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University of Nebraska - Lincoln
DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln
The Handbook: Prevention and Control of Wildlife
Wildlife Damage Management, Internet Center for
Damage
9-1-1994
Coyotes
Jeffrey S. Green
Assistant Regional Director USDA-APHIS Animal Damage Control
Green, Jeffrey S., "Coyotes" (1994). The Handbook: Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage. Paper 34.
http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdmhandbook/34
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Wildlife Damage Management, Internet Center for at DigitalCommons@University of
Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in The Handbook: Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage by an authorized administrator of
DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. For more information, please contact proyster@unl.edu.Jeffrey S. Green
Assistant Regional Director
USDA-APHIS-
COYOTES
Animal Damage Control
Lakewood, Colorado 80228
F. Robert Henderson
Extension Specialist
Animal Damage Control
Kansas State University
Manhattan, Kansas 66506-1600
Mark D. Collinge
State Director
USDA-APHIS-
Animal Damage Control
Boise, Idaho 83705
Fig. 1. Coyote, Canis latrans
Damage Prevention and Shed lambing, kidding, and calving Toxicants
usually reduce coyote predation.
Control Methods M-44 ejector devices for use with
Remove carrion to help limit coyote sodium cyanide-loaded plastic
Exclusion populations. capsules. They are most effective
Produce livestock in confinement. Frightening Agents and during cold weather (fall to spring).
Repellents Livestock protection collars (LPC)
Herd livestock into pens at night.
Guarding dogs: Some dogs have containing Compound 1080
Exclusion fences (net-wire and/or (sodium monofluoroacetate) are
electric), properly constructed and significantly reduced coyote
predation. registered for use only in certain
maintained, can aid significantly in states.
reducing predation. Donkeys and llamas: Some are
aggressive toward canines and have Fumigants
Cultural Methods and
Habitat Modification reduced coyote predation. Gas cartridges are registered as a
Sonic and visual repellents: Strobe burrow (den) fumigant.
Select pastures that have a lower
incidence of predation to reduce lights, sirens, propane cannons, and Trapping
exposure of livestock to predation. others have reduced predation on
both sheep and calves. Leghold traps (Nos. 3 and 4) are
Herding of livestock generally reduces effective and are the most versatile
predation due to human presence Chemical odor and taste repellents:
control tool.
during the herding period. None have shown sufficient
effectiveness to be registered for Snares are effective where coyotes pass
Change lambing, kidding, and calving use. through or under net-wire fences
seasons. and in trail sets.
PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF WILDLIFE DAMAGE — 1994
Cooperative Extension Division
Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources
University of Nebraska - Lincoln
United States Department of Agriculture
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
Animal Damage Control
C-51
Great Plains Agricultural Council
Wildlife CommitteeShooting Aerial hunting is effective in removing Other Methods
coyotes where terrain, ground
Shooting from the ground is effective.
cover, vegetation, regulations, and Denning: Remove adult coyotes and/
Use rabbit distress calls or mimic landownership conditions permit. or their young from dens.
howling or other coyote sounds to
Hunting with dogs is effective for trail-
bring coyotes within shooting
ing coyotes from kill sites, locating
distance.
dens, running coyotes, and assisting
with aerial hunting or calling.
Identification Habitat weaker lambs are also present. Usu-
ally, the stronger lamb is on the
In body form and size, the coyote Many references indicate that coyotes periphery and is more active, making
(Canis latrans) resembles a small collie were originally found in relatively it more prone to attack than a weaker
dog, with erect pointed ears, slender open habitats, particularly the grass- lamb that is at the center of the flock
muzzle, and a bushy tail (Fig. 1). lands and sparsely wooded areas of and relatively immobile.
Coyotes are predominantly brownish the western United States. Whether or Coyote predation on livestock is gener-
gray in color with a light gray to not this was true, coyotes have ally more severe during early spring
cream-colored belly. Color varies adapted to and now exist in virtually and summer than in winter for two
greatly, however, from nearly black to every type of habitat, arctic to tropic, reasons. First, sheep and cows are usu-
red or nearly white in some individu- in North America. Coyotes live in ally under more intensive manage-
als and local populations. Most have deserts, swamps, tundra, grasslands, ment during winter, either in feedlots
dark or black guard hairs over their brush, dense forests, from below sea or in pastures that are close to human
back and tail. In western states, typical level to high mountain ranges, and at activity, thus reducing the opportunity
adult males weigh from 25 to 45 all intermediate altitudes. High densi- for coyotes to take livestock. Second,
pounds (11 to 16 kg) and females from ties of coyotes also appear in the sub- predators bear young in the spring and
22 to 35 pounds (10 to 14 kg). In the urbs of Los Angeles, Pasadena, raise them through the summer, a pro-
East, many coyotes are larger than Phoenix, and other western cities. cess that demands increased nutri-
their western counterparts, with males tional input, for both the whelping and
averaging about 45 pounds (14 kg) and nursing mother and the growing
females about 30 pounds (13 kg). Food Habits
young. This increased demand corre-
Coyote-dog and coyote-wolf hybrids sponds to the time when young sheep
Coyotes often include many items in
exist in some areas and may vary or beef calves are on pastures or range-
their diet. Rabbits top the list of their
greatly from typical coyotes in size, land and are most vulnerable to attack.
dietary components. Carrion, rodents,
color, and appearance. Also, coyotes in Coyote predation also may increase
ungulates (usually fawns), insects
the New England states may differ in during fall when young coyotes dis-
(such as grasshoppers), as well as live-
color from typical western coyotes. perse from their home ranges and
stock and poultry, are also consumed.
Many are black, and some are reddish. establish new territories.
Coyotes readily eat fruits such as
These colorations may partially be due watermelons, berries, and other veg-
to past hybridization with dogs and etative matter when they are available. General Biology,
wolves. True wolves are also present In some areas coyotes feed on human Reproduction, and
in some areas of coyote range, particu- refuse at dump sites and take pets
larly in Canada, Alaska, Montana,
Behavior
(cats and small dogs).
northern Minnesota, Wisconsin, and
Coyotes are opportunistic and gener- Coyotes are most active at night and
Michigan. Relatively few wolves
ally take prey that is the easiest to during early morning hours (especially
remain in the southern United States
secure. Among larger wild animals, where human activity occurs), and
and Mexico.
coyotes tend to kill young, inexperi- during hot summer weather. Where
enced animals, as well as old, sick, or there is minimal human interference
Range and during cool weather, they may be
weakened individuals. With domestic
animals, coyotes are capable of catch- active throughout the day.
