b, p. 7). Fiji ranks 98th out of 189
countries on the Human Development Index 20
Industry
and falls within the ‘high human development’ 10
category (UNDP [United Nations Development
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015
2017
2019
Programme], 2019, p. 301).
(World Bank, 2020)
Fiji has a low unemployment rate, but high
informal employment, high underemployment, in informal or subsistence activities (ILO
and a high level of subsistence activity [International Labour Organization], 2017a,
(Government of Fiji, 2016, p. 29). As of 2016, 54% pp. 4–5). Informal workers do not have secure
of the population participated in the labour employment contracts and lack workers’
market (71% for men and 37% for women) benefits, social protection, and workers’
and the unemployment rate was only 8%, but representation (ILO, 2017c). The unemployment
60% of the employed population (78% in rural rate for youths aged 15-24 is 14.8%, which is 3.6
areas and 37% in urban areas) were engaged times the overall unemployment rate (World
Bank, 2020).
82.2. Agriculture and fisheries
Agriculture and fisheries are extremely Figure 5: Agriculture, forestry, and
important to Fiji, both as commercial and fishing, value added as % of GDP
subsistence activities. Agriculture has declined
in importance in relation to GDP as tourism and 18
textiles have grown (Wehrhahn et al., 2019, p. 16
28), but it still provides 36% of all employment
(World Bank, 2020). Women make up about 37% 14
of those employed in agriculture (Government 12
% of GDP
of Fiji, 2016, p. 47). Sugarcane is the dominant
10
cash crop, accounting for 18% of Fiji’s exports
and directly or indirectly supporting nearly one- 8
quarter of the population; it is grown by almost 6
13,700 farmers on small farms averaging 2.8
4
hectares in size, mostly on western Viti Levu and
northern Vanua Levu (Government of Fiji, 2016, 2
p. 48; Singh, 2020, p. 66; Wehrhahn et al., 2019, 0
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015
2017
2019
pp. 28–29). However, the sugar industry has
been in decline for the past decade due to low
(World Bank, 2020)
productivity, labour shortages, high production
costs, ageing and inefficient sugar mills, and the
withdrawal of preferential price arrangements p. 84; Wehrhahn et al., 2019, p. 30), and it is
with the European Union (Government of Fiji, essentially infeasible to protect crops against
2017b, p. 83; Singh, 2020, pp. 67–69). Subsistence these hazards (Gawith et al., 2016, p. 2115).
livestock production is widespread, constituting Flooding “can inundate crops, leading to failed
a small percentage of total output but harvests and the death of livestock, and it can
generating income for many rural households also damage or destroy agricultural assets and
and contributing to food security and meeting infrastructure” (Government of Fiji, 2017b, p.
customary obligations (Government of Fiji, 2016, 84). Many farms have expanded into areas that
p. 48). The fishery sector is comprised of offshore are prone to flooding or that have a high risk
tuna fishing, which accounts for around 43% of for landslides (UNDRR, 2019, p. 14). Sugarcane
the value of production, commercial coastal is grown in coastal areas which are exposed to
fisheries (30%), and subsistence commercial cyclones and storm surges (PCRAFI, 2015, p. 8).
fisheries (23%) (Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. In the fisheries sector, cyclones and storm surges
84). Half of all rural households are involved in cause damage to boats, equipment, and
coastal subsistence fishing (Government of Fiji, aquaculture infrastructure and stock, as well
2016, p. 48). as causing ecosystem damage to coral reefs,
mangroves, and other fish habitats. Flooding
Cyclones and floods regularly cause extensive can also damage aquaculture ponds, cause
damage to crops, trees, livestock, equipment, siltation, and harm fish and seafood stocks
and infrastructure (Government of Fiji, 2017b, (Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 84).
9Table 1: Expected impacts of climate change on crops, livestock, and forestry in Fiji
Hazard Expected impacts
Changes in • Disrupt planting, flowering, growth, and harvesting patterns, which
rainfall patterns may affect productivity
• Heavy, concentrated rainfall can lead to waterlogging and a higher
risk of diseases, and can also lead to erosion
Changes in • Existing cultivars of mango, papaya, and tomato can be
temperature adversely affected by high temperatures at specific stages of their
development
• Incidence of pests and diseases may increase across a range of
crops and livestock; increasing minimum nighttime temperatures
have already been demonstrated to increase the spread of taro leaf
blight, which poses a major risk for the important local taro industry
• Higher temperatures may increase stress for livestock
• Availability of maize- and soy-based animal feed could be affected
by climate change, resulting in increased costs for poultry and pig
industries, which are heavily dependent on imported feed
Sea-level • Land available for agriculture may be reduced; the sugar industry
rise and sea has an estimated 5,000 ha of land under threat from saltwater
flooding intrusion
(Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 86)
Table 2: Expected impacts of climate change on fisheries in Fiji
Hazard Expected impacts
Increase in • Coral bleaching may lead to loss of fish habitat
sea surface
• Migration and spawning times may change for tuna and similar
temperatures
pelagic fish
• Demersal fish expected to be less productive due to changes in
recruitment
• Fewer areas suitable for seaweed aquaculture
• Survival/growth of ornamental products, oyster spat, and sea
cucumbers may be reduced
• Growth rates for shrimp aquaculture may increase
10Table 2: Expected impacts of climate change on fisheries in Fiji (continued)
Hazard Expected impacts
Sea-level rise • Area and productivity of estuarine fisheries may increase
• Fisheries infrastructure and communities may be forced to relocate
Ocean • Reduction in aragonite concentration expected to reduce
acidification productivity of invertebrates
• Areas suitable for seaweed aquaculture will be reduced
• Survival/growth of ornamental products, oyster spat, and sea
cucumbers may be reduced
Increased/more • Greater runoff may smother reefs if high levels of sediment persist
concentrated
• Area of freshwater fish habitats may increase, along with water
rainfall
availability for aquaculture
Change to sea • Catch of skipjack and yellowfin tuna may increase; albacore tuna
currents may decrease
Decreased nutrient • Nutrient availability (e.g., zooplankton biomass) may decrease due
availability to increased stratification and shallower mixed layer
(Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 87)
11The impact of natural hazards on agriculture is damage to permanent plantations which will
intensified for poor people. Almost half of those need to be replanted, as well as damage to
living below the national poverty line11 rely on mangrove forests and coral reefs (Government
agriculture for at least part of their income of Fiji, 2016, p. 11). TC Winston also caused
(Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 23). Most farms extensive damage to food crops, which
in Fiji are small – in 2009, 44% of all farms had seriously affected household income, food
an area of less than 1 hectare (Department of security and nutrition. Many poor households
Agriculture, 2009, p. 33) – and more than 80% of lost their own food supplies following the
the country’s farms are classified as subsistence cyclone, and market prices for vegetables and
farms (Ministry of Agriculture, 2018, cited in root crops increased significantly – by as much
Wehrhahn et al., 2019, p. 30). Small-scale as double in the case of cassava, a local staple
farmers (both commercial and subsistence) are (Government of Fiji, 2016, p. 50). In some cases,
vulnerable to natural hazards because they agricultural production will not return to pre-
cannot achieve economies of scale or build up cyclone levels for five to ten years, depressing
financial buffers to absorb economic shocks, so people’s incomes and livelihoods significantly
losses inflicted by natural hazards have greater in the affected areas (Government of Fiji, 2016,
impact than they would for larger-scale farmers pp. 12, 50–51). The cyclone was estimated
(Wehrhahn et al., 2019, p. 30). In the aftermath to cause personal income losses of FJD 351.6
of extensive flooding in 2009, for example, million, 85% of which was in the agriculture
almost 50% of the affected farming families sector. Across all sectors, women lost about half
with livelihoods tied to sugar farming12 were as much income as men (FJD 119.6 million and
expected to fall below the poverty line and 40% 232.0 million respectively), but this understates
were estimated not to be able to meet basic the significance of the losses, since fewer
nutritional needs; these farmers had reduced women than men are employed and women’s
coping capacities because they were likely to incomes are lower to begin with (Government
have had pre-existing debts and limited savings, of Fiji, 2016, p. 102).