Historically, coyotes were most com-
ing and killing healthy, young, and in Coyotes bed in sheltered areas but do
mon on the Great Plains of North
some instances, adult prey. Prey selec- not generally use dens except when
America. They have since extended
tion is based on opportunity and a raising young. They may seek shelter
their range from Central America to
myriad of behavioral cues. Strong, underground during severe weather
the Arctic, including all of the United
healthy lambs are often taken from a or when closely pursued. Their physi-
States (except Hawaii), Canada, and
flock by a coyote even though smaller, cal abilities include good eyesight and
Mexico.
C-52hearing and a keen sense of smell. feeding and caring for the young. Coy- the site. The quantity of sheep or calf
Documented recoveries from severe otes commonly hunt as singles or remains left after a kill vary widely
injuries are indicative of coyotes’ pairs; extensive travel is common in depending on how recently the kill
physical endurance. Although not as their hunting forays. They will hunt in was made, the size of the animal
fleet as greyhound dogs, coyotes have the same area regularly, however, if killed, the weather, and the number
been measured at speeds of up to 40 food is plentiful. They occasionally and species of predators that fed on
miles per hour (64 km/hr) and can bury food remains for later use. the animal.
sustain slower speeds for several miles
Pups begin emerging from their den One key in determining whether a
(km).
by 3 weeks of age, and within 2 sheep or calf was killed by a predator
Distemper, hepatitis, parvo virus, and months they follow adults to large is the presence or absence of subcuta-
mange (caused by parasitic mites) are prey or carrion. Pups normally are neous (just under the skin) hemor-
among the most common coyote dis- weaned by 6 weeks of age and fre- rhage at the point of attack. Bites to a
eases. Rabies and tularemia also occur quently are moved to larger quarters dead animal will not produce hemor-
and may be transmitted to other ani- such as dense brush patches and/or rhage, but bites to a live animal will. If
mals and humans. Coyotes harbor sinkholes along water courses. The enough of the sheep carcass remains,
numerous parasites including mites, adults and pups usually remain carefully skin out the neck and head to
ticks, fleas, worms, and flukes. Mortal- together until late summer or fall observe tooth punctures and hemor-
ity is highest during the first year of when pups become independent. rhage around the punctures. Talon
life, and few survive for more than 10 Occasionally pups are found in groups punctures from large birds of prey will
to 12 years in the wild. Human activity until the breeding season begins. also cause hemorrhage, but the loca-
is often the greatest single cause of tion of these is usually at the top of the
Coyotes are successful at surviving
coyote mortality. head, neck, or back. This procedure
and even flourishing in the presence of
becomes less indicative of predation as
Coyotes usually breed in February and people because of their adaptable
the age of the carcass increases or if the
March, producing litters about 9 behavior and social system. They typi-
remains are scanty or scattered.
weeks (60 to 63 days) later in April and cally display increased reproduction
May. Females sometimes breed during and immigration in response to Coyotes, foxes, mountain lions, and
the winter following their birth, par- human-induced population reduction. bobcats usually feed on a carcass at the
ticularly if food is plentiful. Average flanks or behind the ribs and first con-
litter size is 5 to 7 pups, although up to sume the liver, heart, lungs, and other
13 in a litter has been reported. More Damage and Damage viscera. Mountain lions often cover a
than one litter may be found in a single Identification carcass with debris after feeding on it.
den; at times these may be from Bears generally prefer meat to viscera
females mated to a single male. As Coyotes can cause damage to a variety and often eat first the udder from lac-
noted earlier, coyotes are capable of of resources, including livestock, poul- tating ewes. Eagles skin out carcasses
hybridizing with dogs and wolves, but try, and crops such as watermelons. on larger animals and leave much of
reproductive dysynchrony and They sometimes prey on pets and are a the skeleton intact. With smaller ani-
behaviors generally make it unlikely. threat to public health and safety when mals such as lambs, eagles may bite off
Hybrids are fertile, although their they frequent airport runways and and swallow the ribs. Feathers and
breeding seasons do not usually corre- residential areas, and act as carriers of “whitewash” (droppings) are usually
spond to those of coyotes. rabies. Usually, the primary concern present where an eagle has fed.
regarding coyotes is predation on live-
Coyote dens are found in steep banks, Coyotes may kill more than one ani-
stock, mainly sheep and lambs. Preda-
rock crevices, sinkholes, and under- mal in a single episode, but often will
tion will be the focus of the following
brush, as well as in open areas. Usu- only feed on one of the animals.
discussion.
ally their dens are in areas selected for Coyotes typically attack sheep at the
protective concealment. Den sites are Since coyotes frequently scavenge on throat, but young or inexperienced
typically located less than a mile (km) livestock carcasses, the mere presence coyotes may attack any part of the
from water, but may occasionally be of coyote tracks or droppings near a body. Coyotes usually kill calves by
much farther away. Coyotes will often carcass is not sufficient evidence that eating into the anus or abdominal area.
dig out and enlarge holes dug by predation has taken place. Other evi-
Dogs generally do not kill sheep or
smaller burrowing animals. Dens vary dence around the site and on the car-
calves for food and are relatively
from a few feet (1 m) to 50 feet (15 m) cass must be carefully examined to aid
indiscriminate in how and where they
and may have several openings. in determining the cause of death.
attack. Sometimes, however, it is
Signs of a struggle may be evident.
Both adult male and female coyotes difficult to differentiate between dog
These may include scrapes or drag
hunt and bring food to their young for and coyote kills without also looking
marks on the ground, broken vegeta-
several weeks. Other adults associated at other sign, such as size of tracks
tion, or blood in various places around
with the denning pair may also help in (Fig. 2) and spacing and size of canine
C-53tooth punctures. Coyote tracks tend to
be more oval-shaped and compact
than those of common dogs. Nail
marks are less prominent and the
tracks tend to follow a straight line
more closely than those of dogs. The
average coyote’s stride at a trot is 16 to
18 inches (41 to 46 cm), which is typi-
cally longer than that of a dog of simi-
lar size and weight. Generally, dogs 3"
attack and rip the flanks, hind quar-
ters, and head, and may chew ears.
The sheep are sometimes still alive but 5" Coyote
may be severely wounded.
Accurately determining whether or
not predation occurred and, if so, by
what species, requires a considerable
amount of knowledge and experience.
Evidence must be gathered, pieced Wolf
together, and then evaluated in light of
the predators that are in the area, the
time of day, the season of the year, and
numerous other factors. Sometimes
even experts are unable to confirm the
cause of death, and it may be neces-
sary to rely on circumstantial informa-
tion. For more information on this
subject, refer to the section Procedures
for Evaluating Predation on Livestock 2 1/2"
4"
and Wildlife, in this book.