and their incomes were already reduced due
to global market conditions for sugar (Lal, 2011, Figure 6: Personal income losses by
cited in UNDRR, 2019, p. 10). sector due to TC Winston
TC Winston caused extensive damage, loss
of production, and harm to livelihoods in the Commerce:
agriculture sector. Damage was valued at FJD F$17.2 million
40.6 million, with additional future production
Manufacturing:
losses estimated at FJD 241.2 million. Sugarcane Agriculture:
F$298.2 F$18.5 million
accounted for 62% of the total damage and
million
loss (Government of Fiji, 2016, p. 50). High winds, Tourism & transport:
flooding and storm surges caused substantial F$17.7 million
(Government of Fiji, 2016 p. 102)
11
Fiji’s national poverty line, derived from the country’s 2013-14 Household Income and Expenditure Survey, is set at
household income of FJD 29.89 per day in 2013-14 (Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 41), or approximately USD 16.24 per day
in 2013. Fiji also defines poverty lines for adults at FJD 7.87 per day for urban areas and FJD 7.07 per day for rural areas
(Fiji Bureau of Statistics, 2015, p. 2), or approximately USD 4.28 and USD 3.84 per day respectively. These income levels are
higher than the World Bank’s USD 1.90 per day international poverty line, and comparable with the World Bank’s USD 3.20
and 5.50 per day poverty lines for lower- and upper-middle-income countries.
Most sugarcane farmers are small-scale growers with an average landholding of 2.8 hectares (Insurance Holdings
12
(Pacific) Limited 2016, cited in Wehrhahn et al., 2019, p. 28), who allocate the majority of their land to sugarcane and use
only a small proportion of their land to grow other cash and food crops and raise subsistence livestock (Singh, 2020).
12In the fisheries sector, TC Winston had major and no other disasters occur in the meantime
impacts on artisanal fisheries and commercial (Government of Fiji, 2016, p. 50). A study of mud
aquaculture through extensive damage to crab fishers in Bua Province, for example, found
fisheries assets and to coral reefs, mangroves, that two to three months after the cyclone, 52%
and other fish habitats (Government of Fiji, of the fishers had stopped harvesting crabs,
2016, p. 47). Direct damage to the fisheries largely because fallen trees and other debris
sector was estimated at FJD 40.7 million, with blocked access to mangroves, or because of
the value of lost production estimated at FJD bad weather, being busy with village repairs or
165.9 million; 72% of the losses are attributed babysitting, damage to mud crab habitat, or
to subsistence fishing (Government of Fiji, the declaration of a tabu (a temporary no-take
2016, pp. 47–50). It was expected that the area) (Thomas et al., 2019, p. 702). The fishers
aquaculture sector would recover in one or two reported reduced seafood consumption at
years, but that subsistence and commercial home as well as loss of income, and those who
fisheries could take 12 years to return to pre- continued fishing reported catching fewer and
cyclone production levels, provided that good smaller crabs and harvesting less frequently
resource management practices are followed (Thomas et al., 2019, pp. 703–704).
2.3. Tourism
Fiji has a large tourism industry which attracts may occur as part of policy responses to
over 750,000 tourists a year and contributed climate change (Government of Fiji, 2017b, pp.
34% of total GDP in 2019 (Government of Fiji, 93–94).
2017b, p. 93; World Travel & Tourism Council,
Tropical cyclones Evan and Winston caused
2020). Approximately 6% of people in poverty
limited damage to tourist infrastructure, most of
and 12% of people above the poverty line
which is built to high standards. TC Evan (2012)
generate some part of their income from tourism
caused limited structural damage to hotels
(Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 93). Tourism
and resorts, and most of the seriously affected
employment is particularly significant for women,
hotels and resorts drew on insurance to repair or
with 12.8% of women working in the sector
rebuild without relying on the Government for
compared to 7.4% of men, but women are
financial assistance (WTO, 2019, p. 44). Tourist
usually employed as housekeepers, receptionists
arrivals decreased by 2.5% following the storm,
and waitresses, with only one quarter of
but the effect was temporary (Government
managerial and professional positions being
of Fiji, 2017b, p. 93). TC Winston (2016) similarly
held by women (Government of Fiji, 2016, p. 60).
had “minimal impact on the tourism sector”
The tourism industry is vulnerable to tourists’ (Government of Fiji, 2016, p. 27), which was
perceptions of risk and to degradation of the partly due to good fortune in that the storm did
natural environment. Tourists avoid destinations not affect the most popular and productive
that they perceive as hazard-prone (ILO, 2019, tourism regions, although it did cause damage
p. 23). The tourism industry in Fiji relies heavily to at least 75 of the estimated 400 tourism
on coastal attractions, so is highly vulnerable businesses in the country. Damage to hotels
to cyclones, storm surges, and disruptions to and resorts was minimal due to the generally
transportation (PCRAFI, 2015, p. 8), and to other good standards to which they were built, with
longer-term risks related to climate change, a very small proportion of properties reporting
including damage to environmental quality and the majority of damage (Government of Fiji,
ecosystems, increasing frequency of extreme 2016, p. 57). Most affected businesses intended
temperatures, health risks associated with to continue operating at reduced capacity or
changes in the natural range and prevalence to reopen within a few months (Government of
of diseases, and increases in travel costs which Fiji, 2016, p. 60). The tourism industry generally
13recovered quickly following the cyclone and Micro- and small enterprises supplying the
was successful in minimising negative reporting tourism industry were affected in the short
internationally, promoting a strong “business as term. Tourism provides an important market for
usual” message, and reinstating international micro-, small, and medium-sized enterprises
flights only two days after the cyclone (MSMEs) making handicrafts and supplying
(Government of Fiji, 2016, pp. 57, 59). Businesses hotels and spas with flowers, artisanal products,
are estimated to have lost FJD 44 million through and cosmetics (Government of Fiji, 2016, p. 60).
cancellations and lost bookings, but overall Women’s handicraft groups in Ba Province, for
visitor numbers were only expected to decline example, reported their daily income declining
by 0.5% (Government of Fiji, 2016, p. 58). by FJD 50 to FJD 140 in the aftermath of the
cyclone (although it is not clear what proportion
of their incomes this represented) (Government
of Fiji, 2016, p. 60).
2.4. Commerce and manufacturing
Fiji has a diversified economy with significant that cannot be quickly recovered. Winston
commerce and manufacturing sectors. The caused damage to premises, equipment, raw
commerce subsector contributed 9.4% of materials, and finished products in commerce
total GDP in 2014 and includes vehicle trade, and manufacturing industries, and caused
supermarkets, textile and clothes traders, disruption of production and sales as a result of
hardware traders, book traders, fuel and oil the damage, workers’ absences, interruptions
traders, and other wholesale and retail product to electricity supplies, and problems with
sales (Government of Fiji, 2016, p. 53). The road access (Government of Fiji, 2016, p. 55).
manufacturing subsector in Fiji contributed 11.0% Damage has been estimated at a value of FJD
of total GDP in 2014 and includes food and 72.9 million, with economic losses estimated
beverage manufacturing, cigarettes, apparel, at FJD 69.9 million (Government of Fiji, 2016, p.