Red fox
Legal Status Large dog
The status of coyotes varies depending Fig. 2. Footprints of canid predators
on state and local laws. In some states,
including most western states, coyotes
are classified as predators and can be Federal statutes that pertain to wildlife Damage Prevention and
taken throughout the year whether or damage control include the Federal
not they are causing damage to live- Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenti-
Control Methods
stock. In other states, coyotes may be cide Act (FIFRA), which deals with
For managing coyote damage, a vari-
taken only during specific seasons and using toxicants, and the Airborne
ety of control methods must be avail-
often only by specific methods, such as Hunting Act, which regulates aerial
able since no single method is effective
trapping. Night shooting with a spot- hunting.
in every situation. Success usually
light is usually illegal. Some state laws
Laws regulating coyote control are not involves an integrated approach, com-
allow only state or federal agents to
necessarily uniform among states or bining good husbandry practices with
use certain methods (such as snares) to
even among counties within a state, effective control methods for short
take coyotes. Some states have a provi-
and they may change frequently. A periods of time. Regardless of the
sion for allowing the taking of pro-
1989 Supreme Court action established means used to stop damage, the focus
tected coyotes (usually by special
that it was not legal to circumvent the should be on damage prevention and
permit) when it has been documented
laws relative to killing predators, even control rather than elimination of coy-
that they are preying on livestock. In
to protect personal property (livestock) otes. It is neither wise nor practical to
some instances producers can apply
from predation. kill all coyotes. It is important to try to
control methods, and in others, control
prevent coyotes from killing calves or
must be managed by a federal or state
sheep for the first time. Once a coyote
agent. Some eastern states consider the
has killed livestock, it will probably
coyote a game animal, a furbearer, or a
continue to do so if given the
protected species.
C-54opportunity. Equally important is
taking action as quickly as possible to
stop coyotes from killing after they
start.
1/4" x 4 1/2" carriage bolt
Exclusion galvanized woven wire
Most coyotes readily cross over,
under, or through conventional live-
stock fences. A coyote’s response to a
fence is influenced by various factors,
72" galvanized 3" treated pole
including the coyote’s experience and 7' long
fencing
motivation for crossing the fence. Total 6" stays
69"
exclusion of all coyotes by fencing, 4" vertical
especially from large areas, is highly spacing at top
1 1/2" at the
unlikely since some eventually learn to 56" bottom
either dig deeper or climb higher to
defeat a fence. Good fences, however,
can be important in reducing preda-
tion, as well as increasing the effective-
ness of other damage control methods
(such as snares, traps, or guarding 23" apron
animals). (old fencing)
Recent developments in fencing equip-
ment and design have made this
technique an effective and economi-
cally practical method for protecting 28"
sheep from predation under some
grazing conditions. Exclusion fencing
may be impractical in western range
sheep ranching operations.
Fig. 3. Barrier fence with wire overhang and
Net-Wire Fencing. Net fences in buried apron.
good repair will deter many coyotes
from entering a pasture. Horizontal
spacing of the mesh should be less
than 6 inches (15 cm), and vertical Electric Fencing. Electric fencing, The number of spacings between wires
spacing less than 4 inches (10 cm). Dig- used for years to manage livestock, has varies considerably. A fence of 13
ging under a fence can be discouraged recently been revolutionized by the strands gave complete protection to
by placing a barbed wire at ground introduction of new energizers and sheep from coyote predation in tests at
level or using a buried wire apron new fence designs from Australia and the USDA’s US Sheep Experiment Sta-
(often an expensive option). The fence New Zealand. The chargers, now also tion (Fig. 4). Other designs of fewer
should be about 5 1/2 feet (1.6 m) high manufactured in the United States, wires were effective in some studies,
to discourage coyotes from jumping have high output with low impedance, ineffective in others.
over it. Climbing can usually be pre- are resistant to grounding, present a
The amount of labor and installation
vented by adding a charged wire at minimal fire hazard, and are generally
techniques required vary with each
the top of the fence or installing a wire safe for livestock and humans. The
type of fencing. High-tensile wire
overhang. fences are usually constructed of
fences require adequate bracing at cor-
smooth, high-tensile wire stretched to
Barrier fences with wire overhangs ners and over long spans. Electric fenc-
a tension of 200 to 300 pounds (90 to
and buried wire aprons were tested in ing is easiest to install on flat, even
135 kg). The original design of electric
Oregon and found effective in keeping terrain. Labor to install a high-tensile
fences for controlling predation con-
coyotes out of sheep pastures (Fig. 3). electric fence may be 40% to 50% less
sisted of multiple, alternately charged
The construction and materials for than for a conventional livestock fence.
and grounded wires, with a charged
such fencing are usually expensive. trip wire installed just above ground Labor to keep electric fencing func-
Therefore, fences of this type are rarely level about 8 inches (20 cm) outside the tional can be significant. Tension of the
used except around corrals, feedlots, main fence to discourage digging. wires must be maintained, excessive
or areas of temporary sheep confine- Many recent designs have every wire vegetation under the fence must be
ment. charged. removed to prevent grounding, dam-
C-55age from livestock and wildlife must
Fiberglass
line post be repaired, and the charger must be
checked regularly to ensure that it is
operational.
Coyotes and other predators occasion-
66' ally become “trapped” inside electric
fences. These animals receive a shock
Fiberglass 6'
22' stays as they enter the pasture and subse-
11' quently avoid approaching the fence to
escape. In some instances the captured
predator may be easy to spot and
Fiberglass remove from the pasture, but in
line post others, particularly in large pastures
with rough terrain, the animal may be
Charged wire difficult to remove.
+ 8"
Ground wire
- 8" Electric Modification of Existing
+ 8" Fiberglass Fences. The cost to completely
stay
- 8" replace old fences with new ones,
+ 8" whether conventional or electric, can
- 8" Trip wire be substantial. In instances where
+ 8" existing fencing is in reasonably good
- 8"
8" condition, the addition of one to sev-
+ 4" 6"
- 4" Note: eral charged wires can significantly
+ 4" Drawing not to scale
enhance the predator-deterring ability
- 4"
of the fence and its effectiveness for
controlling livestock (Fig. 5). A
Ground charged trip wire placed 6 to 8 inches
level
(15 to 230 cm) above the ground about
8 to 10 inches (20 to 25 cm) outside the
Fig. 4. High-tensile, electric, antipredator fence. fence is often effective in preventing
coyotes from digging and crawling un-
der. This single addition to an existing
fence is often the most effective and
economical way to fortify a fence
against coyote passage.