footwear, paper products, plastic and rubber 53). For larger businesses, disruptions were fairly
products, furniture, basic metals, coachworks, minor: in the wholesale and retail commerce
concrete products, and timber and wood sector, sales were interrupted for an average
products (Government of Fiji, 2016, pp. 53–54). In of just four days, with some temporary lay-
both commerce and manufacturing, the labour offs, and many larger retail outlets and the
force is two-thirds male and one-third female; in majority of wholesalers had insurance coverage
commerce, 55% of the women employed are (Government of Fiji, 2016, pp. 54–56). Job
in the retail sub-sector, and in manufacturing, losses in the formal sector were also minimal
56% of the women employed are in the textile, and recovered quickly: the government’s
clothing, and footwear industries (Government post-disaster needs assessment reported
of Fiji, 2016, pp. 53–54). only 554 job losses, which were reinstated
once the electricity supply was fully restored
The impacts of TC Winston on larger-scale
(Government of Fiji, 2016, p. 55).
commerce and manufacturing in Fiji have
been fairly limited and short-term, although Micro-, small and medium-sized enterprises
industries that depend on raw materials suffered damage to equipment and supplies
from agriculture, such as sugar and pearls, as well as production losses as a result of
experienced larger and longer-term losses as TC Winston, particularly as a result of lost
a consequence of lost agricultural production agricultural production (Government of Fiji,
142016, p. 55). Most micro-enterprises in the but 43% of all micro and small enterprises were
affected areas rely on agricultural production, affected (Government of Fiji, 2016, pp. 55–56)
and consist of activities such as food processing, and since MSMEs have few assets and low
handicrafts and weaving (Government of turnovers, the effects of these losses are likely
Fiji, 2016, p. 102). Many MSMEs are based to be much more impactful than the dollar
in people’s homes, which are often poorly amounts suggest. Recovery for MSMEs and
constructed and vulnerable to damage (see cooperatives is inhibited by limited access to
section 3.5). Informal sector small and medium- loans, especially for women, who have greater
sized manufacturing reported FJD 3.4 million in difficulty accessing financial services than men
damage and FJD 11.2 million in losses, which (Government of Fiji, 2016, p. 56).
is relatively small compared with other sectors,
2.5. Housing and settlements
The topography of Fiji leads 90% of the access to electricity, and vulnerability to natural
population to live in coastal regions that hazards is high (Government of Fiji, 2017b, p.
are exposed to flooding, cyclones and sea- 56).
level rise, and there is generally a lack of
The two major tropical cyclones that hit Fiji in
climate-resilient housing across the country
the past decade caused extensive damage
(Government of Fiji, 2018b, p. 26; UNDRR, 2019,
to housing stock across the country. TC Evan
p. 14). More than half of the population (54%
destroyed about 1% of the country’s total
in 2017) is urban, concentrated in three rapidly
housing stock and damaged another 4%, for
growing urban corridors. Urban growth is driven
a total value of FJD 50 million (Government
by natural population growth and by migration
of Fiji, 2013). TC Winston destroyed 7.5% of the
from rural areas and the outer islands, which is
total housing stock and damaged a further
primarily due to urban-rural household income
6.3% percent of houses, for a total of FJD 751
differentials (Government of Fiji, 2017b, p. 41).
million (Government of Fiji, 2016, p. 72). Most
There is a large backlog of provision of low-
households had to bear the rebuilding cost
income housing in Fiji, and urban populations
themselves, which was a major challenge
are overcrowding into existing housing stock,
(WTO, 2019, p. 45); the government offered
building illegally on vacant land, or entering into
assistance through the Help for Homes
informal and insecure housing arrangements.
program (see section 3.2), but the program’s
About 20% of the urban population (10% of
budget was only one-sixth of the estimated
the total population of the country) lives in
amount of damage (Government of Fiji, 2016,
unplanned and rapidly growing urban and peri-
p. 72). Households headed by women, the
urban informal settlements where land tenure
elderly, and people with disabilities may find it
is unregistered and insecure, housing stock is
particularly challenging to repair or rebuild their
low quality, 13% of households had shared or
houses independently (Government of Fiji, 2016,
no access to potable water and 28% had no
p. 76).