If coyotes are climbing or jumping a
fence, charged wires can be added to
the top and at various intervals. These
wires should be offset outside the
fence. Fencing companies offer offset
brackets to make installation relatively
simple. The number of additional
wires depends on the design of the
original fence and the predicted habits
of the predators.
Portable Electric Fencing. The
Outrigger post
advent of safe, high-energy chargers
with four wires
has led to the development of a variety
of portable electric fences. Most are
constructed with thin strands of wire
running through polyethylene twine or
Fig. 5. Existing woven-wire livestock fence modified with electrified wire.
ribbon, commonly called polywire or
polytape. The polywire is available in
single and multiple wire rolls or as
mesh fencing of various heights. It can
be quickly and easily installed to serve
C-56as a temporary corral or to partition As a final note, fences can pose prob- Counting sheep and calves regularly is
off pastures for controlled grazing. lems for wildlife. Barrier fences in par- important in large pastures or areas
ticular exclude not only predators, but with heavy cover where dead livestock
Perhaps the biggest advantage of port-
also many other wildlife species. This could remain unnoticed. It is not
able electric fencing is the ability to set
fact should be considered where fenc- unusual for producers who do not
up temporary pens to hold livestock at
ing intersects migration corridors for regularly count their sheep to suffer
night or during other predator control
wildlife. Ungulates such as deer may fairly substantial losses before they
activities. Portable fencing increases
attempt to jump fences, and they occa- realize there is a problem. Determining
livestock management options to
sionally become entangled in the top with certainty whether losses were due
avoid places or periods of high preda-
wires. to coyotes or to other causes may
tion risk. Range sheep that are not
become impossible.
accustomed to being fenced, however, Cultural Methods and Habitat
may be difficult to contain in a port- Season and Location of Lambing
Modification
able fence. or Calving. Both season and location
At the present time, there are no docu- of lambing and calving can signifi-
Fencing and Predation Manage- mented differences in the vulnerability cantly affect the severity of coyote pre-
ment. The success of various types of
of various breeds of sheep to coyote or dation on sheep or calves. The highest
fencing in keeping out predators has dog predation because there has been predation losses of sheep and calves
ranged from poor to excellent. Density very little research in this area. Gener- typically occur from late spring
and behavior of coyotes, terrain and ally, breeds with stronger flocking through September due to the food
vegetative conditions, availability of behaviors are less vulnerable to preda- requirements of coyote pups. In the
prey, size of pastures, season of the tors. Midwest and East, some lambing or
year, design of the fence, quality of
A possible cause of increased coyote calving occurs between October and
construction, maintenance, and other
predation to beef cattle calves is the December, whereas in most of the
factors all interplay in determining
increased use of cattle dogs in herding. western states lambing or calving
how effective a fence will be. Fencing
Cows herded by dogs may not be as occurs between February and May. By
is most likely to be cost-effective where
willing to defend newborn calves from changing to a fall lambing or calving
the potential for predation is high,
coyotes as those not accustomed to program, some livestock producers
where there is potential for a high
herding dogs. have not only been able to diversify
stocking rate, or where electric modifi-
their marketing program, but have
cation of existing fences can be used. Flock or Herd Health. Healthy also avoided having a large number of
Fencing can be effective when incorpo- sheep flocks and cow/calf herds have young animals on hand during periods
rated with other means of predation higher reproductive rates and lower when coyote predation losses are typi-
control. For example, combined use of overall death losses. Coyotes often cally highest.
guarding dogs and fencing has prey on smaller lambs. Poor nutrition
means weaker or smaller young, with Shortening lambing and calving peri-
achieved a greater degree of success
a resultant increased potential for pre- ods by using synchronized or group
than either method used alone. An
dation. Ewes or cows in good condi- breeding may reduce predation by
electric fence may help keep a guard-
tion through proper nutrition will raise producing a uniform lamb or calf crop,
ing dog in and coyotes out of a pas-
stronger young that may be less vul- thus reducing exposure of small live-
ture. If an occasional coyote does pass
nerable to coyote predation. stock to predation. Extra labor and
through a fence, the guarding dog can
facilities may be necessary, however,
keep it away from the livestock and Record Keeping. Good record- when birthing within a concentrated
alert the producer by barking. keeping and animal identification sys- period. Some producers practice early
Fencing can also be used to concen- tems are invaluable in a livestock weaning and do not allow young to go
trate predator activity at specific places operation for several reasons. From the to large pastures, thus reducing the
such as gateways, ravines, or other standpoint of coyote predation, chance of coyote losses. This also gives
areas where the animals try to gain records help producers identify loss orphaned and weak young a greater
access. Traps and snares can often be patterns or trends to provide baseline chance to survive.
set at strategic places along a fence to data that will help determine what
type and amount of coyote damage The average beef cattle calf production
effectively capture predators. Smaller
control is economically feasible. is about 78% nationwide. First-calf
pastures are easier to keep free from
Records also aid in identifying critical heifers need human assistance to give
predators than larger ones encompass-
problem areas that may require atten- birth to a healthy calf about 40% of the
ing several square miles (km2).
tion. They may show, for example, that time. Cow/calf producers who aver-
Fencing is one of the most beneficial losses to coyotes are high in a particu- age 90% to 95% calf crops generally
investments in predator damage con- lar pasture in early summer, thus high- check their first-calf heifers every 2
trol and livestock management where lighting the need for preventive hours during calving. Also, most good
practical factors warrant its use. control in that area. producers place first-calf heifers in
C-57small pastures (less than 160 acres [64 Some producers reason that coyotes nerable to coyote predation than those
ha]). When all cows are bred to pro- are less likely to kill livestock if there is in closer, more open, and smaller pas-
duce calves in a short, discreet (e.g. carrion available. This may be a valid tures. In general, a relatively small,
60-day) period, production typically preventative measure if an adequate open, tightly fenced pasture that can
increases and predation losses supply of carrion can be maintained be kept under close surveillance is a
decrease. The birth weight of calves far away from livestock. If a coyote good choice for birthing livestock that
born to first-calf heifers can be de- becomes habituated to a diet of live- are likely targets of coyotes. Past expe-
creased by using calving-ease bulls, stock remains, however, it may turn to rience with predators as well as
thus reducing birthing complications killing livestock in the absence of car- weather and disease considerations
that often lead to coyote predation. casses. Wherever there is easily acces- should also serve as guides in the
sible carrion, coyotes seem to gather selection of birthing pastures.