152.6. Low-income and informal workers
Worldwide, poor and marginalized people are affected by natural hazards than people who
disproportionally exposed to natural hazards. have more wealth and power. Vulnerable
Poor people often live in locations where people in all these groups tend to be
they are more exposed to hazards (including overrepresented in the informal economy, more
frequent, low-intensity hazards) than wealthier likely to be unemployed or in insecure work,
people are. They lack resources to invest in and have less access to resources with which
disaster-resilient housing and other infrastructure, to restore their livelihoods or adapt to climate
their employment and incomes are less secure, change (ILO, 2019, p. 12).
they often have less access to social protection
More than one-third of Fijians are below
schemes, and they have limited savings and
the national poverty line, and informal and
limited access to insurance or affordable credit.
subsistence livelihoods are common, but
When disaster strikes they are often forced to
extreme poverty is rare. The World Bank reports
adopt coping strategies that have long-term
that 2.3% of the population lives on less than
negative impacts, such as taking children out
USD 1.40 per day, and 15.1% live on less than
of school, selling productive assets, or reducing
USD 3.10 per day (World Bank, 2017b, p. 8).
food intake, and they often receive less post-
However, 35% of Fijians (26% in urban areas
disaster support, and less quickly (Hallegatte et
and 44% in rural areas) live below the national
al., 2017, p. 4; ILO, 2019, p. 4; Wehrhahn et al.,
basic needs poverty line (Government of
2019, p. 60; World Bank, 2017a, p. 90).
Fiji, 2016, p. 19). Many Fijians live in “affluent
The effects of natural hazards are also subsistence”: they have sufficient resources
disproportionately higher for poorer people. to meet most basic needs but have limited
Damage to assets, or losses of income, reach economic opportunities to move beyond that
a higher proportion of a poor person’s total level (Wehrhahn et al., 2019, p. 41). About 18%
wealth than a wealthier person’s, and have of adults identify their primary economic activity
more serious implications (Government of Fiji, as solely subsistence based (Singh-Peterson
2017b, p. 76; Wehrhahn et al., 2019, p. 60). A & Iranacolaivalu, 2018, p. 12), but 60% of the
study in India, for example, showed that income employed population (78% in rural areas and
losses due to floods in Mumbai amounted to 37% in urban areas) engage in some form of
62% of annual income for the lowest-income informal or subsistence activities (ILO, 2017a, pp.
quartile but only 19% of the highest-income 4–5).
quartile (Patankar, 2016, cited in Schaefer &
TC Winston is expected to have a significant
Waters, 2016, secs. 35–36). The same loss affects
long-term effect on employment and livelihoods
poor people more severely than wealthy
for people on lower incomes. The government’s
people because “their livelihoods depend
post-disaster needs assessment noted that
on fewer assets, their consumption is closer to
“most civil servants and salaried people will not
subsistence levels, they cannot rely on savings to
suffer income loss as a result of TC Winston” but
smooth the impacts, their health and education
that less well-off people may be forced into
are at greater risk, and they may need more
the informal sector and to increase subsistence
time to recover and rebuild” (Hallegatte et al.,
activities (Government of Fiji, 2016, p. 34). This
2018, p. 4). The monetary value of damage
will likely depress incomes and livelihoods for a
to assets and losses to economic production
long time: while some sectors of the economy
does not fully reflect the impacts on well-
were expected to recover within a few months,
being (Hallegatte et al., 2018, p. 4). Women,
agricultural production in some areas may not
youth, children, the elderly, people living with
return to pre-cyclone levels for five to ten years,
disabilities, and people belonging to ethnic
and fisheries in some areas for as long as 12
or religious minorities are also more severely
years (Government of Fiji, 2016, pp. 12, 50).