Producers who use lambing sheds or
and predation losses are higher. Con-
pens for raising sheep and small pas- A factor not completely understood is
versely, where carrion is generally not
tures or paddocks for raising cattle that, at times, coyotes and other preda-
available, losses are lower. A study in
have lower predation losses than those tors will kill in one pasture and not in
Canada showed that the removal of
who lamb or calve in large pastures or another. Therefore, changing pastures
livestock carcasses significantly
on open range. The more human pres- during times of loss may reduce pre-
reduced overwinter coyote popula-
ence around sheep, the lower the pre- dation. There may seem to be a rela-
tions and shifted coyote distributions
dation losses. Confining sheep entirely tionship between size of pasture and
out of livestock areas.
to buildings virtually eliminates preda- predator losses, with higher loss rates
tion losses. Habitat Changes. Habitat features reported in larger pastures. In reality,
change in some areas, depending on loss rates may not be related as much
Corrals. Although predation can
seasonal crop growth. Some cultivated to pasture size as to other local condi-
occur at any time, coyotes tend to kill
fields are devoid of coyotes during tions such as slope, terrain, and human
sheep at night. Confining sheep at
winter but provide cover during the populations. Hilly or rugged areas are
night is one of the most effective
growing season, and a corresponding typically sparsely populated by hu-
means of reducing losses to predation.
increase in predation on nearby live- mans and are characterized by large
Nevertheless, some coyotes and many
stock may occur. pastures. These conditions are ideal for
dogs are bold enough to enter corrals
The creation of nearly 40 million acres coyotes.
and kill sheep. A “coyote-proof” corral
is a wise investment. Coyotes are more (16 million ha) of Conservation Sheep pastures that contain or are
likely to attack sheep in unlighted cor- Reserve Program (CRP) acres may adjacent to streams, creeks, and rivers
rals than in corrals with lights. Even if benefit many species of wildlife, tend to have more coyote problems
the corral fence is not coyote-proof, the including predators. These acres har- than pastures without such features.
mere fact that the sheep are confined bor prey for coyotes and foxes, and an Water courses serve as hunting and
reduces the risk of predation. Penning increase in predator populations can travel lanes for coyotes.
sheep at night and turning them out at reasonably be predicted. Clearing
away weeds and brush from CRP Herders. Using herders with sheep or
mid-morning might reduce losses. In
areas may reduce predation problems cattle in large pastures can help reduce
addition, coyotes tend to be more
since predators usually use cover in predation, but there has been a trend
active and kill more sheep on foggy or
their approach to livestock. Generally, away from herders in recent years
rainy days than on sunny days. Keep-
the more open the area where live- because of increasing costs and a
ing the sheep penned on foggy or rainy
stock are kept, the less likely that shortage of competent help. Neverthe-
days may be helpful.
coyote losses will occur. Often junk less, tended flocks or herds receive
Aside from the benefits of livestock piles are located near farmsteads. closer attention than untended live-
confinement, there are some problems These serve as good habitat for rabbits stock, particularly in large pastures,
associated it. Costs of labor and mate- and other prey and may bring coyotes and problems can be solved before
rials associated with building corrals, into close proximity with livestock, they become serious. We recommend
herding livestock, and feeding live- increasing the likelihood for opportu- two herders per band of range sheep.
stock must be considered. In addition, nistic coyotes to prey on available live- If herders aren’t used, daily or periodic
the likelihood of increased parasite stock. Removing junk piles may be a checking of the livestock is a good hus-
and disease problems may inhibit good management practice. bandry practice.
adoption of confinement as a method
of reducing damage. Pasture Selection. If sheep or beef Frightening Devices and
cattle are not lambed or calved in Repellents
Carrion Removal. Removal and sheds or lots, the choice of birthing
proper disposal of dead sheep and pastures should be made with poten- Frightening devices are useful for
cattle are important since livestock car- tial coyote predation problems in reducing losses during short periods
casses tend to attract coyotes, mind. Lambs and calves in remote or or until predators are removed. The
habituating them to feed on livestock. rugged pastures are usually more vul- devices should not be used for long
C-58periods of time when predation is not Some producers use a radio tuned to
a problem. To avoid acclimation you an all-night station to temporarily
can increase both the degree and dura- deter coyotes, dogs, and other preda-
tion of effectiveness by varying the tors.
position, appearance, duration, or fre-
Vehicles. Parking cars or pickups in
quency of the frightening stimuli, or
the area where losses are occurring of-
using them in various combinations.
ten reduces predation temporarily.
Many frightening methods have been
Effectiveness can be improved or
ridiculed in one way or another; never-
extended by frequently moving the
theless, all of the techniques discussed
vehicle to a new location. Some pro-
here have helped producers by saving
ducers place a replica of a person in
livestock and/or buying some time to
the vehicle when losses are occurring Fig. 6. Electronic Guard frightening device
institute other controls.
in the daylight. If predators continue
Lights. A study involving 100 Kansas to kill with vehicles in place, the
Center developed a frightening device
sheep producers showed that using vehicle serves as a comfortable blind in
called the Electronic Guard (EG) (Fig.
lights above corrals at night had the which to wait and shoot offending
6). The EG consists of a strobe light
most marked effect on losses to coy- predators.
and siren controlled by a variable
otes of all the devices examined. Out
Propane Exploders. Propane interval timer that is activated at night
of 79 sheep killed by coyotes in corrals,
exploders produce loud explosions at with a photoelectric cell. In tests con-
only three were killed in corrals with
timed intervals when a spark ignites a ducted in fenced pastures, predation
lights. Nearly 40% of the producers in
measured amount of propane gas. On was reduced by about 89%. The device
the study used lights over corrals.
most models, the time between explo- is used in Kansas and other states to
There was some indication in the
sions can vary from about 1 minute to protect cows/calves from coyote pre-
study that sheep losses to dogs were
15 minutes. Their effectiveness at dation. Most research on the effective-
higher in lighted corrals, but the
frightening coyotes is usually only ness of this device, however, has been
sample size for dog losses was small
temporary, but it can be increased by done on sheep operations. Suggestions
and the results inconclusive. Most of
moving exploders to different loca- for using the unit differ for pastured
the producers (80%) used mercury
tions and by varying the intervals be- sheep and range operations.
vapor lights that automatically turned
tween explosions. In general, the timer
on at dusk and off at dawn. To use the EG in fenced pastures (farm
on the exploder should be set to fire
flocks):
Another advantage of lighted corrals is every 8 to 10 minutes, and the location
that coyotes are more vulnerable when should be changed every 3 or 4 days. 1. Place EGs above the ground on
they enter the lighted area. Coyotes In cattle pastures, these devices should fence posts, trees, or T-posts so they
often establish a fairly predictable pat- be placed on rigid stands above the can be heard and seen at greater
tern of killing. When this happens in a livestock. Normally, the exploder distances and to prevent livestock
lighted corral, it is possible for a pro- should be turned on just before dark from damaging them.
ducer to wait above or downwind of and off at daybreak, unless coyotes are
2. Position EGs so that rain water can-
the corral and to shoot the coyote as it killing livestock during daylight hours.
not enter them and cause a malfunc-
enters. Red or blue lights may make Motion sensors are now available and
tion.
the ambush more successful since coy- likely improve their effectiveness,
otes appear to be less frightened by though it is still only temporary. 3. Locate EGs so that light can enter
them than by white lights. Exploders are best used to reduce the photocell port or window. If
losses until more permanent control or positioned in deep shade, they may
Revolving or flashing the lights may
preventive measures can be imple- not turn on or off at the desired
enhance their effectiveness in frighten-
mented. In about 24 coyote depreda- times.
ing away predators. There is some
tion complaints over a 2-year period in
speculation that the old oil lamps used 4. The number of EGs used to protect
North Dakota, propane exploders
in highway construction repelled sheep in fenced pastures depends
were judged to be successful in stop-
coyotes, presumably because of their on pasture size, terrain features, and
ping or reducing predation losses until
flickering effect. the amount and height of vegetation
offending coyotes could be removed.
in or around the pasture. In general,
Bells and Radios. Some sheep pro- “Success time” of the exploders ap-
at least two units should be used in
ducers place bells on some or all of pears to depend a great deal on how
small (20 to 30 acres [8 to 12 ha]),
their sheep to discourage predators. well they are tended by the livestock
level, short-grass pastures. Three to
Where effects have been measured, producer.
four units should be used in larger
however, no difference in losses was
Strobe Lights and Sirens. The (40 to 100 acres [16 to 40 ha]), hilly,
detected.
USDA’s Denver Wildlife Research tall grass, or wooded pastures.
C-595. Don’t use EGs in pastures larger compound that, when applied to Aversive conditioning is well docu-
than about 100 acres (40 ha) because sheep, would prevent coyotes from mented for averting rodents from food
their effective range is limited. The killing them. Tests were conducted sources, but significant problems must
device could be useful in larger pas- with various prey species including be overcome before the method can be
tures when placed near areas where rabbits, chickens, and sheep. Some used to reduce coyote predation on
sheep congregate and bed at night. repellents were applied by dipping tar- sheep. Coyotes must be induced to eat
get animals in them, others were sheeplike baits that have been treated
6. EGs should be placed on high spots,
sprayed on, and some were applied in with the aversive chemical. The chemi-
where kills have been found, at the
neck collars or ear tags. cal must cause sufficient discomfort,
edge of wooded areas, near or on
such as vomiting, to cause coyotes to
bedgrounds, or near suspected Coyotes rely heavily on visual cues
avoid other baits. Furthermore, the
coyote travelways. They should be while stalking, chasing, and killing
avoidance must be transferred to live
moved to different locations every their prey. Taste and smell are of lesser
sheep and must persist long enough
10 to 14 days to reduce the likeli- importance in actually making the kill.
without reinforcement for the method
hood of coyotes getting used to These factors may in part account for
to offer realistic protection to sheep.
them. the fact that the repellent compounds
were not able to consistently prevent To date, pen and field tests with
To use the EG in open range (herded
coyotes from killing, although some of aversive conditioning have yielded
or range sheep):
the repellents were obviously offensive conflicting and inconclusive results. It
1. The number of EGs used will to coyotes and prevented them from does not appear that aversive condi-
depend on the number of sheep in consuming the killed prey. Several tioning is effective in reducing preda-
the band and the size of the compounds were tested on sheep tion, but additional field tests would
bedground. Four units should be under field conditions, but none be useful.
used to protect bands of 1,000 ewes appeared to offer significant, pro-
Guarding Animals.
and their lambs. longed protection.
Livestock Guarding Dogs. A live-
2. When possible, place one EG in the If an effective chemical repellent were stock guarding dog is one that gener-
center of the bedground and the to be found, the obstacles in bringing it ally stays with sheep or cattle without
other three around the edge of the to industry use would be significant. harming them and aggressively repels
bedground. Try to place the units The compound would not only need predators. Its protective behaviors are
on coyote travelways. to be effective, but also persistent largely instinctive, but proper rearing
enough to withstand weathering while plays a part. Breeds most commonly
3. EGs should be placed on high
posing no undue risk to the sheep, used today include the Great Pyrenees,
points, ridge tops, edges of clear-
other animals, or the environment. It Komondor, Anatolian Shepherd, and
ings, or on high rocks or
would also have to withstand the rig- Akbash Dog (Fig. 7). Other Old World
outcroppings. Hang the devices on
orous Environmental Protection breeds used to a lesser degree include
tree limbs 5 to 7 feet (1.5 to 2.1 m)
Agency (EPA) approval process. Maremma, Sharplaninetz, and Kuvasz.
above ground level. If used above
Crossbreeds are also used.
timberline or in treeless areas, hang High-frequency sound has also been
them from a tripod of poles. tested as a repellent for coyotes, but The characteristics of each sheep
the results were no more encouraging operation will dictate the number of
4. Herders who bed their sheep tightly
than for chemical repellents. Coyotes, dogs required for effective protection
will have better results than those
like dogs, responded to particular from predators. If predators are scarce,
who allow sheep to bed over large
sound frequencies and showed some one dog is sufficient for most fenced
areas. Sheep that are bedded about
aversion to sounds broadcast within pasture operations. Range operations
200 yards (166 m) or less in diam-
one foot (30 cm) of their ear. Research- often use two dogs per band of sheep.
eter, or are spread out not more
ers, however, were unable to broad- The performance of individual dogs
than 200 to 400 yards (166 to 332 m)
cast the sound a sufficient distance to will differ based on age and experi-
along a ridge top, can usually be
test the effects under field conditions. ence. The size, topography, and habitat
protected with EGs.
of the pasture or range must also be
Aversive Conditioning. The objec-
Repellents. The notion of repelling considered. Relatively flat, open areas
tive of aversive conditioning is to feed
coyotes from sheep or calves is can be adequately covered by one dog.
a coyote a preylike bait laced with an
appealing, and during the 1970s, uni- When brush, timber, ravines, and hills
aversive agent that causes the coyote
versity and government researchers are in the pasture, several dogs may be
to become ill, resulting in subsequent
tested a wide variety of potentially re- required, particularly if the sheep are
avoidance of the prey. Most of the
pellent chemical compounds on sheep. scattered. Sheep that flock and form a
research on this technique has
Both olfactory (smell) and gustatory cohesive unit, especially at night, can
involved the use of lithium chloride, a
(taste) repellents were examined. The be protected by one dog more effec-
salt, as the aversive agent.
underlying objective was to find a tively than sheep that are continually
C-60working unless the dog is chained or
confined while the control takes place.