162.7. Gender
Worldwide, women and girls are differences in support to cope with such events
disproportionately vulnerable to the effects of and insufficient access to information and early
natural hazards and climate change (Bogdan warnings” (Bogdan et al., 2019, p. 33; ILO, 2019,
et al., 2019; World Bank, 2017a, p. 90). Around p. 12).
the world, women and girls have less ability
Gender also interacts with other social
than men to influence, participate in, and
characteristics to affect how individuals are
benefit from disaster risk reduction and recovery
impacted by natural hazards (Bogdan et al.,
efforts, and from climate change mitigation
2019, p. 4). Women in rural areas tend to be
and adaptation efforts (World Bank, 2017a,
more vulnerable than those in urban areas
p. 90). They have less access than men to the
(and in Fiji, women in low-lying areas were
resources necessary to cope with and respond
among the most vulnerable); older women
to hazardous events, including information,
and women with disabilities are more severely
employment opportunities, education, health,
affected, because of a lack of accessible
land, financial resources and other economic
infrastructure and information; pregnant and
assets, and basic rights (Vincent et al., 2014,
lactating women are at higher risk because of
p. 105; World Bank, 2017a, p. 90). Women
inadequate health services following disasters;
often have less access than men to early
and widowed and divorced women tend to be
warning systems such as weather forecasts and
more vulnerable (Bogdan et al., 2019, p. 23).
warnings of floods and water levels, and are
often less prepared to understand and act on Gendered social norms mean that men suffer
the information, due to gender differences in different risks compared to women, particularly
literacy, mobility, access to public venues, work physical and mental health risks and pressures
schedules, and preferences for and access to for migration. Most research on the gendered
communication media (Bogdan et al., 2019, impacts of climate-related hazards considers
pp. 26–33; IFRC [International Federation of effects on women, with “scarce evidence”
Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies], 2010, available about impacts on men (Bogdan et
p. 32). Women’s livelihoods often depend on al., 2019, p. iv). Social norms generally call for
natural resources that are affected by natural men to be “brave and heroic, and engage
hazards, and on assets that are vulnerable to in risky life-saving behaviors that increase their
disasters or to be sold as a negative coping likelihood of mortality” (Bogdan et al., 2019,
strategy (Bogdan et al., 2019, pp. iv–v; ILO, p. 25; Vincent et al., 2014, p. 106). They also
2019, p. 12). Socially constructed roles often have increased tendencies to suffer mental
limit women’s ability to diversify their livelihoods health issues from isolation and worry, including
by taking up new occupations, and impose depression, and to use alcohol as a coping
restrictive burdens such as housework and mechanism (Bogdan et al., 2019, p. 25). Men
caring responsibilities that limit their ability to often migrate (from rural to urban areas) in
act in crises (Bogdan et al., 2019, p. 33; Thomas search of new livelihoods, which can strain
et al., 2019, p. 706). Worldwide, even fatality households and break up families (Bogdan et
rates in disasters tend to be higher for women al., 2019, p. 25).
than for men13, “primarily due to gendered
Although this was not the case in Fiji following TC Winston: 44 people died as a result of the cyclone, with no significant
13
difference in mortality rates between females and males (Government of Fiji, 2016, p. 101).
17Table 3: Gendered impacts of climate change in Asia, the Pacific and Africa
Hazard Women Men
Physical • Higher mortality and • Mortality risks among
morbidity rates in men with heroic
disasters behavior and rescue
workers
• Extra workloads (time
and labor) • Migration for livelihood
diversification
• Malnutrition
• Other health issues, like
• Sexual and gender-
rheumatism
based violence during
and after disasters
Material • Loss of small household • Loss of livestock and
livestock assets
• Loss of livelihoods
connected with
natural resources, less
time to re-establish
them
• Loss of land because
of inheritance issues
• Disparities in access to
disaster relief and aid
18Table 3: Gendered impacts of climate change in Asia, the Pacific and Africa (Continued)
Hazard Women Men
Psychological • Psychological issues • Psychological impacts
associated mostly with fear including social
of gender-based violence isolation, trauma,
and feelings of shame depression, stress that
during disasters and stress can lead to alcohol
for providing food for the abuse and even
family suicide
Most affected groups • Girls (early marriage) and • Rural and poor men
adolescent girls (risk of
• Widowers
sexual harassment)
• Rural women and women
without access to resources
• Women living in low-lying
areas
• Disabled and older women
• Widowed, divorced and
single women
• Pregnant and lactating
women
• Female-headed
households
Gender relations • Negative: weaker family • Positive: change
structures, domestic in household and
violence community roles,
women taking
leadership
(Bogdan et al., 2019, p. 22)
19In Fiji, gender inequality is a significant damage, lack of electricity and lighting, the
challenge, with social roles heavily influenced use of alcohol by men as a coping mechanism,
by traditional values (Charan et al., 2016, pp. and the breakdown of normal community
110–112). Traditional cultural norms among protection mechanisms are contributing factors
both of the principal ethnic groups in Fiji (Bogdan et al., 2019, p. 15; Government of Fiji,
emphasize male authority and limit women’s 2016, p. 103). Following floods in 2012 and TC
participation in decision-making and rights to Winston in 2016, there were increased reports
own property, although education is valued of domestic violence, and reports of men
and women are able to participate in many requesting sexual favors in exchange for food
types of employment (Chattier, 2015, pp. and supplies (Government of Fiji, 2016, pp.