Dogs caught in a steel trap set for
predators are rarely injured seriously if
they are found and released within a
reasonable period of time. If snares
and traps are used where dogs are
working, the producer should: (1)
encourage the use of sets and devices
that are likely not to injure the dog if it
is caught, and (2) know where traps
and snares are set so they can be
checked if a dog is missing. Aerial
hunting, as well as calling and shoot-
ing coyotes, should pose no threat to
guarding dogs. Ensuring the safety of
the dog is largely the producer’s
responsibility.
Dogs may be viewed as a first line of
Fig. 7. Livestock guarding dog (Akbash dog) defense against predation in sheep and
cow/calf operations in some cases.
Their effectiveness can be enhanced by
scattered and bedded in a number of to the possibility that the dog may good livestock management and by
locations. roam onto their property and that eliminating predators with suitable
some predator control devices such as removal techniques.
The goal with a new puppy is to chan-
traps, snares, and M-44s present a
nel its natural instincts to produce a Donkeys. Although the research has
danger to it. Many counties enforce
mature guardian dog with the desired not focused on donkeys as it has on
stringent laws regarding owner
characteristics. This is best accom- guarding dogs, they are gaining in
responsibility for damage done by
plished by early and continued asso- popularity as protectors of sheep and
roaming dogs. It is in the best interests
ciation with sheep to produce a bond goat flocks in the United States. A
of the owner, dog, and community to
between the dog and sheep. The opti- recent survey showed that in Texas
train the dog to stay in its designated
mum time to acquire a pup is between alone, over 2,400 of the 11,000 sheep
area.
7 and 8 weeks of age. The pup should and goat producers had used donkeys
be separated from litter mates and The use of guarding dogs does not as guardians.
placed with sheep, preferably lambs, eliminate the need for other predation The terms donkey and burro are syn-
in a pen or corral from which it can’t control actions. They should, however, onymous (the Spanish translation of
escape. This socialization period be compatible with the dog’s behavior. donkey is burro) and are used inter-
should continue with daily checks Toxicants (including some insecticides changeably. Donkeys are generally
from the producer until the pup is and rodenticides) used to control vari- docile to people, but they seem to
about 16 weeks old. Daily checks don’t ous pest species can be extremely haz- have an inherent dislike of dogs and
necessarily include petting the pup. ardous to dogs and are therefore not other canids, including coyotes and
The primary bond should be between compatible with the use of guarding foxes. The typical response of a don-
the dog and the sheep, not between the dogs. key to an intruding canid may include
dog and humans. The owner, how- braying, bared teeth, a running attack,
The M-44 is particularly hazardous to
ever, should be able to catch and han- kicking, and biting. Most likely it is
dogs. Some people have successfully
dle the dog to administer health care acting out of aggression toward the
trained their dogs to avoid M-44s by
or to manage the livestock. At about 4 intruder rather than to protect the
allowing the dog to set off an M-44
months, the pup can be released into a sheep. There is little information on a
filled with pepper or by rigging the
larger pasture to mingle with the other donkey’s effectiveness with noncanid
device to a rat trap. The unpleasant
sheep. predators such as bears, mountain
experience may teach the dog to avoid
A guarding dog will likely include M-44s, but the method is not fool- lions, bobcats, or birds of prey.
peripheral areas in its patrolling. Some proof—one error by the dog, and the Reported success of donkeys in reduc-
have been known to chase vehicles result is usually fatal. With the excep- ing predation is highly variable.
and wildlife and threaten children and tion of toxic collars, which are not legal Improper husbandry or rearing prac-
cyclists. These activities should be dis- in all states, toxicants should not be tices and unrealistic expectations
couraged. Neighbors should be alerted used in areas where guarding dogs are
C-61probably account for many failures. Llamas. Like donkeys, llamas have an Toxicants
Donkeys are significantly cheaper to inherent dislike of canids, and a grow-
Pesticides have historically been an
obtain and care for than guarding ing number of livestock producers are
important component in an integrated
dogs, and they are probably less prone successfully using llamas to protect
approach to controlling coyote dam-
to accidental death and premature their sheep. A recent study of 145
age, but their use is extremely
mortality than dogs. They may pro- ranches where guard llamas were used
restricted today by federal and state
vide a longer period of useful life than to protect sheep revealed that average
laws. All pesticides used in the United
a guarding dog, and they can be used losses of sheep to predators decreased
States must be registered with the EPA
with relative safety in conjunction with from 26 to 8 per year after llamas were
under the provisions of FIFRA and
snares, traps, M-44s, and toxic collars. employed. Eighty percent of the
must be used in accordance with label
ranchers surveyed were “very satis-
Researchers and livestock producers directions. Increasingly restrictive
fied” or “satisfied” with their llamas.
have identified several key points to regulations implemented by EPA
Llamas reportedly bond with sheep
consider when using a donkey for pre- under the authority of FIFRA, the
within hours and offer advantages
dation control: National Environmental Policy Act
over guarding dogs similar to those
(NEPA), presidential order, and the
1. Use only a jenny or a gelded jack. described for donkeys.
Endangered Species Act have resulted
Intact jacks are too aggressive and
Other Animals. USDA’s Agricultural in the near elimination of toxicants
may injure livestock. Some jennies
Research Service tested the bonding of legally available for predator damage
and geldings may also injure live-
sheep to cattle as a method of protect- control.
stock. Select donkeys from
ing sheep from coyote predation.
medium-sized stock. The only toxicants currently registered
There was clearly some protection
for mammalian predator damage con-
2. Use only one donkey per group of afforded the sheep that remained near
trol are sodium cyanide, used in the
sheep. The exception may be a cattle. Whether this protection resulted
M-44 ejector device, and Compound
jenny with a foal. When two or from direct action by the cattle or by
1080 (sodium monofluoroacetate), for
more adult donkeys are together or the coyotes’ response to a novel stimu-
use in the livestock protection collar.
with a horse, they usually stay lus is uncertain. Later studies with
These toxicants are Restricted Use Pes-
together, not necessarily near the goats, sheep, and cattle confirmed that
ticides and may be used only by certi-
sheep. Also avoid using donkeys in when either goats or sheep remained
fied pesticide applicators. Information
adjacent pastures since they may near cattle, they were protected from
on registration status and availability
socialize across the fence and ignore predation by coyotes. Conversely,
of these products in individual states
the sheep. goats or sheep that grazed apart from
may be obtained from the respective
cattle, even those that were bonded,
3. Allow about 4 to 6 weeks for a state’s department of agriculture.
were readily preyed on by coyotes.
naive donkey to bond to the sheep.
Sodium Cyanide in the M-44. The
Stronger bonding may occur when There are currently no research data
M-44 is a spring-activated device used
a donkey is raised from birth with available on the ideal ratio of cattle to
to expel sodium cyanide into an
sheep. sheep, the breeds of cattle, age of cattle
animal’s mouth. It is currently regis-
most likely to be used successfully, or
4. Avoid feeds or supplements con- tered by EPA for use by trained per-
on the size of bonded groups to obtain
taining monensin or lasolacid. They sonnel in the control of depredating
maximum protection from predation.
are poisonous to donkeys. coyotes, foxes, and dogs.
Multispecies grazing offers many
5. Remove the donkey during lamb- advantages for optimum utilization of The M-44 consists of a capsule holder
ing, particularly if lambing in con- forage, and though additional study wrapped in an absorbent material, an
finement, to avoid injuries to lambs and experience is needed, it may also ejector mechanism, a capsule contain-
or disruption of the lamb-ewe bond. be a tool for coyote damage control. ing approximately 0.9 grams of a pow-
dered sodium cyanide mixture, and a
6. Test a new donkey’s response to Any animal that displays aggressive
5- to 7-inch (15- to 18-cm) hollow stake
canids by challenging it with a dog behavior toward intruding coyotes
(Fig. 8). For most effective use, set
in a pen or small pasture. Discard may offer some benefit in deterring
M-44s in locations similar to those for
donkeys that don’t show overt predation. Other types of animals
good trap sets. Drive the hollow stake
aggression to an intruding dog. reportedly used for predation control
into the ground. Cock the ejector unit
include goats, mules, and ostriches.
7. Use donkeys in smaller (less than and secure it in the stake. Screw the
Coyotes in particular are suspicious of
600 acres [240 ha]), relatively open wrapped capsule holder containing the
novel stimuli. This behavior is most
pastures with not more than 200 to cyanide capsule onto the ejector unit,
likely the primary reason that many
300 head of livestock. Large pas- and apply fetid meat bait to the cap-
frightening tactics show at least tem-
tures with rough terrain and vegeta- sule holder. Coyotes attracted by the
porary effectiveness.
tion and widely scattered livestock bait will try to bite the baited capsule
lessen the effectiveness of a donkey. holder. When the M-44 is pulled, the
C-62their ability to remain effective during The LP collar must be used in conjunc-
rain, snow, and freezing conditions. tion with specific sheep and goat hus-
c bandry practices to be most effective.
While M-44s can be used effectively as
Coyote attacks must be directed or tar-
part of an integrated damage control
geted at collared livestock. This may
d program, they do have several disad-
be accomplished by temporarily plac-
vantages. Because canids are less
ing a “target” flock of perhaps 20 to 50
responsive to food-type baits during
collared lambs or kids and their
warm weather when natural foods are
uncollared mothers in a pasture where
usually abundant, M-44s are not as
coyote predation is likely to occur,
effective during warmer months as
while removing other sheep or goats
they are in cooler weather. M-44s are
from that vicinity. In situations where
subject to a variety of mechanical mal-
LP collars have been used and found
functions, but these problems can be
ineffective, the common cause of fail-
b minimized if a regular maintenance
ure has been poor or ineffective target-
schedule is followed. A further disad-
ing. It is difficult to ensure effective
vantage is the tendency for the cyanide
targeting if depredations are occurring
in the capsules to absorb moisture over
infrequently. In most instances, only a
time and to cake, becoming ineffective.
high and regular frequency of depre-
Maximum effectiveness of M-44s is
dations will justify spending the time,
hampered by the requirement to fol-
effort, and money necessary to become
low 26 use restrictions established by
trained and certified, purchase collars,
the EPA in the interest of human and
and use them properly.
environmental safety. The M-44 is not
registered for use in all states, and in The outstanding advantage in using
those where it is registered, the state the LP collar is its selectivity in elimi-
may impose additional use restric- nating individual coyotes that are
tions. A formal training program is responsible for killing livestock. The
required before use of M-44s. Some collar may also be useful in removing
states allow its use only by federal depredating coyotes that have eluded
a ADC specialists, whereas other states other means of control. Disadvantages
may allow M-44s to be used by trained include the cost of collars (approxi-
and certified livestock producers. mately $20 each) and livestock that
must be sacrificed, more intensive
Fig. 8. The M-44 device consists of the (a) base, 1080 Livestock Protection Collar.
(b) ejector, (c) capsule holder, and (d) cyanide- management practices, and the costs
The livestock protection collar (LP
containing plastic capsule. and inconvenience of complying with
collar or toxic collar) is a relatively
use restrictions, including require-
new tool used to selectively kill
ments for training, certification, and
spring-activated plunger propels coyotes that attack sheep or goats.
record keeping. One use restriction
sodium cyanide into the animal’s Collars are placed on sheep or goats
limits the collars to use in fenced pas-
mouth, resulting in death within a few that are pastured where coyotes are
tures only. They cannot be used to pro-
seconds. likely to attack. Each collar contains a
tect sheep on open range. Also, collars
small quantity (300 mg) of Compound
The M-44 is very selective for canids are not widely available, because they
1080 solution. The collars do not
because of the attractants used and the are registered for use in only a few
attract coyotes, but because of their
unique requirement that the device be states.
design and position on the throat,
triggered by pulling on it. While the most attacking coyotes will puncture
use of traps or snares may present a Fumigants
the collar and ingest a lethal amount of
hazard to livestock, M-44s can be used the toxicant. Unlike sodium cyanide, Carbon monoxide is an effective bur-
with relative safety in pastures where 1080 is slow-acting, and a coyote row fumigant recently re-registered by
livestock are present. Although not ingesting the toxicant will not exhibit the EPA. Gas cartridges, which contain
recommended, they can also be used symptoms or die for several hours. As 65% sodium nitrate and 35% charcoal,
in the presence of livestock guarding a result, sheep or goats that are produce carbon monoxide, carbon
dogs if the dogs are first successfully attacked are usually killed. The collar dioxide, and other noxious gases when
conditioned to avoid the devices. This is registered only for use against ignited. They were registered by the
can be done by allowing them to pull coyotes and may be placed only on EPA in 1981 for control of coyotes in
an M-44 loaded with pepper. An addi- sheep or goats. dens only. This is the only fumigant
tional advantage of M-44s over traps is currently registered for this purpose.
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