180–181; Schoeffel, 2006, pp. 3–4). Women have 102–103).
limited participation in decision-making at the
TC Winston may result in reduced economic
household, community, and national levels
opportunities for women, increasing
(Charan et al., 2016, p. 112; Taylor & Michael,
dependence on subsistence activity, increasing
2013, p. 11). The labor force participation
time poverty, deepening poverty and widening
rate for women is 38.6%, which is half that
gender inequality (Government of Fiji, 2016, p.
of men (76.2%) (ILO, 2020). Women and girls
99). Immediately after the cyclone, electricity
are expected to take on heavy domestic
and water supply outages led women and girls
responsibilities and are responsible for 74% of
to take up increased burdens of household
household work, compared to 26% for men
chores such as fetching water and doing
(Government of Fiji, 2016, p. 51). They are
laundry, and curtailed their ability to engage
often limited to working in the informal sector
in other productive and income-generating
and in subsistence agriculture, which offer
activities (Government of Fiji, 2016, p. 103).
low income and little security (Government
Women are often home-based workers,
of Fiji, 2016, p. 99). The Government of Fiji has
and many women engaged in home-based
made significant efforts to integrate gender
production lost income, materials, and
in disaster and climate change policies,
equipment when their homes were damaged
including undertaking gender-disaggregated
or destroyed (Government of Fiji, 2016, p. 76).
vulnerability and capacity assessments or
Women’s livelihoods are also often connected
including gender considerations in post-disaster
to natural resources which are vulnerable
needs assessments, particularly in the needs
to natural hazards. Many women work at
assessments that followed TC Evan and TC
basket and mat weaving, which rely on voivoi
Winston (Bogdan et al., 2019, p. 13).
(pandanus leaves) which were heavily affected
by the cyclone (Bogdan et al., 2019, p. 15),
Gender-based violence rates in Fiji are among while in coastal areas of Bua province, storm
the highest in the world, with 72% of women damage prevented female mud-crab fishers
who have ever been in intimate relationships from accessing mangrove areas or damaged
reporting physical, sexual, or emotional their fishing equipment, leaving them with few
violence from an intimate partner (Fiji Women’s alternative income opportunities (Thomas et
Crisis Centre, 2013, p. 2). During disasters, al., 2019). Women’s ability to contribute to
gender-based violence often increases, household subsistence was also more deeply
particularly when living in short-term emergency affected than men’s: 71% of the livestock killed
or shared accommodation which may have as a result of the storm were small animals like
inadequate lighting and un-segregated poultry, pigs and beehives, which are usually
sleeping arrangements and WASH facilities under the control of women (Bogdan et al.,
(Bogdan et al., 2019, p. 15; Government of 2019, p. 15), and vegetables were the most
Fiji, 2016, p. 76; UNDRR, 2019, p. 10; Vincent badly affected type of crop, which again are
et al., 2014, p. 106). Increased stress, property largely cultivated by women (Government of
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